Plant Physiology

A review on Plant Structure

and Function

By Amin Yaapar
13 February 2018
Plant Plant Organs Plant Tissues
leaf primordium cuticle
apical bud Leaf epidermis - dermal tissue
lateral bud palisade mesophyll } ground
tissue
xylem vascular
leaf blade phloem } tissue
petiole spongy mesophyll } ground
stem node tissue
internode node epidermis - dermal tissue

Stem epidermis - dermal tissue

Shoot: cortex
pith } ground
tissue
organ system xylem vascular
phloem } tissue
soil line vascular cambium - meristematic
transition zone

taproot root hair dermal

}
epidermis tissue
Root
cortex
pericycle }
endodermis ground
tissue
lateral root xylem vascular
}
phloem tissue
vascular cambium - meristematic
root hairs
root apex
root cap
Plant Plant Organs
leaf primordium
apical bud
lateral bud

leaf blade
petiole
Leaf

Shoot:
organ system
soil line
 A simple leaf (one blade per petiole)

These green strips are unique to:

Erythoxylon
coca

net-
Coca veined
Cola™ is
not the real
thing since
1914
 These are also simple leaves!

But notice there are multiple

leaf shapes on these plants!
Juniperus That is: not all of the leaves
have the same shape…
condition known as:
heterophyllous
different leaf

Sassafras The juvenile leaves of

Sassafras and Hedera are
called lobed.

Hedera
This plant has a compound leaf (more than one blade per
petiole)

many blades

palmately compound!

one petiole

Cannabis sativa`
This plant also has compound but are pinnately compound.
leaves…

Rhus typhina (staghorn sumac)

many blades
This is the floss flower,
silk tree, pink mimosa
(many common names!)
known botanically as:
Albizzia

The leaves are

simple or
compound?
compound
The leaves are
pinnate or palmate?
pinnate
Notice there is more than
one level of compounding!
This makes for easy fall
raking!
Plant Plant Organs Plant Tissues
leaf primordium cuticle
apical bud Leaf epidermis - dermal tissue
lateral bud palisade mesophyll } ground
tissue
xylem vascular
leaf blade phloem } tissue
petiole spongy mesophyll } ground
tissue
epidermis - dermal tissue

Shoot:
organ system
soil line
This is a cross-section of a “typical” leaf: Syringa vulgaris (lilac)
 Cuticle-cutin:
Leaf Anatomy reduce evaporation
Upper Epidermis:
lens, window
Palisade Mesophyll:
photosynthesis
Bundle Sheath:
load phloem
Xylem:
conduct minerals up from soil
Phloem:
conduct sugar away from leaf
gas Spongy Mesophyll:
space evaporative cooling
Lower Epidermis:
reduce evaporation
Stoma Guard Cell:
regulate gas exchange
This is a lower epidermis in face-view:

stoma
2
guard
cells
normal epidermal cell
 This photo
is from a
SEM:
guard cell scanning
electron
microscope.
When
guard cells
stoma are pumped
up with
guard cell
water, they
push each
other apart
as they
elongate,
and this
opens the
stoma!
This photo is from a TEM: transmission electron microscope

= stoma
 Leaf Functions
Prevent excess water loss Cuticle
Gas exchange Stomata
Photosynthesis Palisade
Evaporative cooling Spongy
Import water and minerals Xylem
Export sugars and amino acids Phloem
Defense Mesophyll
Plant
leaf primordium
apical bud
lateral bud

leaf

stem node
internode node

Shoot:
organ system
soil line
 Stems support a display
of leaves.

Stems orient the leaves

toward the light with
minimal overlap among
the leaves.

Asclepias - milkweed
The stem supports a display of flowers
Cercis canadensis - redbud
The stem supports a display of fruits.

The stem of a vine “twines”

around objects in the
environment - circumnutation!

Ipomoea nil - morning glory

The stem does photosynthesis…and stores water.
Opuntia-prickly pear
 This stem does
photosynthesis, stores
water, but also produces
a defense chemical:
mescaline…a
hallucinogen.

