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Anatomy- is the study of the structure of the different parts of the body.
Physiology- is the study of the processes and functions of the different parts of the body.
Chemical
Cell
Tissue
Organ
Organ System
Organism
Integumentary Sytem
Skeletal System
Muscular System
Nervous System
Endocrine System
Cardiovascular System
Lympathic System
Respiratory Sytem
Digestive System
Urinary System
Reproductive System
Organization
Metabolism
Responsiveness
Growth
Development
Reproduction
1.4 Homeostasis
Homeostasis- is also called “equilibrium” which is for maintaining the balance in the body.
Homeostasis has 2 mechanisms namely:
Body planes
Sagittal Plane- Divides the body into left and right sections
Frontal or Coronal Plane- Divides the body into front and back sections
Transverse Plane- Divides the body into upper and lower segments
Oblique Plane- Cuts the body diagonally or is any plane that isn’t horizontal or vertical
I. HUMAN ANATOMICAL TERMS
DNA
Ribosomes
Cytoplasm
Cell membrane
Eukaryotic cells- Can be both Unicellular or multicellular. More complex than prokaryotic cells. Has membrane
bound organelles (Small organs).
Cell wall
Nucleus
Mitochondria
Endoplasmic Reticulum
Golgi Apparatus
Prokaryotic cells- Can be bacteria or archaea and are unicellular. Has no membrane bound organelles.
Cell Structure and their functions
Cell membrane- Also called a plasma membrane, its selectively permeable (Controls what goes in and out of
the cell). Doing so keeps everything balanced or also known as Homeostasis (Equilibrium).
Cytoplasm- Jelly like material that surrounds all the internal cell structures that can be found in both eukaryotes
and prokaryotes.
Cytoskeleton- Is a collection of fibers that will provide support for the cell ad its organelles. Plays a major role
in cell movement.
Ribosomes- Are not membrane bound organelles and they make proteins. Can be found in both prokaryotes
and eukaryotes. They can be free in the cytoplasm but can also attach in the golgi apparatus.
Nucleus- Holds the genetic material of the cell or the DNA. Can only be found in eukaryotes.
Nucleolus- Found inside the nucleus which is where the ribosomes can be produced.
Nuclear Membrane- also known as the nuclear envelope, they are made up of two lipid bilayer membranes
which encloses the genetic material.
Chromosomes- Is a long DNA molecule that is all of the genetic material of an organism.
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)- Does a lot of processing of molecules for the cell such as protein folding, and is
highly involved in transporting those molecules around the cell.
Rough ER- Has ribosomes attached to it and specifically tends to be involved with protein produce and
transport because ribosomes make protein.
Smooth ER- no ribosomes attached to it but has many additional roles such as making some types of
lipids, and detoxification, which is why our liver cells have a lot of smooth ER.
Golgi Apparatus- The ultimate packaging center, it can receive items from the transport vesicles, has enzymes
that can modify molecules it may receive and sorts them, and it can determine where to send those molecules
so they can be secreted out of the cell.
Mitochondria- Power house of the cell, they make ATP energy in a process called cellular respiration. It runs
on glucose (sugar), and needs oxygen to efficiently make ATP energy.
Chloroplast- Can be seen in plant cells, they make glucose by using light energy in a process known as
photosynthesis.
Vacuoles- Has many different functions but most of them act as storage of materials.
Cell wall- Can be seen in plant cells, a layer that provides additional protection and shape maintenance that
animal cells do not.
Lysosome- A membrane bound organelle found in many animal cells. They are spherical vesicles that contain
hydrolytic enzymes that can break downmany kinds of biomolecules.
Centrosome- Is an organelle that serves as the main microtubule organizing center of the animal cell, it is also
the regulator of cell cycle progression and provide structure for the cell.
Peroxisome- Is a membrane bound oxidatuve organelle, which is a type of microbody that can be found in the
cytoplasm of virtually all eukaryotic cells.
1. Gap 1 or the G1 Phase- Cell growth and this growth is when the cell structures are functioning.
2. Synthesis or the S Phase- DNA replication phase, nucleus growth, and where DNA turns to chromosomes.
4. Mphase- This phase is when the cell division will occur and is the last cycle of the cell.
Prophase- The first but also the longest phase of mitosis. Nucleus & nuclear membrane disappears
in this stage and chromatin turns to chromosomes.
Metaphase- Phase that separates duplicated genetic material carried in the nucleus of a parent cell
into 2 identical daughter cells.
Anaphase- Chromosomes break at centromeres, and sister chromatids move to the opposite ends of
the cell.
Telophase- Is the final stage of mitosis, in which membranes form around the two groups of
chromosomes, each at the opposite ends of the cell, to produce the 2 nuclei of the daughter cells.
Cytokinesis- Cytoplasm division which divides the cytoplasm into 2 daughter cells.
Matter- Anything that occupies space that has mass and volume.
Weight- Results from the gravitational attraction between the earth and an object.
4 Types of tissues
1. Epithelial Tissues- Protects underlying structures, acts as a barrier, permits the passage of substance, secretes
substances, and absorbs substances. These are also the first layer of the organs and has no intercellular spaces.
2. Nervous Tissues- Signals to conduct action potentials or electrical signals. Provides coordination to muscle
tissues.
Brain
Spinal Cord
Nerves
4. Connective Tissues- Encloses and separates organs and tissue, connects tissues to one another, helps to support
to move the body, store compounds, and protects against toxins and injury.
Adipose
Fibrous
Areolar
Bone
Cartilage
Fluid
Synovial Connective Tissue membrane- A thin barrier that lines the inside of some of your joints.
Mucous Membrane- Lines the body’s canals and organs in the digestive, respiratory, and reproductive
system.
