Taxonomy

Taxonomy
Is the theory and practice of classification of organisms
The term was coined by Swiss naturalist, De Candolle, in French
form as “taxonomie” in 1813
 Taxonomy is derived from Greek word
 taxis ---- means arrangement, and
Nomos ------means law
Taxonomy means the law governing the
classification/arrangement of organisms into taxa
Taxon(pl. taxa) is any taxonomic groupings, such as species , a
genus , a family
Taxonomy is
 the oldest;
The most basic
 the most all-embracing of all biological sciences; and
 it is also the most ultimate(most derived, synthetic) of all
biological sciences
Taxonomy
 Is basic b/c understanding the wealth of variation can be made
until some sort of classification is adopted
 is ultimate b/c taxonomy is not complete until the data from other
fields of investigation have been incorporated
 we can boldly state that taxonomy does not have its own data
 Taxonomy is concerned with classification, nomenclature and
identification.
Definitions of important taxonomic terms
Biosystematic: the field of study dealing with variation and
evolution, primarily experimental and analytical, and mostly treating
the species and infraspecific taxa.
Taxonomic or systematic characters: are characters contributing to
a taxonomic description.
Taxon(plural taxa) a taxonomic group of any rank ex genus, family.
Character is an attribute or a feature of an organism which can
be assessed, measured or weighed
 Example hairy or glabrous; blue-eyed or brown eyed
Character can be – qualitative characters- character that are expressed in
qualitative terms example – hair color and corolla color
 quantitative character --- characters that are expressed in quantitative terms
or which can be measured ---example – seed weight, hair length
 all characters can be divisible at least in to 2 states or conditions
 character state is an expression or condition of a character –e.g eye color,
flower color etc…
Character is an abstract entity while a character state is concrete (tangible)
 Monophyletic grouping –is the grouping of organisms derived from common
or a single ancestral forms.
 All life forms constitute a monophyletic assemblage; they are derived from a
single sources
A monophyletic taxon is group of organism made up of a common(single)
ancestral species and all of its descendents
 •Human, Gorilla and C= are monophyletic with single parent stock “C”
•Human, Gorilla, C, Chimpanzee = are monophyletic with single parent stock
“B”
•Human, Gorilla, C, Chimpanzee, Baboon, A= are monophyletic with single parent
stock “A”
Paraphyletic groups: are groups of organisms that consists of an ancestor
organism and include some but not all that ancestor‟s descendants
A
group which includes the descendants B, C, & D
Z B but exclude “A” which is also descended from “Z”
C
D
 Taxonomy-etymology
Taxonomy is a kind of knowledge organization system.

 The units in taxonomies are termed taxon (plural: taxa).

"Initially taxonomy was only the science of classifying living
organisms, but later the word was applied in a wider sense, and may
also refer to either a classification of things, or the principles
underlying the classification
Taxonomy is an ordered classification system.
Information is grouped according to presumed natural
relationships.
Ordered resources are grouped like with like.
 The structure of taxonomy should be consistent
with user groups‟ conceptualization of their
subject.
taxonomy is restricted to the study of classification.
 systematics is the scientific study of the kinds and
diversity of organisms and r/nships b/n them
 These days systematics is greatly influenced by data
derived from DNA from nuclei, mitochondria and
chloroplasts.
This is sometimes known as molecular systematics
objectives of Taxonomy
Taxonomy provides
A convenient method of classifying, naming, identifying and
describing organisms;
 A classification scheme which attempts to express natural
relationships;
 An inventory of organisms to be provided in the form of books;
 An understanding of evolutionary process and relationships;
and
 An integrating and unifying role in the training of biological
students,
 relationships between many biological fields or

 types of evidence and the diversity of organisms.

