Class Group: S38

Lab Group’s No: Group 1

CENTER OF FOUNDATION STUDIES

UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MARA (UiTM)
FOUNDATION IN BIOLOGY II (BIO095)

Experiment 4:

Cardiovascular Physiology and Blood Agglutination

Date of Submission: 22 May 2023

Prepared for: Madam Nur Syakireen Binti Ishak

No. Name Student ID

1. ALIEFAH MAISARAH BINTI ANWAR 2022886088

2. IRDINA NURHADIRAH BINTI IZRUL 2022623616

3. MUHAMMAD HARITH HAIKAL BIN MOHD FAISAL 2022621008

4. NUR FATIN NADHIRA BINTI MD NORIZAN 2022623084

5. NUR SYAZWANI BINTI AHMAD AZIROE 2022623546

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INTRODUCTION

The cardiovascular system is a system that ensures enough oxygen to flow from the heart to all
parts of the body by using blood as a medium of transport through the blood vessels. The
cardiovascular system consists of organs such a heart, arteries, veins, and capillaries. Heart that is
made up from cardiac muscles and tissue serves as a pump to transport blood into pulmonary and
systemic circulations. Heart is being protected by pericardium which is a double-walled protective
sac. Blood vessels which consist of veins, arteries, and capillaries are used to regulate the amount of
blood flow that enters specific parts of the body. Arteries transport oxygenated blood from the heart
to every region of the body. Arteries have thick muscular walls with more elastic fibres and smooth
muscles to withstand the high pressures and velocity where the blood receive from the heart. Veins
transport deoxygenated blood towards the heart from the body tissues. Vein has valves to prevent
back flow of low-pressure blood and larger lumen with less smooth muscles and elastic. Capillaries
are connections between arterioles and venules. Capillaries have a large cross-sectional area to ensure
the exchange of materials with the cell occurs.

Blood pressure is the pressure of the blood against the wall of a blood vessel. Blood pressure is
the main force driving blood from the heart to the capillaries to ensure the oxygen and the nutrients
reach the tissue and the organ through the arteries and to help carry the toxic waste in the body
through liver and kidney. The highest reading of blood pressure is in the aorta and other arteries.
While the lowest blood pressure reading is in veins and venules. The presence of valves in the vein to
keep the blood moving only toward the heart. The pulse of heartbeat can be read by using the fingers
especially where the artery is near to the skin surface. The types of arteries that can be felt is divided
into three which are the carotid artery located on either side of the trachea of the neck, the brachial
artery located in the upper arm and the radial artery located at the outer border of the palm side of a
wrist. Blood pressure is divided into two which are systolic pressure and diastolic pressure. Systolic
pressure is the pressure in the arteries during ventricular systole which is the highest pressure in the
arteries. Diastolic pressure is the pressure in the arteries during diastole which is the lowest reading

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of the systolic pressure. The reading of blood pressure is by looking at systolic pressure then diastolic
pressure where the normal reading should be around 120/70 mmHg.

Blood consists of 55% of plasma and 45% of cellular elements such as white blood cells,
platelets and erythrocytes (red blood cells). Red blood cells are the most abundant blood cells that
formed in bone marrow. Red blood cell's main function is to transport oxygen to the tissue and organ.
Red blood cells determine the blood type of an individual. Blood type is divided into four which are
A,B,O and AB. The antigen is similar with the blood type except for blood type O where they don’t
have any antigens in their blood. The blood type O is known as universal donor because of no
antigens in the blood while blood type AB is known as universal recipient. Blood agglutination is a
process where red blood cell is clumping together with an antibody and reduced to a visible pellet
when centrifuged. The blood will agglutinate if the antigens in the patient's blood match the
antibodies in the test tube.

OBJECTIVE

1. Human model and prepared slides

• To study the structure and function of the cardiovascular system.

2. Measurement of blood pressure and heart rate

• To measure blood pressure and heart rate at rest.

• To investigate the effect of exercise towards the blood pressure and heart rate.

3. Blood pressure

• To observe blood agglutination in human blood.

• To determine the different types of the blood group.