Serous Membrane- Lines the trunk cavities that do not open to the outside of the body (Pleural &
Pericardial).
Skin
V. INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
Integumentary System- Skin and structures associated with it such as Skin, nails, hair, and exocrine glands make up
the integumentary system.
Sweat pores- Secretes sebum oil so your skin doesn’t dry out.
Sebaceous Glands- They produce oil, help the skin and hair, and are also waterproof. Help in lubricating all
the dead keratinocytes.
Hair Follicle- Can be found in the dermis, they have cells in the hair bulb that are doing mitosis rapidly, and
when they do, the cells get pushed outward as the hair root grows. Hair shaft is the hair that the you can see in
the outer surface, it is made up of keratin and are non-living.
Nails- The Cuticle is part of the epidermis, while the nail body is made up of dead keratinocytes, the nail root
has cells that are doing mitosis frequently and as those cells get pushed outward, they help the nail grow.
Burn classifications:
2nd degree burn- Affects the epidermis and part of the dermis.
3rd degree burn- Affects the epidermis and all of the dermis. Nerves can be damaged, so it can be less painful
despite being more severe of a burn.
4th degree burn- Goes beyond the layers to even affect bones and muscles. Nerves can be damaged, so it can be
less painful despite being more severe of a burn.
Skin- Largest organ in the body, is protected by keratin, critical in maintaining homeostasis because it helps
maintain internal body temperature and fluid balance. Protects your internal structure and organs from being
damaged. It also protects you from invasion of pathogens like bacteria or fungi and skin is also where Vitamin D is
produced. Skin also has sensory functions.
Epidermis- First layer of the skin, mostly made up of squamous cells, keratinocytes are produced at the bottom
layer of the epidermis. Keratin is a protein that helps cells be water resistant and tough.
Stratum Corneum- The outer top layer of the epidermis, this layer consists of cornified cells (dead cells).
Stratum Lucidum- Can be seen only in the thick skin areas like the bottom of the feet or palms, also
consists of cornified cells. They contain a type of protein that gives them their transparent appearance.
Stratum Granulosum- In this layer, keratinocytes that have been pushed down the lower layer will
develop a flatter structure in this layer, they contain granules that have a variety of functions. The
keratinocytes here will eventually lose their organelles and become the cornified cells of the layer above.
Stratum Spinosum- Has many layers of keratinocytes but there’s also a type of cell that will consume
worn out cells or bacteria and by doing so, it acts like a macrophage.
Stratum Basale- Deepest layer of the epidermis, it consists of one layer of cells called basal cells, these
cells are the ones constantly doing mitosis and give rise to the keratinocytes in the layers above.
Melanocytes- The cell that makes a protein called melanin, melanin is a pigment that can result in an array of
different skill colors, and melanin protects skin from being damaged by Ultraviolet rays (UV). Melanin gets
transported to the keratinocytes in organelles called melanosomes.
Merkel Cells- Thought to have involvement with the nervous system as they work with nerves in helping us have
the sense of touch.
Dermis- Where blood vessels can be seen, it is a type of connective tissue, which is a non epidermal type of
tissue that connects things together in the body. You can also find sweat glands, hair follicles, and nerves in
the dermis. If a cut makes it into the dermis, it can often scar.
Dermis has fibers of two types of proteins: both these proteins are made by specialized cells in the layer called
fibroblasts.
Hypodermis- Third layer and the most thickest of the skin layers, it connects the skin above to the bone and
muscle tissue. Contains adipose tissue (stored body fat) and has important functions such as insulation.
Skeletal System- Is made up of bones and supports the body while keeping the organs protected. A normal adult
person has 206 bones in their body, while a child has around 270 bones.
Axial skeleton- Includes the bones in the head and trunk such as the skull, ears (Ossicles), Throat (Hyoid),
Vertebral Column, and rib cage.
Appendicular Skeleton- Includes both arms and hands, shoulder girdle, pelvic girdle, and both legs.
Long bones (90 bones)- More cylindrical in shape, examples are Femur, Tibia, Fibula, Humerus, Radius, Ulna,
Metacarpals, Metatatsals, and Phalanges.
Short bones (28 bones)- More cube like in shape, examples are carpals, and tarsals.
Sesamoid bones (4 bones)- Have are just like sesame seeds, roundish and great at handling pressure, example
is patella.
Flat bones (36 bones)- Aren’t necessarily flat, examples are Skull (Cranial) bones, and Shoulder blade
(Scapula) bone.
Irregular bones (48 bones)- There isn’t a specific shape description you can use to define them, example is
vertebrae.
Osteoblasts- Cells that make bone and can mature into another type of cell which are Osteocytes.
Osteocytes- These cells maintain bone structure and make up the majority of bone cells.
Osteoclasts- These cells break down bone structure, they have a lot of lysosomes which help in breaking down
bones. Osteclasts are needed in the bone remodeling process (replaces old or damaged bones). Breaking down
bones also releases minerals that the body may require such as calcium.
Chondroblasts- Cells that make the connective tissue cartilage and matures to Chondrocytes.
Calcium- Major minerals that bones store, and are very important for muscle contraction to occur.
Cartilage- Supports the bone, important to joints, and it is also a template for bone placement.
Osteoporosis- also known as porous bone, it is a loss of bone matrix, this loss of bone mass makes bones so porous
and weakened that they become deformed and prone to fracture.
Skull Structure
Vertebral Column
Movement Terms
Plantar flexion- Foot movement in which toes and foot flex towards
the sole.
Resisted motion- Motion done in the opposite of the active motion or in the
Eccentric contraction- Muscle produces less force than the load place on it.
Concentric contraction- Muscle produces more force than the load placed on it.
Isokinetic contraction- Use some kind of machine to keep the joint motion at a constant speed. Same movement.