Alpha taxonomy & Omega taxonomy
Alpha taxonomy
 is a term coined by Turrill (1942)
it refers to the taxonomic study including collection and
subsequent classification on the basis of gross morphological
characters of organisms and extensive herbarium, museum and field
study
 The main objective was to identify and name organisms.
This taxonomy is known as descriptive or classical taxonomy.
Omega taxonomy
 is designated to be related to modern taxonomy.
This is equivalent of an ultimate, perfected system, based upon all
available characters.
This type of taxonomic work is, almost by definition,
unattainable, but it is the distant goal at which taxonomists should
There are four stages in taxonomic study
I. Exploratory phase of taxonomic study
 this phase involves collection and subsequent classification
from a limited range of herbarium/museum specimens.
 It involves the description of new species and their preliminary
arrangement in comprehensive genera.
II. The systematic phase of taxonomic study
in this phase extensive herbarium/museum and field studies of a
wide selection of material of each taxon are carried out.
III. Biosystematic phase
in this phase detailed genetical and cytogenetical studies are made.
IV. The encyclopaedic phase:
in this phase data from a very wide range of disciplines are
assembled to form a good predictive, natural classification.
Alpha taxonomy is equivalent to the first and second of the above
four phases where as
 omega taxonomy corresponds to the biosystematic and
encyclopaedic phase of taxonomic study.
Classification, identification and nomenclature
Classification is defined in different ways by different authors as:
 The ordering of organisms into groups based on similarities
and/or differences;
The assignment of organisms to groups within a system or
hierarchy of ranks or categories distinguished by certain characters;
and
 The production of a logical system of categories, each of which
containing any number of organisms, which allows easier reference
to its components/kinds of organisms
 Nomenclature
♣ is concerned with determination of the correct name of a
known organism according to an established system of
nomenclature.
♣ It is the naming of groups of organisms and the rules governing
the application of the names;
♣ It is the correct determination of the name of an identified
taxon according to an established system of nomenclature.
♣ Or it is the application of distinctive names to each of the groups
recognized in the organism classification.
Identification or determination
 is the determination of a taxon as being identical with or similar
to another and already known element.
 The determination may or may not be arrived at by the aid of
literature or by comparison with organisms of known taxon.
In some instances, the organism may be determined to be new to
science, a situation that results after elimination of the possibilities
of its being like any known element.
 Identification is the naming of an organism or a specimen by
reference to an already existent classification.

It involves referring an individual specimen to a previously

classified and named group.

