and systemic physiology are subdivisions that

Human emphasize specific organizational levels.

Humans have many ways to maintain homeostasis,

Organism The state of relative stability of the body’s internal

environment. Disruptions to homeostasis often set in
motion corrective cycles, called feedback systems,
that help restore the conditions needed for health and
Anatomy is the scientific discipline that investigates
life.
the structure of the body. The word anatomy means to
dissect, or cut apart and separate, the parts of the body
for study. Anatomy covers a wide range of studies,
including the structure of body parts, their
microscopic organization, and the processes by which
they develop. In addition, anatomy examines the
relationship between the structure of a body part and
its function. For example, bones can provide strength
and support because bone cells secrete a hard,
mineralized substance. Understanding the relationship
between structure and function makes it easier to
understand and appreciate anatomy.

Two basic approaches to the study of anatomy are

systemic anatomy and regional anatomy. Systemic
anatomy is the study of the body by systems, such as
the cardiovascular, nervous, skeletal, and muscular
systems. It is the approach taken in this and most
introductory textbooks. Regional anatomy is the study
of the organization of the body by areas. Within each
region, such as the head, abdomen, or arm, all systems
are studied simultaneously. This is the approach taken
in most medical and dental schools.
Anatomists have two general ways to examine the
internal structures of a living person: surface
anatomy and anatomical imaging. Surface anatomy
is the study of external features, such as bony
projections, which serve as landmarks for locating
deeper structures. Anatomical imaging involves the
use of x-rays, ultrasound, magnetic resonance imaging
(MRI), and other technologies to create pictures of
internal structures. Both surface anatomy and
anatomical imaging provide important information for
diagnosing disease.
Physiology is the scientific discipline that deals with
the processes or functions of living things. It is
important in physiology to recognize structures as
dynamic rather than fixed and unchanging. The major
goals of physiology are
1. to understand and predict the body’s
responses to stimuli
2. to understand how the body maintains
conditions within a narrow range of values in
the presence of continually changing internal
and external environments.
Human physiology is the study of a specific
organism, the human, whereas cellular physiology
LEVELS OF STRUCTURAL ORGANIZATION
1. Chemical level - This very basic level can be
compared to the letters of the alphabet and
includes atoms, the smallest units of matter
that participate in chemical reactions, and
molecules, two or more atoms joined together.
The function of a molecule is intimately
related to its structure. For example, collagen
molecules are strong, ropelike fibers that give
skin structural strength and flexibility. With
old age, the structure of collagen changes, and
the skin becomes fragile and more easily torn.
2. Cellular Level - Molecules combine to form
cells, the basic structural and functional units
of an organism that are composed of
chemicals. Just as words are the smallest
elements of language that make sense, cells
are the smallest living
units in the human body. Molecules can
combine to form organelles which are the
small structures that make up some cells. For
example, the nucleus contains the cell’s
hereditary information, and mitochondria
manufacture adenosine triphosphate (ATP), a
molecule cells use for a source of energy.
3. Tissue Level - are groups of cells and the
materials surrounding them that work together
to perform a particular function, similar to the
way words are put together to form sentences.
There are just four basic types of tissues in
 your body: epithelial tissue, connective
tissue, muscular tissue, and nervous tissue.
 Epithelial tissue covers body surfaces,
lines hollow organs and cavities, and
forms glands.
 Connective tissue connects, supports,
and protects body organs while
distributing blood vessels to other
tissues.
 Muscular tissue contracts to make
body parts move and generates heat.