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4.1 Human Model and Prepared Slides

MATERIALS AND APPARATUS

Human heart model, prepared slide of artery and veins, prepared slide of smear of blood and light
microscope.

PROCEDURE

1. The structures of the human heart were observed, drawn, and labelled.
2. The prepared slides were observed by using a light microscope.
3. Artery and veins were drawn at 400 X magnification. The structures of artery and vein from
the observed slide were identified and labelled.
4. Tunica interna, tunica media, tunica externa and lumen for structure artery and vein were
labelled.
5. The differences between the structure of artery and vein were observed and discussed.
6. The different blood cells in the smear of blood from the observed slide were identified and
labelled.
7. The smear of blood was drawn at 400 X magnification. At least three types of blood cells
were identified, labelled accordingly and discussed.

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4.2 Measurement of Blood Pressure and Heart Rate

MATERIALS AND APPARATUS

Three (3) subjects, stopwatch, stethoscope and sphygmomanometer.

PROCEDURE

4.2.1 Resting Blood Pressure and Heart Rate

Part I: Measuring Blood Pressure

1. The subject sat and relaxed comfortably five minutes prior to measurement with one arm
extended on a table. The arm was fully supported on a flat surface at heart level to obtain
consistent measurement of blood pressure.
2. The inflatable cuff of sphygmomanometer was placed and wrapped over the bare upper arm
with the artery mark positioned directly over the brachial artery.
3. The stethoscope diaphragm was positioned over the antecubital space below the cuff,
underneath the artery mark of the cuff.
4. The valve was closed by turning thumbscrew clockwise on the inflation bulb.
5. The cuff was inflated by squeezing the inflation bulb to about 160-180 mmHg.
6. The cuff was slowly deflated by loosening the thumbscrew on the inflation bulb at a rate of 2-
3 mmHg per second.
7. The systolic pressure was measured when the first Korotkoff sound was heard.
8. The systolic pressure was recorded.
9. The cuff continued to deflate until the disappearance of the sounds and recorded as diastolic
pressure. Steps from 4-9 were repeated to get the second reading.
10. The remaining air in the cuff was released and the cuff was removed.
11. The procedure was repeated for another two subjects.

Part II: Measuring Heart Rate

1. The artery in the wrist was found.

2. The tips of the first two fingers of one hand were placed on the palm side of the wrist.
3. The tips of the fingers were pressed firmly to feel the pulse.
4. The pulse was counted for 15 seconds. The pulse was recorded.
5. The amount of pulse was multiplied by four to get heart rate in beats per minute.
6. The same procedure was repeated twice.
7. The procedure was replicated for another two subjects.

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 8. Their heart rates were recorded, and the mean values were calculated.

4.2.2 Blood Pressure and Heart Rate After Exercise

1. The subject engaged in a physical activity for 2-5 minutes.

2. The blood pressure and heart rate was immediately measured following the steps in
experiment 4.2.1.
3. The data were recorded.
4. The results of blood pressure and heart rate before and after were compared for all three
subjects.

4.3 Blood Agglutination

MATERIALS AND APPARATUS

Human blood, Monoclonal antibodies (Anti-A and Anti-B) kit, alcohol pads, blood lancet,
toothpicks, ice, ice box, water palette, biohazard disposal container

PROCEDURE

1. The Monoclonal Antibody kit was placed in an ice box.

2. An alcohol pad was opened and wiped on a subject’s fingertip.
3. A blood lancet was uncovered and placed at the tip of the finger. The blood lancet was
pressed, and the fingertip was pricked.
4. Two drops of blood were placed in separate walls of a water colour palette.
5. A cotton ball was placed at the site where it was pricked. The area was pressed by using the
thumb to stop blood flow.
6. Anti-A serum was quickly dropped with a dropper on the first drop of blood. The serum’s
bottle was placed back in ice.
7. Anti-B serum was quickly dropped with a dropper on the second drop of blood. The serum’s
bottle was placed back in ice.
8. Toothpicks were used to mix the contents in each well. The toothpicks were discarded after
using them.
9. The results were observed, and their observation was recorded.