 Is recognizing an unknown specimen with an already known

taxon, and assigning a correct rank and position in an extant
classification.
 Thus, identification follows classification and nomenclature,
which means that classification and nomenclature precede
identification
 Methods of Identification
There are four methods of identification.
1. Expert determination
♠ identification of an organism or a specimen by an expert, by
someone who has been researching on the group of organisms to
which that specimen belongs and who has a rich knowledge of that
group.
♠ In terms of reliability and accuracy, the best method is
identification by expert.
2. Determination by recognition
 When one identifies a specimen merely by recognition.
 Recognition approaches expert determination in reliability.
 This is based on extensive past experience of the identifier with
the plant group in question.
 In some groups this is virtually impossible.
3.Determination with the help of keys & similar device
It is by far the most widely used method and
 does not require the time, materials, or experience
involved in comparison and recognition.
4.Determination by comparison
 to well preserved and authenticated (very well named)
specimens that have been stored in a herbarium or museum.
 It also involves comparison with photographs,
illustrations or descriptions.
 Even though this is a reliable method, it may be very
time consuming or virtually impossible due to the lack
of suitable materials for comparison.
 Diagnostic Keys
 Keys are convenient methods used to identify and name unknown
organism.
 It involves listing the observable characters of the organism
(specimen) and matching them with those features which are
diagnostic of a particular group.
 Most of the characteristics used in identification are based on
easily observable features such as shape, color, numbers of
appendages, segments etc.
 Monographs and Floras usually incorporate a diagnostic key, by
which the reader may identify an unknown plant with one included
in the work concerned.
 Keys do not offer descriptions of the plants concerned, but state
only the essential diagnostic characters by means of which the taxa
can be identified.
Dichotomous keys are so familiar in botanical/ & zoological work
 Dichotomous key consists of a series of couplets or mutually
exclusive pairs of statements, each statement (or lead) of a pair
leading to further couplet.
 At each couplet a decision to follow one lead or the other has to
be taken, so that the number of possible taxa with which the
unknown specimen can be identified is successfully reduced until
there is only one possibility.
 It is one type used for identification of plants and animals kept in
herbarium and museum respectively.
 It involves the use of a pair of contrasting characters and the
statement that begins with the same word.
 In order to construct dichotomous key, the organisms should be
separated in to successive pairs of groups on the basis of clearly
observable external features.
The ultimate identification is on the basis of distinguishing
features that are possessed by only one organism.
The Dichotomous keys may be written in two ways (bracketed or
indented).
The essential difference between these two lay-outs is that in the
bracketed key the two leads of each couplet appear together, whereas
 in the indented key all the possibilities arising from the first lead
are dealt with before the second lead is mentioned.
 Bracketed key is one type of analytical device for the
determination of the names of the organisms included in it. An
organism of unknown entity can be identified by comparing the
contradictory propositions resulting in the acceptance of one and the
rejection of the other.
 A key consists of a series of pairs (called couplet) of constructing
statements (called the lead).
 A bracketed key is defined as a type where two leads of each
couplet exist together.
This is also known as parallel key. Indented key (also called yoked
key) is one of the devices used to identify an unknown organism
 It is defined as a type where the collateral leads of a given couplet
are arranged in a same frame (yokes) and each lead is identified by
the second.
 Each method has its advantages (and advocates), and the choice of
one over the other is mostly a matter of personal preference.
 However, indented key has advantages when the key is short.