 Nervous tissue carries information
from one part of the body to another
through nerve impulses.
4. Organ level - At the organ level different
types of tissues are joined together. Similar to
the relationship between sentences and
paragraphs, organs are structures that are
composed of two or more different types of
tissues; they have specific functions and
usually have recognizable shapes. Examples
of organs are the stomach, skin, bones, heart,
liver, lungs, and brain. The stomach’s outer
covering is a layer of epithelial tissue and
connective tissue that reduces friction when
the stomach moves and rubs against other
organs. Underneath are three layers of a type
of muscular tissue called smooth muscle
tissue, which contracts to churn and mix food
and then push it into the next digestive organ,
the small intestine. The innermost lining is an
epithelial tissue layer that produces fluid and
chemicals responsible for digestion in the
stomach.
5. System level (Organ System) - A system (or
chapter in our language analogy) consists of
related organs (paragraphs) with a common
function. An example of the system level, also
called the organ system level, is the digestive
system, which breaks down and absorbs food.
Its organs include the mouth, salivary glands,
pharynx (throat), esophagus (food tube),
stomach, small intestine, large intestine, liver,
gallbladder, and pancreas. Sometimes an
organ is part of more than one system. The
pancreas, for example, is part of both the
digestive system and the hormone-producing
endocrine system.
6. Organismal level - Represents the highest
level of structural organization, the
organismal level. An organism (OR-ga-nizm),
any living individual, can be compared to a
book in our analogy. All the parts of the
human body functioning together constitute
the total organism
CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE
1. Organization - refers to the specific
interrelationships among the parts of an
organism and how those parts interact to
perform specific functions. Living things are
highly organized. All organisms are
composed of one or more cells. Some cells, in
turn, are composed of highly specialized
organelles, which depend on the precise
functions of large molecules. Disruption of
this organized state can result in loss of
function and death.
2. Metabolism - is the ability to use energy to
perform vital functions, such as growth,
movement, and reproduction. Plants capture
energy from sunlight, and humans obtain
energy from food. It includes breaking down
complex substances into simpler building
blocks (as in digestion), making larger
structures from smaller ones, and using
nutrients and oxygen to produce molecules of
adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the energy-
rich molecules that power cellular activities.
Metabolism depends on the digestive and
respiratory systems to make nutrients and
oxygen available to the blood and on the
cardiovascular system to distribute these
needed substances throughout the body.
Metabolism is regulated chiefly by hormones
secreted by the glands of the endocrine
system
3. Responsiveness - is the ability of an organism
to sense changes in the environment and make
the adjustments that help maintain its life.
Responses
include movement toward food or water and
away from danger or poor environmental
conditions. Organisms can also make
adjustments that maintain their internal
environment. For example, if body
temperature increases in a hot environment,
sweat glands produce sweat, which can lower
body temperature down to the normal level.
4. Growth - refers to an increase in size of all or
part of the organism. It can result from an
increase in cell number, cell size, or the
amount of substance surrounding cells. For
example, bones become larger as the number
of bone cells increases and they become
surrounded by bone matrix.
 5. Development - includes the changes an
organism undergoes through time; it begins
with fertilization and ends at death. The
greatest developmental changes occur before
birth, but many changes continue after birth,
and some continue throughout life.
Development usually involves growth, but it
also involves differentiation. Differentiation
is change in cell structure and function from
generalized to specialized. For example,