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RESULT AND ANALYSIS

4.1 Human Model and Prepared Slides

I. Human Model

Figure 1: Structure of Human Heart

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Figure 2: A closeup look of structure of right atrium.

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II. Prepared Slides

Figure 3: Artery and Veins (400x magnification)

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Figure 4: Smear of blood (400x magnification)

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 4.2 Measurement of Blood Pressure and Heart Rate

Table 1: Result of measurement of blood pressure and heart rate of three subjects before and after
exercise.
Subjects Blood Pressure at Blood Pressure after Heart Rate at rest Heart Rate after exercise
rest (mmHg) exercise (mmHg) (beats per minute) (beats per minute)

Student A 110/70 130/80 80 120

Student B 110/70 130/70 80 132
Student C 106/70 110/80 96 140

4.3 Blood Agglutination

Table 2: Result of observation on different types of blood groups.

Subjects Anti-A Anti-B Blood type

Student A O

Does not agglutinate Does not agglutinate

Student B B

Agglutinate Does not agglutinate

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Student C O

Does not agglutinate Does not agglutinate

Student D A

Does not agglutinate Agglutinate

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DISCUSSION

4.1.1 Human Model and Prepared Slides

Based on Figure 1, the human heart is located behind the sternum in the thoracic cavity and
can be found between the two lungs. Connective tissue, endothelium, and cardiac muscle make up
the heart wall. The cardiac muscle permits the heart to contract and allows the heartbeat to be
synchronised. The heart wall is made up of three layers: the epicardium, the myocardium, and the
endocardium. The human heart consists of four (4) chambers.There are two upper chambers called
right atrium and left atrium. The atria receive blood either form the body or from the pulmonary
system. The two atria have thin walls as it acts as collection chambers and only pump blood in a short
distance to ventricles. Two other chambers are lower chambers called right ventricle and left
ventricle. The ventricles play part in pumping blood to the lungs and other parts of the body. The two
ventricles have thick walls as it has to peoduce high pressure to be able to pump blood throughout the
body. Valves are so importsnt to prevent backflow and to keep blod moving in one direction. In
between each atrium and ventricle, valves called Atrioventricular valve is present, where on the right
side it is named as tricuspid valve and on the left side it is called bicuspid valve. The other valve
which shapes like half-moon are located at the two exits of the heart, are called the semilunar valves.

The heart is one of the major components of the circulatory system,where the blood is
circulating through the body using blood vessels as channel. The three main types of blood vessels
are arteries, capillaries and veins. Arteries are the blood vessels that distribute oxygen-rich blood to
other parts of the body where the wall of arteries can constrict and dilate. Arteries has a small lumen,
no valve and a thich musclular wall so that it can withstand the pressure of blood pumping at high
pressure. Cappilaries form the connections between arterioles and venules, thus it cannot constrict
and is the smallest blood vessels. Cappilaries have cappilaries bed which have large cross-sectional
area to make the exchange of materials is more efficient.Veins carry poor-oxygen blood back
towards the heart and has a large lumen.Veins has valves to prevent back flow of low-pressure blood
and it also has thinner wall as blood flows under low pressure. As shown in Figure 3, the blood
vessels consist of three tunics or layer, which are tunica intima, tunica media and tunica externa.
Tunica intima is the innermost layer of blood vessels that composed of endothelium wrapped by a
thin layer of basal lamina which function to minimise resistance of blood flow. Tunica media is a
middle muscular and elastic layer consists of smooth muscles and elastic fibres. Smooth muscles
allow vessels to constrict and dilate while elastic fibres allow blood vessesls to stretch and recoil. The
last and outer layer is called tunica exterma that consist of collagen which makes the wall of blood
vessels strong and durable and connective tissues.