A. Bracketed key
1. Fruit more than twice as long as broad, with a skin in
three or more distinct segments--------------------------------- Banana
Fruits less than twice as long as broad, with a skin not in segments -2
2. Fruit with a thick, aromatic skin -------------------------------------- 3
Frit with a thin, non aromatic skin ----------------------------------------4
3. Skin yellow; fruit with a marked protuberance at one end -- Lemon
Skin orange; fruit rounded at both ends -------------------------- Orange
4. Fruit with a single „stone‟ in the centre -------------------------- Plum
Fruit with several separate seeds in the centre ------------------------- 5
5. Fruit greenish-yellow, hairy ------------------------------ Gooseberry
Fruit blackish-purple, glabrous ---------------------------- Blackcurrant
B. Indented key
1. Fruit more than twice as long as broad, with a skin in
three or more distinct segments---------------------------------- Banana
1. Fruits less than twice as long as broad, with a skin not in segments
2. Fruit with a thick, aromatic skin
3. Skin yellow; fruit with a marked protuberance at one end -- Lemon
3. Skin orange; fruit rounded at both ends ------------------------ Orange
2. Frit with a thin, non aromatic skin
4. Fruit with a single „stone‟ in the centre ----------------------------Plum
4. Fruit with several separate seeds in the centre
5. Fruit greenish-yellow, hairy ------------------------------- Gooseberry
5. Fruit blackish-purple, glabrous---------------------------- Blackcurrant
Type 1: Bracketed
1. Leaves simple. --------------------------------------- Olea europaea subsp. cuspidata
- Leaves compound.------------------------------------------------------------------------2
2. Crown flat; leaves twice pinnate; leaflets
up to 40 pairs, less than 4 mm long. --------------------------------- Acacia abyssinica
- Crown variously-shaped but not flat; leaves
once-pinnate; leaflets much longer than 4 mm.------------------------------------------ 3
3. Branches prickly. ----------------------------------------------------- Erythrina brucei
- Branches not prickly.--------------------------------------------------------------------- 4
4. Leaves alternate, pinnately 3-foliolate;
leaflets elliptic. ---------------------------------------------------- Allophylus abyssinicus
- Leaves opposite, pinnately 5- or 7-foliolate;
leaflets linear-lanceolate. --------------------------------------------------- Fraxinus sp.
Type II-Indented
1. Leaves simple. -------------------- Olea europaea subsp. cuspidata
1. Leaves compound
2. Crown flat; leaves twice pinnate; leaflets
up to 40 pairs, less than 4 mm long. --------------- Acacia abyssinica
2. Crown variously-shaped but not flat; leaves
once-pinnate; leaflets much longer than 4 mm
3. Branches prickly. ----------------------------------- Erythrina brucei
3. Branches not prickly
4. Leaves alternate, pinnately 3-foliolate;
leaflets elliptic. ----------------------------------Allophylus abyssinicus
4. Leaves opposite, pinnately 5- or 7-foliolate;
leaflets linear-lanceolate. ----------------------------- Fraxinus sp.
 Unit Two
2. The development of taxonomy
 taxonomy is the oldest of all the biological fields.
 It was practiced by ancient people since time immemorial
2.1 The origin of taxonomy
 Early Babylonians and Assyrians known by the earliest grouping
of plants and animals before the Christian era.
 Barley grains found in cases of mummies indicate that Egyptians
cultivated them as far back as 4000 B.C.
 Chinese grew rice of different varieties as early as 5000 yrs back.
2.2 Folk- taxonomies
 People in the ancient period had system of plant and animal
classifications
These are referred to as folk-taxonomists and
The taxonomy they developed is known as folk taxonomy
The practice by early Greek Philosophers
Aristotle (384-322 BC)
 He lived on the island in the Mediterranean
devoted himself to the study of zoology,
particular to the study of marine organisms.
 He also classified different plants and animals.
 He classified plants based on their habits (whether they are herbs,
shrubs or trees).
 Aristotle also grouped animals according to their habitat
preference (i.e. whether they lived in water, land or air).
 He also divided animals in to those with red-colored blood and
those without red-colored blood.
 Aristotle was regarded as the father of biological classification