following fertilization, generalized cells

specialize to become specific cell types, such
as skin, bone, muscle, or nerve cells. These
differentiated cells form tissues and organs.

6. Reproduction - is the formation of new cells

or new organisms. Without reproduction of
cells, growth and tissue repair are impossible.
Without reproduction of the organism, the
species becomes extinct.

HOMEOSTASIS
Homeostasis is the existence and maintenance of a
relatively constant environment within the body
despite fluctuations in either the external environment
or the internal environment (condition of equilibrium
(balance) Most body cells are surrounded by a small
amount of fluid, and normal cell functions depend on
the maintenance of the cells’ fluid environment within
a narrow range of conditions, including temperature,
volume, and chemical content. These conditions are
called variables because their values can change. For
example, body temperature is a variable that can
increase in a hot environment or decrease in a cold
environment.
 HOMEOSTASIS AND BODY FLUIDS
An important aspect of homeostasis is maintaining the
volume and composition of body fluids, dilute, watery
solutions containing dissolved chemicals that are
found inside cells as well as surrounding them. The
fluid within cells is intracellular fluid (intra- inside),
abbreviated ICF. The fluid outside body cells is
extracellular fluid (extra - outside), abbreviated ECF.
The ECF that fills the narrow spaces between cells of
tissues is known as interstitial fluid (in-ter-STISH-al;
inter- between).
ECF within blood vessels is termed blood plasma,
within lymphatic vessels it is called lymph, in and
around the brain and spinal cord it is known as
cerebrospinal fluid, in joints it is referred to as
synovial fluid, and the ECF of the eyes is called
aqueous humor and vitreous body. The proper
functioning of body cells depends on precise
regulation of the composition of the interstitial fluid
surrounding them. Because of this, interstitial fluid is
often called the body’s internal environment. The
composition of interstitial fluid changes as substances
move back and forth between it and blood plasma.
Such exchange of materials occurs across the thin
walls of the smallest blood vessels in the body, the
blood capillaries. This movement in both directions
across capillary walls provides needed materials, such
as glucose, oxygen, ions, and so on, to tissue cells. It
also removes wastes, such as carbon dioxide, from
interstitial fluid.
CONTROL OF HOMEOSTASIS
Homeostasis in the human body is continually being
disturbed. Some disruptions come from the external
environment in the form of physical insults such as
the intense heat of a hot summer day or a lack of
enough oxygen for that two-mile run. Other
disruptions originate in the internal environment, such
as a blood glucose level that falls too low when you
skip breakfast. Homeostatic imbalances may also
occur due to psychological stresses in our social
environment— the demands of work and school, for
example. In most cases the disruption of homeostasis
is mild and temporary, and the responses of body cells
quickly restore balance in the internal environment.
However, in some cases the disruption of homeostasis
may be intense and prolonged, as in poisoning,
overexposure to temperature extremes, severe
infection, or major surgery.
Fortunately, the body has many regulating systems
that can usually bring the internal environment back
into balance. Most often, the nervous system and the
endocrine system, working together or independently,
provide the needed corrective measures. The nervous
system regulates homeostasis by sending electrical
signals known as nerve impulses (action potentials) to
organs that can counteract changes from the balanced
state. The endocrine system includes many glands that
secrete messenger molecules called hormones into the
blood. Nerve impulses typically cause rapid changes,
but hormones usually work more slowly. Both means
of regulation, however, work toward the same end,
usually through negative feedback systems.
FEEDBACK SYSTEMS
A feedback system or feedback loop is a cycle of
events in which the status of a body condition is
monitored, evaluated, changed, remonitored,
reevaluated, and so on. Each monitored variable, such
as body temperature, blood pressure, or blood glucose
level, is termed a controlled condition.
Any disruption that changes a controlled condition is
called a stimulus. A feedback system includes three
basic components: a receptor, a control center, and an
effector.
1. Receptor - is a body structure that monitors
changes in a controlled condition and sends
input to a control center. This pathway is
called an afferent pathway, since the
information flows toward the control center.
Typically, the input is in the form of nerve
impulses or chemical signals. For example,
certain nerve endings in the skin sense
temperature and can detect changes, such as a
dramatic drop in temperature
2. Control Center - example, the brain, sets the
range of values within which a controlled
condition should be maintained (set point),
evaluates the input it receives from receptors,
and generates output commands when they
are needed. Output from the control center
typically occurs a nerve impulse, or hormones
or other chemical signals. This pathway is
called an efferent pathway, since the
information flows away from the control
center. In our skin temperature example, the
brain acts as the control center, receiving
nerve impulses from the skin receptors and
generating nerve impulses as output.
3. Effector - is a body structure that receives
output from the control center and produces a
response or effect that changes the controlled
condition. Nearly every organ or tissue in the
body can behave as an effector. When your
body temperature drops sharply, your brain
(control center) sends nerve impulses
TERMINOLOGY AND BODY PLAN
 BODY PARTS AND REGIONS

Health professionals use a number of terms when referring to different regions or parts of the body.

The central region of the body consists of the head, neck, and trunk. The trunk can be divided into the thorax (chest),
abdomen (region between the thorax and pelvis), and pelvis (the inferior end of the trunk associated with the hips).
The upper limb is divided into the arm, forearm, wrist, and hand. The arm extends from the shoulder to the elbow,
and the forearm extends from the elbow to the wrist. The lower limb is divided into the thigh, leg, ankle, and foot.
The thigh extends from the hip to the knee, and the leg extends from the knee to the ankle. Note that, contrary to
popular usage, the terms arm and leg refer to only a part of the respective limb. The abdomen is often subdivided
superficially into four sections, or quadrants, by two imaginary lines—one horizontal and one vertical—that intersect
at the navel. The quadrants formed are the right-upper, left-upper, right-lower, and left-lower quadrants. In addition
to these quadrants, the abdomen is sometimes subdivided into regions by four imaginary lines—two horizontal and
two verticals. These four lines create an imaginary tic-tac-toe figure on the abdomen, resulting in nine regions:
epigastric right and left hypochondriac.