Lophophora williamsii –
peyote
Plant Plant Organs Plant Tissues
leaf primordium
apical bud
lateral bud

leaf

stem node
internode node
Stem epidermis - dermal tissue
Shoot: cortex
pith } ground
tissue
organ system xylem
} vascular
phloem tissue
soil line vascular cambium - meristematic
Typical Stem Cross Section
Helianthus annuus-
sun flower annual
Epidermis

Cortex

A ring of vascular bundles

Pith
Epidermis
- window, reduce water loss
Cortex Collenchyma
- extensible support
Cortex Parenchyma
- photosynthesis, etc.
Phloem Fibers
- rigid support
Functional Phloem
- conduct sugars etc. away
from leaf to rest of plant
Vascular Cambium
- adds 2° xylem and 2°
Xylem phloem
-conduct water and minerals
up from soil
Pith
-water storage, defense?
 VIP Stem: Provide both name and function labels:
Epidermis: reduce evaporation, gas exchange
Cortex: photosynthesis, collenchyma support
Vascular Bundles: conduction
Pith: water storage? defense? disintegrate?

Vascular Bundle:
outside
Phloem Fibers: support
Functional Phloem:
to center
outside

conduct CH2O away from leaf

Vascular Cambium:
add 2° Xylem and 2°
Phloem
Xylem:
conduct minerals up from soil
to center
 Stem Functions
Support Fibers, Xylem
Gas exchange Stomata
Photosynthesis Cortex
Conduct water and minerals Xylem
Conduct sugars, amino acids Phloem
Storage Pith, Cortex
Defense Cortex, Pith
Plant

soil line
transition zone

taproot

lateral root

root hairs
root apex
root cap
Zone of Maturation - cell differentiation
Protoderm
Ground Meristem
Provascular

Zone of Cell Elongation - cell expansion

Notice how the growing zone has

no root hairs or lateral roots!

Growth among soil particles

would result in shear forces.

Zone of Cell Division - new cells by

mitosis
Root Cap - penetration, padding
Mucilage Slough Cells
 Gravitropism
Root Tip Senses Gravity
Auxin Hormone Produced
Auxin Accumulates on Lower
Growth Inhibited on Lower…
Relative to Upper
Root Curves Downward

Water and Mineral Uptake

Root Hairs Increase Surface

Area
Root Hairs Secrete Acid (H+)
H+ Cation Exchange w/Minerals
Plant Plant Organs Plant Tissues

Root:
organ system
soil line
transition zone

taproot root hair dermal

}
epidermis tissue
Root
cortex
pericycle }
endodermis ground
tissue
lateral root xylem vascular
}
phloem tissue
vascular cambium - meristematic
root hairs
root apex
root cap
Dicot Mature Root Structure - Anatomy Ranunculus acris - buttercu
Epidermis

Cortex

Vascular Cylinder
Root Vascular Cylinder and Cortex Ranunculus acris - buttercu

Endodermis

Cortex

Phloem

Xylem

Pericycle
Root Anatomy: Dicot Root Cross Section
Epidermis - root hairs, mineral and water intake
Cortex - storage, defense
Endodermis - selective mineral uptake
Casparian strips in radial walls

Pericycle - lateral root formation (periderm)

Vascular Cambium - makes 2° tissues

Phloem - CH2O delivery from leaves

Xylem - conduct water and mineral upwards

One Vascular Cylinder (Phloem + Cambium + Xylem)

 Root Functions
Penetration of soil Apex
Water and mineral intake Root Hairs
Positive gravitropism Cortex
Selective Mineral Uptake Endodermis
Export water and minerals Xylem
Import sugars, amino acids Phloem
Storage Cortex
Branching (anchorage) Pericycle
Plant Plant Organs Plant Tissues
leaf primordium cuticle
apical bud Leaf epidermis - dermal tissue
lateral bud palisade mesophyll } ground
tissue
xylem vascular
leaf blade phloem } tissue
petiole spongy mesophyll } ground
stem node tissue
internode node epidermis - dermal tissue

Stem epidermis - dermal tissue

Shoot: cortex
pith } ground
tissue
organ system xylem vascular
phloem } tissue
soil line vascular cambium - meristematic
transition zone

taproot root hair dermal

}
epidermis tissue
Root
cortex
pericycle }
endodermis ground
tissue
lateral root xylem vascular
}
phloem tissue
vascular cambium - meristematic
root hairs
root apex
root cap
Plant anatomy and
Physiology
Introduction
From smallest to largest plants
 What is plant anatomy?
• ANATOMY: study of the structure of
organisms… looking at cells, tissues
• (Morphology: Study of form)

What is plant physiology?