 typological thinking, or “essentialist” thinking became
entrenched in taxonomy by Aristotle and his followers including
Linnaeus
• Typological thinking is associated with the belief in Special
Creation.
• But we now know that taxonomic groups are the products of
evolution.
• Thus, we believe in the variability of species.
• No two individuals are identical.
• Eventually, typological thinking was replaced by population
thinking (starting with Darwin 1859) the publication of the
“Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection”.
Theophrastus (370-285 BC)
• He was a student of Aristotle and was a keen observer of plants.
• He was the first to write down a classification in a permanent and
logical form.
• He was called the father of botany (by Linnaeus)
 He classified plants using primarily the most obvious characters
of gross morphology (trees, shrubs, sub shrubs, herbs) and
 distinguished between annual, biennial and perennial duration.
 Theophrastus was a good morphologist and recognized the
differences between:
 polypetalous and sympetalous corollas;
 superior and inferior ovaries;
 Determinate (centrifugal) and indeterminate (centripetal)
inflorescences
 he brought plants together by these groupings the groups he
established were strictly artificial.
 In his book De Historia plantarum he roughly classified and
described about 480 kinds of plants.
 Several of the names used by Theophrastus were later taken up
by Linnaeus
Dioscorides (1st Century AD)
 He was a Greek physician in the Roman army and therefore
interested in the medicinal properties of plants.
 His book De Matera Medica described 600 taxa largely from first-
hand observations and detailed their useful applications.
 De Matera Medica dealt with 600 species of Perfumes, Oils,
Spices, Cereals, Condiments (powder or liquid used for giving a
special taste to food, e.g. pepper & salt), Wines, etc.
 Dioscorides also recognized a few natural groups of plants such
as Labiatae (Lamiaceae); and Umbelliferae (Apiaceae).
 It can be considered the first herbal.
The herbalists (15-16th Centuries)
 During the15th & 16th C., a period known as the Age of the
Herbals, many new plants described and illustrated.
 Herbalism is the study of plants in relation to their value to man,
particularly as food and medicines.
Herbals are books written in relation with herbalism.
 Herbalism dominated the 16th century botanical world.
 Herbalists are people who studied plants in relation to their use
to man, particularly as food and medicines.
 Some of the herbals provided the rudiments of a natural
classification, but this was not their objective and many were
arranged wholly artificially, often alphabetically.
 Herbals also incorporate a great deal of myth and superstition, it
was man‟s task merely to discover and utilize their properties
Early taxonomists
In early 17th century plants began to be the attention of a number of
naturalists for their intrinsic interest rather than for their nutritive
value or medicinal value.
Andrea Caesalpinus (1519-1603)
 He was an Italian botanist and physician who has been referred to
as the first plant taxonomist.
 In De plantis (1583), he included an introductory book or chapter
that provided the basis for his classification of about 1500 species
mainly on the basis of growth- habit and fruit and seed form.
 He also utilized a whole series of floral and vegetative
characters.
Thus his arrangement resembled the crude classification of
Theophrastus rather than the artificial system of the herbalists.
Caesalpino was an Aristotelian scientist in that his conclusions
were based on reasoning rather than an analysis by observation.
Taxonomically he classified plants first on the basis of habit,
 in to trees and herbs and
 subdividing them on the type of fruit and seed produced.
 he used classifying characters,
 ovary being superior or inferior,
 the presence or absence of bulbs (fleshy rootstocks)
or
 milky versus watery sap, and
 the number of locules in an ovary.
Caesalpinus' classification stresses:
• the number of parts
• their position and
• their form.
His classification was less natural than his predecessors.
Caesalpinus recognized groups corresponding to:
• Leguminosae
• Umbelliferae
• Cruciferae
• Boraginaceae
• Compositae
J. Bauhin (1554-1631) and G Bauhin (1560-1624)
 They were brothers and Swiss botanists who worked