EPIGASTRIC PAIN
Wilby Hurtt has pain in the epigastric region which is most noticeable following meals and at night when he is lying
in bed. He probably has gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD), in which stomach acid improperly moves into the
esophagus, damaging and irritating its lining. Epigastric pain, however, can have many causes and should be
evaluated by a physician. For example, gallstones, stomach or small intestine ulcers, inflammation of the pancreas,
and heart disease can also cause epigastric pain.

SUBDIVISIONS OF THE ABDOMEN

TRUNK CAVITIES

Mediastinum - is a partition containing the heart, the thymus, the trachea, the esophagus, and other structures. The
two lungs are located on each side of the mediastinum.

Abdominal Cavity - is bounded primarily by the abdominal muscles and contains the stomach, the intestines, the
liver, the spleen, the pancreas, and the kidneys.

Pelvic Cavity - is a small space enclosed by the bones of the pelvis and contains the urinary bladder, part of the large
intestine, and the internal reproductive organs. The abdominal and pelvic cavities are not physically separated and
sometimes are called the abdominopelvic cavity.

SEROUS MEMBRANES
Serous membranes line the trunk cavities and cover the
organs of these cavities. To understand the relationship
between serous membranes and an organ, imagine pushing
your fist into an inflated balloon. The inner balloon wall in
contact with your fist (organ) represents the visceral serous
membrane, and the outer part of the balloon wall represents
the parietal serous membrane. The cavity, or space,
between the visceral and parietal serous membranes is
normally filled with a thin, lubricating film of serous fluid
produced by the membranes. As an organ rubs against
another organ or against the body wall, the serous fluid and
smooth serous membranes reduce friction. The thoracic
cavity contains three serous membrane-lined cavities: a
pericardial cavity and two pleural cavities. The pericardial
cavity surrounds the heart. The visceral pericardium covers
the heart, which is contained within a connective tissue sac
lined with the parietal pericardium. The pericardial cavity,
which contains pericardial fluid, is located between the
visceral pericardium and the parietal pericardium.

