Vara’s Short Notes on Anatomy and Physiology

UNIT- I
Introduction to Human anatomy and physiology.
1. Scope of anatomy and physiology.
2. Levels of structural organization.
3. Structure of cell, its components and their function.
4. Elementary tissues of the human body.
 Epithelial, connective, muscular and nervous tissues, their sub- types and properties.
5. Skeletal muscles
 Gross anatomy.
 Physiology of muscle contraction.
 Physiological properties of skeletal muscles.
 Disorders of skeletal muscle.
6. Skeletal system
 Structure, composition and functions of skeleton.
 Classification of joints.
 Types of movements at joints.
 Disorders of joints.

Anatomy (ana- = up; -tomy = process of cutting) is defined as the science of body structures
and the relationships among structures.
Physiology (physio- = nature; -logy = study of) is the science of body functions, how the
body systems work, and the ways in which their integrated activities maintain life and health
of the individual.
Pathology is the study of abnormalities.
Pathophysiology considers how they affect body functions, often causing illness.
Homeostasis (homeo- = sameness; -stasis = standing still) is the condition of equilibrium
(balance) in the body’s internal environment due to the constant interaction of the body’s
many regulatory processes.

Because structure and function are so closely related, the structure of a part of the body often reflects
its functions.

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2. Levels of structural organization

 The human body is organized into structural and functional levels of increasing complexity.
 The human body consists of six levels of structural organization: chemical, cellular, tissue,
organ, organ system, and organismal.
Chemical level of organization:
 The very basic level includes atoms, the smallest units of matter that participate in chemical
reactions, and molecules, two or more atoms joined together.
 Atoms, such as carbon (C), hydrogen (H), oxygen (O), nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), calcium
(Ca), and sulfur (S), are essential for maintaining life.
 These atoms join to form molecules like, O2, CO2, NO, H2O, NaCl, KCl, and organic
compounds like carbohydrates, fats, amino acids, proteins, nucleic acids, and cells.
Cellular level of organization:
 Molecules combine to form cells, the basic structural and functional units of an organism that
are composed of chemicals.
 Cells are the smallest independent units of living matter and there are trillions of them within
the body.
 They are too small to be seen with the naked eye, but when magnified using a microscope
different types can be distinguished by their size, shape and the dyes they absorb when stained
in the laboratory.
 Each cell type has become specialised, enabling it to carry out a particular function that
contributes to body needs.
 Each type of cell is made of chemicals and carries out specific chemical reactions.
Tissue level of organization:
 In complex organisms such as the human body, cells with similar structures and functions are
found together, forming tissues.
 Tissues are groups of cells and the materials surrounding them that work together to perform
a particular function.
 There are just four basic types of tissues in your body: epithelial tissue, connective tissue,
muscular tissue, and nervous tissue.
o Epithelial tissue covers body surfaces, lines hollow organs and cavities, and forms
glands.
o Connective tissue connects, supports, and protects body organs while distributing
blood vessels to other tissues.
o Muscular tissue contracts to make body parts move and generates heat.
o Nervous tissue carries information from one part of the body to another through nerve
impulses.
Organ level of organization:
 Organs are made up of a number of different types of tissue and have evolved to carry out a
specific function.
 Organs are structures that are composed of two or more different types of tissues; they have
specific functions and usually have recognizable shapes.
 Examples of organs are the stomach, skin, bones, heart, liver, lungs, and brain.
System level of organization:
 Systems consist of a number of organs and tissues that together contribute to one or more
survival needs of the body.

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 For example the stomach is one of several organs of the digestive system, which has its own
specific function.
 The human body has several systems, which work interdependently carrying out specific
functions. All are required for health.
Organismal level of organization:
 All of the organ systems make up an individual person.

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3. Structure of cell, its components and their function.

3.1. The Cell:
 All living organisms are made of cells and cell products.
 A cell is a complex arrangement of the chemicals.
 Cells are the smallest living subunits of a multicellular organism such as a human being.
 Human cells, however, must work together and function interdependently.
 Homeostasis depends upon the contributions of all of the different kinds of cells.
 Hence, cell is the structural and functional unit of the living organism.
 Different types of cells fulfil unique roles that support homeostasis and contribute to the many
functional capabilities of the human organism.
 Cell biology or cytology is the study of cellular structure and function.
3.2. Structure of the cell
 Human cells have several similar structural features: a cell membrane, a nucleus, and cytoplasm
and cell organelles.
 The plasma membrane forms the cell’s flexible outer surface, separating the cell’s internal
environment (everything inside the cell) from the external environment (everything outside the
cell).
 The cytoplasm consists of all the cellular contents between the plasma membrane and the
nucleus.
 This compartment has two components: cytosol and organelles. Cytosol, the fluid portion of
cytoplasm, contains water, dissolved solutes, and suspended particles. Within the cytosol are
several different types of organelles.
 Examples include the cytoskeleton, ribosomes, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi complex,
lysosomes, peroxisomes, and mitochondria.
 The nucleus is a large organelle that houses most of a cell’s DNA.
 Within the nucleus, each chromosome, a single molecule of DNA associated with several
proteins, contains thousands of hereditary units called genes that control most aspects of cellular
structure and function.

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PLASMA MEMBRANE
 The plasma membrane forms the cell’s flexible outer surface, separating the cell’s internal
environment (everything inside the cell) from the external environment (everything outside the
cell).
 It is a selective barrier that regulates the flow of materials into and out of a cell.
 The plasma membrane also plays a key role in communication among cells and between cells
and their external environment.
 The plasma membrane, a flexible yet sturdy barrier that surrounds and contains the cytoplasm of
a cell, is best described by using a structural model called the fluid mosaic model.
 The cell membrane is made of phospholipids, cholesterol, and proteins.

Structure of the Plasma Membrane:

 The basic structural framework of the plasma membrane is the lipid bilayer.
 It is made up of three types of lipid molecules—phospholipids, cholesterol, and glycolipids.
 About 75% of the membrane lipids are phospholipids, lipids that contain phosphorus.
 The bilayer arrangement occurs because the lipids are amphipathic molecules, which means that
they have both polar and nonpolar parts.
 The polar part is the phosphate-containing “head,” which is hydrophilic.
 The nonpolar parts are the two long fatty acid “tails,” which are hydrophobic hydrocarbon chains.
 The phospholipid bilayer is arranged like a sandwich with the hydrophilic heads aligned on the
outer surfaces of the membrane and the hydrophobic tails forming a central water-repelling layer.