separately but along rather similar lines.
 G. Bauhin produced the most important book of its time Pinax
Theatri Botanici (1623).
 Its title (Pinax = Register) indicates one of its most significant
features – the listing not only of all the 6,000 or so species
known to him but also their synonyms, i.e. the various names
given to each species by previous workers.
 G. Bauhin is notable for his recognition of genera & species as
major taxonomic levels, and
 using a binary nomenclature composed of the generic name
followed by a single specific of the species.
 he gave a generic and specific (trivial) epithet name to some
plants classified and described by him.
 This binary nomenclature, with which Linnaeus is usually
credited, was founded, therefore by Bauhin more than a century
before its use by Linnaeus in his renowned Species plantarum.
 Thus, in two major ways, Bauhin‟s pinax foreshadowed
Linnaeus‟ great works.
Linnaeus (& his students/Apostles) (1707-1778)
 He was the founder of modern taxonomy both of plants & animals
 The nomenclature system that we employ today is essentially his
work.
 He was an extraordinary writer & produced many valuable works
 For plant taxonomists the two most important works are Genera
Plantarum (1737) and Species Plantarum (1753,).
 In his works Linnaeus classified plants according to his artificial
sexual system.
 Linnaeus' system was called the Sexual System, b/se it was based
on the use of characters of:
• The stamens: Number, Fusion and Relative length and
• The pistil/carpel
 His sexual system was very artificial.
The Genera plantarum listed and briefly described the plant genera recognized
by Linnaeus
 Post-Linnaean natural system
A. P. de Candolle (1778-1841).
 He was a Swiss botanist who contributed much to the
development of higher plant classification
 His book Theorie Elementaire de la Botanique (1813), first
introduced the word taxonomy in the French form Taxonomie.
 De Candolle divided plants into two major groups:
Cellulares and Vasculares,
 non-vascular and the vascular plants respectively.
 De Candolle's most important work was Prodromus Systematis
Naturalis Regni Vegetabilis (1823-1873), a 17 volume book
 His 17 volumes covered all species of dicotyledons in the world
accounting for over 58,000 species in 161 families
G. Bentham (1800-1884) and J.D. Hooker
(1817-1911)
 They produced the last major natural classification in their book
Genera Plantarum (1862-1883),
It dealt with only seed plants, described 200 families and 7569
genera, each in particular detail and many subdivided in to
subgenera and/or sections.
 It became standard reference.
The Dicotyledons were divided into three groups:
• Polypetalae (with free petals)
• Gamopetalae (with fused petals)
• Monochlamydeae (without petals)
 Bentham was an extremely accomplished self-trained classical
taxonomist who wrote many important monographs.
 Hooker, like his father before him, was Director of the Royal
Botanic gardens, Kew and explored many parts of the world and
wrote several valuable Floras.
 Their Genera Plantarum, with a general outline based upon that
of De Candolle, set new standards in descriptive botany.
 Indeed, the great herbaria at the British Museum, Kew and Paris
are still arranged according to it, and Bentham and
 Hooker‟s hand book of the British Flora remained the major
British Flora until 1952.
 The impact of Darwin’s book on the Origin of Species on
taxonomy
The one question that taxonomists were unable to answer before
1859 was why the members of a taxon are most similar to each other
than they are to members of other taxa.
 Darwin explained through his theory of evolution by common
descent.
 “Natural” groups exist because the members of a natural taxon are
descendants of a common ancestor and therefore have a much greater
chance to be similar to each other than do unrelated species.
 Classification proposed prior to 1859, based on the grouping of
similar species continued on the whole to be acceptable after 1859
 since similar species are ordinarily descendants from a
common ancestor.
He also provided a set of clear, practical criteria to be applied
during the construction of a classification.
Unit Three
Classification systems
 When classifying organisms, scientists study a wide range of
features, including:
Those visible to naked eye;
 Those detectable only under a microscope, and