A pleural cavity surrounds each lung, which is covered by

visceral pleura. Parietal pleura lines the inner surface of the
thoracic wall, the lateral surfaces of the mediastinum, and
the superior surface of the diaphragm. The pleural cavity is
located between the visceral pleura and the parietal pleura
and contains pleural fluid. The abdominopelvic cavity
contains a serous membrane-lined cavity called the
peritoneal cavity. Visceral peritoneum covers many of the
organs of the abdominopelvic cavity. Parietal peritoneum
lines the wall of the abdominopelvic cavity and the inferior
surface of the diaphragm. The peritoneal cavity is located
between the visceral peritoneum and the parietal
peritoneum and contains peritoneal fluid. The serous
membranes can become inflamed—usually as a result of an
infection. Pericarditis is inflammation of the pericardium,
pleurisy is inflammation of the pleura, and peritonitis is
inflammation of the peritoneum.
 Integumentary
System
The integumentary system consists of the skin, hair,
glands, and nails.
Functions of the Integumentary System
The integumentary system consists of the skin, hair,
glands, and nails. The integumentary system protects
us from the external environment. Other functions
include sensation, vitamin D production, temperature
regulation, and excretion of small amounts of waste
products.
Skin
Epidermis
1. The epidermis is stratified squamous
epithelium divided into strata.
• New cells are produced in the stratum basale
• The stratum corneum consists of many
layers of dead squamous cells containing
keratin. The most superficial layers are
sloughed.
2. Keratinization - is the transformation of
stratum basale cells into stratum corneum
cells.
• Structural strength results from keratin
inside the cells and from desmosomes, which
hold the cells together
• Lipids surrounding the stratum corneum
cells help prevent fluid loss.
Dermis
1. The dermis is dense connective tissue.
2. Collagen and elastic fibers provide structural
strength, and the blood vessels of the papillae
supply the epidermis with nutrients.
Skin Color
1. Melanocytes produce melanin, which is
responsible for different skin colors. Melanin
production is determined genetically but can
be modified by exposure to ultraviolet light
and by hormones.
2. Carotene, a plant pigment ingested as a source
of vitamin A, can cause the skin to appear
yellowish.
3. Increased blood flow produces a red skin
color, whereas decreased blood flow causes a
pale skin color. Decreased blood O2 results in
the blue skin color of cyanosis. 4. Scattering
of light by collagen produces a bluish color.
Subcutaneous Tissue
1. The subcutaneous tissue, which is not part of
the skin, is loose connective tissue that
attaches the skin to underlying tissues.
2. About half of the body’s lipids are stored in
the subcutaneous tissue.
Accessory Skin Structures
Hair
1. Hairs are columns of dead, keratinized
epithelial cells. Each hair consists of a shaft
(above the skin), a root (below the skin), and
a hair bulb (site of hair cell formation).
2. Hairs have a growth phase and a resting
phase.
3. Contraction of the arrector pili, which are
smooth muscles, causes hair to “stand on end”
and produces a “goose bump.”
Glands
1. Sebaceous glands produce sebum, which oils
the hair and the surface of the skin.
2. Eccrine sweat glands produce sweat, which
cools the body.
3. Apocrine sweat glands produce an organic
secretion that causes body odor when broken
down by bacteria.
Nails
1. The nail consists of the nail body and the nail
root.
2. The nail matrix produces the nail, which is
composed of stratum corneum cells
containing hard keratin
Physiology of the Integumentary System
Protection
The skin reduces water loss, prevents the entry of
microorganisms, and provides protection against
abrasion and ultraviolet light; hair and nails also
perform protective functions.
Sensation
The skin contains sensory receptors for pain, heat, Basale stem cells undergo cell
cold, and pressure. division to produce new
keratinocytes; melanocytes
Vitamin D Production and Merkel cells
associated with Merkel
discs are scattered among
1. Ultraviolet light stimulates the production of a keratinocytes
precursor molecule in the skin that is Eight to ten rows of many-
modified by the liver and kidneys into vitamin sided keratinocytes with
D. bundles of keratin
intermediate filaments;
2. Vitamin D increases calcium uptake in the
Spinosum contains armlike processes
small intestine. of melanocytes and
Langerhans cells
Temperature Regulation Three to five rows of
Granulosum flattened keratinocytes, in
1. Through dilation and constriction of blood which organelles are
vessels, the skin controls heat loss from the beginning to degenerate;
cells contain the protein
body.
keratohyalin (converts
2. Evaporation of sweat cools the body. keratin intermediate
filaments into keratin) and
Excretion lamellar granules (release
lipid-rich, water-repellent
Skin glands remove small amounts of waste products secretion)
but are not important in excretion. Present only in skin of
fingertips, palms, and
Integumentary System as a Diagnostic Aid Lucidum soles; consists of four to
six rows of clear, flat, dead
The integumentary system is easily observed and keratinocytes with large
amounts of keratin.
often reflects events occurring in other parts of the Twenty-five to thirty rows
body (e.g., cyanosis, jaundice, rashes). Corneum of dead, flat keratinocytes
that contain mostly keratin.
Burns

1. Partial-thickness burns damage only the

epidermis (first-degree burn) or the epidermis
and the dermis (second-degree burn).
2. Full-thickness burns (third-degree burns)
destroy the epidermis, the dermis, and usually
underlying tissues.

Skin Cancer

1. Basal cell carcinoma involves the cells of the

stratum basale and is readily treatable.
2. Squamous cell carcinoma involves the cells
immediately superficial to the stratum basale
and can metastasize.
3. Malignant melanoma involves melanocytes,
can metastasize, and is often fatal

Effects of Aging on the Integumentary System

1. Blood flow to the skin is reduced, the skin

becomes thinner, and elasticity is lost.
2. Sweat and sebaceous glands are less active,
and the number of melanocytes decreases.

STRATUM DESCRIPTION
Deepest layer, composed
of single row of cuboidal
or columnar keratinocytes
that contain scattered
keratin intermediate
filaments (tonofilaments);