• PHYSIOLOGY: study of the function of
cells, tissues, organs of living things;
and the physics/chemistry of these functions…
 Always keep in mind that in plant
anatomy, morphology & physiology…

“Structure correlates to
function”
• How can water
move from
the ground
all the way
to the top
of a 100 m
tall redwood
tree?
 Plant Anatomy: Cells
• Plant cells are basic building blocks
• Can specialize in form and function
• By working together, forming tissues, they
can support each other and survive
• Levels of organization
atoms > molecules > cells > tissues > organs > whole plant > pop.
 Plant Tissues Types
All plant organs (roots, stems, leaves) are
composed of the same tissue types.
There are three types of tissue:

• 1. Dermal – outermost layer

• 2. Vascular – conducting tissue, transport

• 3. Ground – bulk of inner layers

 1. Dermal tissue
• Epidermis is the outermost layer of
cells
• Like the “skin” of animals
• In stems and leaves,
epidermis has cuticle,
a waxy layer that prevents
water loss.
• Some have trichomes, hairs.
• Root epidermis has root hairs, for
water and nutrient absorption
 2. Vascular tissue
• Transports water and organic materials
(sugars) throughout the plant
• Xylem – transports water and
dissolved ions from the root
to the stem and leaves.
• Phloem – carries dissolved
sugars
from leaves to rest of the plant
 Xylem
• Transports water and dissolved minerals
• Tracheids: long, thin tube like structures
without perforations at the ends
• Vessel elements: short, wide tubes
perforated at the ends (together form a pipe,
called vessel).
• Both cells have pits (thin sections) on the
walls

Tracheids Vessel elements

 Xylem cells
• Xylem cells are dead!
• They are hollow cells
and consist
only of
cell wall
 Phloem
• Cells that transport organic materials (sugars)
• Phloem cells are ALIVE! (unlike xylem)
• However, they lack
nucleus and
organelles
 Phloem: transports sugars
• Phloem composed of cells called sieve tube
members (STM)
• Companion cells join sieve tube members,
are related, and help to load materials into
STM
• End walls of STM have large pores called
sieve plates Companion cells

Sieve tube member Sieve plates

 3. Ground tissue
• Makes up the bulk of plant organs.
• Functions: Metabolism, storage and
support.

Root Stem Leaf

 Plant Organs
Organs: tissues that act together to
serve a specific function

Dermal
• Roots Vascular
Ground

Dermal
• Stems Vascular
Ground

Dermal
• Leaves Vascular
Ground
 Functions of plant organs:
• ROOTS: Anchorage, water/nutrient
absorption from soil, storage, water/nutrient
transport

• STEMS: Support, water/nutrient transport

• LEAVES: Photosynthesis (food production)

 ROOTS

• ROOTS “the hidden half”

• Functions of roots:
• Ancorage
• Absorption of water & dissolved
minerals
• Storage (surplus sugars, starch)
• Conduction water/nutrients
Anatomy of a root

epidermis
cortex

vascular
 Root Epidermis
• Outermost, single layer of cells that:
– Protects (from diseases)
– Absorbs water and nutrients

• ROOT HAIRS: tubular extensions

of epidermal cells.
• Increase surface area of root,
for better water/nutrient
absorption
Root Hairs: water and mineral
absorption

Root hairs
increase surface
area for better
absorption
 Root Cortex
• Stores starch, sugars and other substances
 Root Ground tissue
• In roots, ground tissue (a.k.a. cortex)
provides support, and
often stores sugars and starch
(for example: yams, sweet potato, etc.)