 Those that can be determined only by chemical tests.

Taxonomists compare the
external shapes and sizes of organisms as well as
 the anatomy and function of internal organs and
 organ systems, such as digestive or reproductive systems.
With approaches to classification, the process of classification can
be viewed as a series of operations.
 The process of classification usually involves two separate
operations: Grouping and Ranking.
Grouping involves three specific operations:
must select characters/features of organisms to use in assessing
the similarities and differences
describing and/or measuring these characters.
Here the character states, which are actually used for the purposes
of taxonomic comparison and evaluation, are dealt with.
 The third operation in grouping is to compare the chosen
character states to obtain the groups.
These comparisons can be made in different ways:
A formal method can be used (computers programmes are
employed) – in phenetics and cladistics.
 The comparison can be done more intuitively in traditional
approaches – artificial, natural and phyletic
 The next step in classification is ranking of the recognized
groups.
Ranking involves two specific operations:
 All the character states of the groups are examined and some are
selected for use.
 The character states must be the same and even include all of
those used for grouping but actually not all of them are used for
ranking.
 Other characters also might be selected, consideration that were
not used for the grouping.
 The second step is that those selected character states of the group
are evaluated in terms of the categories available for use in the
taxonomic hierarchy.
Grouping – involves
Selection Description & measurement Comparison
Individual organisms →→ Characters →Character states →→→→
taxa (all aspects)
Ranking
Selection Evaluation
Taxa→→→→→→Character states→→→→→→→→categories
(all character states)
 Grouping organisms according to shared characteristics is not a
simple task, and
 taxonomists often disagree about the best way to classify organisms
 due to this five classification systems (methods) are designed by
different taxonomists
1. Artificial classification system 3.Phyletic classification system
2. Natural classification system 4. Phenetic classification system
5. Cladistic classification system
 Artificial classification
 It was the first to be used in classification of organisms.
 mainly based on only one or at most a limited range of characters
selected arbitrarily.
 It is utilitarian, based on arbitrary, easily observable characters
such as habit, color, number, form or similar features.
 The selection of characters is usually made before the
classification is begun i.e. a priori.
 It was begun with ancient Greek philosophers.
The classifications made by Aristotle, Theophrastus even the
sexual system of classification of Linnaeus were all artificial.
In artificial classification system the following are taken as the
major features:
 It takes only a few characteristics of organisms arbitrarily
Ranking is done subjectively with certain character states being
regarded as subordinate to others.
 Artificial system is monothetic i.e. possession of unique set of
characters/features is both sufficient and necessary for membership
in the group thus defined.
 It does not reflect true relationships among organisms.
 It does not consider the natural r/nship existing b/n the organisms
 It does not consider many important characteristics
 It does not take in to account evolutionary r/nship b/n organisms
 Because a few characters are involved, the difficulties
encountered in describing, measuring and comparing the character
states usually are minimal.
 As a result, closely related organisms could be grouped
separately, instead of grouping them in the same group; and
distantly related organisms could be grouped in the same group.
Ex. Insects and birds were grouped together for that they have
wings and ability to fly; however, the two are distantly related
groups
 An artificial taxon is one that does not correspond to a unit
involved in the evolutionary process or to a unit of evolutionary
history.
 There are two kinds of artificial groups (these are paraphyletic
and polyphyletic groups).
 Paraphyletic groups are artificial because one or more
descendants of an ancestor are excluded from the group. Examples
include Dicotyledonae, Vermes, and Reptilia.
 Polyphyletic groups are artificial because the common ancestor
is placed in another taxon.
 An example - Homeothermia, a group composed of birds and
mammals.
 Note that the term “ancestor” is used in its logical sense, i.e., the
ancestor is unknown but its inclusion or exclusion can be deduced
as a logical consequence of the grouping.
 Natural classification (Adansonian)
is a system of classification based on biological (natural)
similarities and many related characters.
 It takes into account the natural and evolutionary relationship
existing among organisms in different times.
 The various biological features of the organisms upon which the
natural system of classification depends are
embryology, anatomy, morphology, physiology, genetics,
biochemistry, evolution, ethology and molecular biology.
The natural system of classification takes homologous structures
into consideration.
 Natural classification system is therefore polythetic
 i.e. it places together organisms that have the greatest number of
shared features, and no single feature is either essential to group
membership or is sufficient to make an organism a member of the
group
 Phyletic classification (Evolutionary)
is a type of classification based on the relationship to a particular
line of descent.
It is a type of biological classification which accurately reflects
hypothesis concerning the genealogical descent of organisms and
are usually accomplished on the species level or above.
Put simply, phyletic classification reflects the best estimate of the
evolutionary history of organisms.
Phyletic/evolutionary classification is a system of taxa arranged
in a Linnaean hierarchy and evolutionary taxonomists construct
both monophyletic (a taxon whose units all evolved from a single
parent stock) and paraphyletic taxa.
Evolutionary taxonomists place lizards, snakes, and crocodiles in
the paraphyletic taxon - Reptilia.
Evolutionary taxonomists maintain that each type of group is the
result of a particular sort of evolutionary process
♣ Evolutionary systematist try to use many types of evidences to
discover the phylogeny/evolutionary history/ of organisms, but not
always possible because of the problems on fossil records.
♣ Phyletic classification aimed to reconstruct the evolutionary tree
and to ensure/reflect/ the organisms that share a common ancestor
 Phenetics (Numerical /Mathematical /Taxonometrics/
Taxometrics/Taximetrics/ Statistical Taxonomy/ Modern
Phenetics)

 Phenetic classification system is a classification based on

numerous characters of equal weight and their comparison-using
computer programmes.
 The word "phenetic" was introduced by Cain and Harrison in
1960 to mean a relationship by overall similarity, based on all
available characters without any weighting.
 This method rejected the idea of giving more importance to
certain characters, and believed that natural taxa are based on the
concept of similarity, which is measured by taking all characters in
to consideration.
Seven main advantages of numerical taxonomy over
conventional taxonomy are given below:
 the greater the content of information in the taxa of a
classification and the more characters on which it is based, the
better a given classification will be (better in this context can be
equated with more predictive)
 A priori, every character is equal weight in creating natural taxa.
All the characters so used are a priori, weighted equally (i.e. no
weighting).
 Overall similarity between any two entities is a function of their
individual similarities in each of the many characters in which they
are being compared.
 Distinct taxa can be recognized because correlation of characters
differs in the groups of organisms under study.
Phylogenetic inference can be made from the taxonomic structure
of a group and from character correlations, given certain assumptions
about evolutionary pathways and mechanisms.
 Taxonomy is viewed and practiced as an empirical science (as
opposed to an interpretative or deductive science)
 Classification is based on phenetic similarity (observed physical or
phenotypic) similarity.