You’re not a
yam, you’re a Hey!
sweetpotato! I yam
what
cortex I
yam,
man!
 Root Cortex: Endodermis
• Endodermis: the innermost layer of the
cortex
 Root cortex: Casparian strip
• The Casparian strip is a water-
impermeable strip of waxy material found
in the endodermis (innermost layer of the
cortex).
• The Casparian strip helps to control the
uptake of minerals into the xylem: they
have to go through the cytoplasm of the
cell!
 STEMS
• Above-ground organs (usually)

• Support leaves and fruits

• Conduct water and sugars

throughout plant (xylem and phloem)
 Stem anatomy
• Dermal, ground and vascular tissues…

epidermis cortex

Vascular
pith
bundles
 Types of Stems

Monocot stem Dicot stem Root

 Types of stems
• Herbaceous vs. Woody
stems
 Tissues of stems
• Epidermis (Dermal tissue type)
• Provides protection
• Has cuticle (wax) prevents water loss
• Trichomes (hairs) for protection, to
release scents, oils, etc.
 Stem Vascular tissue
• Vascular bundles – composed of both
xylem and phloem
• Xylem
– Conducts water
– Support
• Phloem
– Conducts food Vascular
– Support cambium
 Vascular cambium
• Occurs in woody stems
• Vascular cambium located in the
middle of the vascular bundle, between
xylem and phloem
 Vascular tissue: Trees
• Vascular tissue is located on the outer
layers of the tree.

bark
phloem
Vascular
cambium wood

xylem
Girdling: cutting around a tree
• Damages the phloem and xylem,
eventually killing the tree!
 Vascular tissue forms rings in
trees
• Annual rings: xylem formed by the
vascular cambium during one growing
season
• One ring = one year
 History of the tree: annual
rings
Dendrochronology : tree time-keeping

1917 & 1945: Tree

Survives two World
1776: Declaration Wars 1969: Man
of US independence lands on Moon
1492: Columbus lands in
the Americas

1620: Pilgrims land 1861: Start of

in Plymouth, Mass. Civil War
1489: Tree is planted 1971: Birth Year
by Native American
of the IDIOT
who cut down
this tree!!!
 Ground tissue: Cortex & pith
• Stores food (e.g. potato)
• Site of Photosynthesis (when green)
• Support cells

cortex

pith
 LEAVES:
• ‘Photosynthetic factories’ of the plant…
• Function: Photosynthesis – food
production for the whole plant
• Blade: Flat expanded area
• Petiole: stalk that connects
leaf blade to stem, and
transports materials
BLADE
 Leaf Anatomy
• Leaf anatomy is correlated to
photosynthesis:
Carbon dioxide + Water  sugars + oxygen
dermal

ground

vascular

dermal
 Leaf epidermis
• Is transparent – so that sun light can go
through.
• Waxy cuticle protects against drying out
• Lower epidermis: stomata with guard cells
– for gas exchange (CO2, H2O in; O2 out)
 Leaf epidermis
• Trichomes (give fuzzy texture)

(“Panda plant”)
 Leaf vascular tissue
• VEINS  vascular tissue of leaves.
• Veins are composed of xylem (water
transport) phloem (food transport)
and bundle
sheaths,
cells surrounding the
xylem/phloem for
strength & support
 Leaf Mesophyll
• Middle of the leaf (meso-phyll)
• Composed of photosynthetic ground cells:
• Palisade parenchyma
(long columns below epidermis;
have lots chloroplasts for
photosynthesis)
Spongy parenchyma
(spherical cells)
with air spaces around,
(for gas exchange)
 Plant water transport
• How can water move from
the ground
all the way
to the top
of a 100 m
tall redwood
tree?
 Water transport in plants:
• The same way we drink soda
from a straw!

• Water’s great
cohesive forces (molecules
sticking to each other)
and adhesive forces
(attaching to walls of xylem cells)
Transpiration-cohesion Theory
for water transport in the xylem
• Evaporation of water in the leaves
(through stomates) generates the
‘sucking force’ that pulls adjacent water
molecules up the leaf surface
 Water transport (cont.)
• Like a long chain, water molecules pull
each other up the column.
• The column goes from roots  leaves.

• What’s amazing is that the

water moves up by using the sun’s
evaporative energy…
• Plants control transpiration by
opening/closing stomata
Thank You

muhdnazmin@upm.edu.my
+601139994064
2nd Floor Block D Crop Science