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 Figure 4 shows a smear of blood at 400x magnification under a light microscope. Blood
transports gases, nutrients, waste, cells and hormones throughout the body. Blood can be separated
into two components which 55% of blood consists of plasma and the rest 55% is cellular elements.
Constituents of plasma include water, ions, plasma proteins and substances transported by blood.
Cellular elements have 3 different types of cell namedly white blood cells or leukocytes, platelets and
red blood cells or erythrocytes. White blood cells are part of immune system, which help to fight
infections. They are larger than erythrocytes and have nuclei. There are two types of leukocytes
which are granular leukocytes and agranular leukocytes. The key difference between them is that
granular leukocytes have granules in the cytoplasm while agranular leukocytes lack of granules in the
cytoplasm. Platelets are small, colorless cell in blood that form clots to stop or prevent bleeding.
They do not have nuclei and live for about 10 days. Erythrocytes in the other hand are the most
abundant blood cells which function as transportation of oxygen. It is formed in the bone marrow and
circulated in blood for 3-4 months and get broken down in the liver to make other proteins.
Erythrocytes shaped like a small biconcave disk, where the center of it is thinner than at the edges
which increase the surface area, at the same increase rhe rate of diffusion of oxygen. Erythrocytes are
also lack of nuclei and mitochondria.

4.2 Measurement of Blood Pressure and Heart Rate

In this experiment, we managed to obtain the measurements of blood pressure and heart rate
of the three participants before and after exercising. The blood pressure of the participants can be
measured by sphygmomanometer where the arm was placed and wrapped over the upper bare arm
and a stethoscope was used to listen to Korotkoff sound. Each participant shows high spike in blood
pressure after exercising. This is because when the participant is exercising, the muscle contracts and
relaxes rapidly, which causes the oxygen-rich blood to be pump to the muscles. The blood filled with
oxygen is pump starting with pulmonary circuit, where right ventricle will pump oxygen-poor blood
to the two lungs through pulmonary arteries.The blood then will be loaded with oxygen and unload
the carbon dioxide when it flows through capillaries beds in lungs. The blood filled with oxygen will
returns to left atrium via pulmonary veins and flow into left ventricle. In systemic circuit, blood will
leave via aorta to arteries throughtout the body, where the muscle tissues used for exercising receive
the oxygen. The circulation of blood during exercise causes the heart to contracts and relaxes more
than usual, where the systolic and diastolic pressure rises.

For the measurement of the heart rate, it can be obtained by placing two fingers on the palm of
the wrist where the radial artery is located, to count the pulse for 15 seconds. According to Table 1,
all participants’ heart rate increases after exercising. This is because of the cardiac cycle, reffered as
the alternating contractions and relaxations of the heart in one complete heartbeat. There are two
phase in cardiac cycle which are systole or contraction phase and diastole or relaxation phase. One
complete cardiac cycle takes about 0.8 second at average heart rate of 72 beats per minutes. The three

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stages in cardiac cycle, the first one is atrial and ventricular diastole that takes about 0.4 seconds
where it happens during relaxation phase when atria and ventricle muscle relax causing the pressure
to be low and the blood returning from vena cavae flows into atria then into ventricles through aortic
valves (AV). In this stage the AV is open while the semilunar valves (SV) is close. The second stage
that takes about 0.1 second to finish is called atrial systole;ventricular diastole, which the atria
contracts and the ventricle relax.The contraction of atria forces all the remaining blood in the atria to
flow into ventricles through AV, where in this stage the AV is open, and the SV is close. The last
stage is known as ventricular systole;atrial diastole which takes about 0.3 seconds. The ventricles will
contracts causing the blood is pumped into aorta and thr pulmonary arteries through SV and the atria
is relaxed and filling up with blood returing via veins.In this stage, AV is close and and SV is
open.Therefore, during exercise, the blood pressure spikes up where the systolic pressure and
diastolic pressure increase, causing the frequent increase in contraction and relaxation of the
heart.This will cause the heart rate to also increase.

4.3 Blood Agglutination

For this experiment, we managed to observe the blood agglutination and obtained the
subjects’ type of blood. We started out this experiment with placing two drops of blood in separate
walls, dropping anti-A serum on the first drop of blood and anti-B serum on the second drop of the
blood. Antibodies in the blood will react with the corresponding antigens causing visible clumps to
form where the blood cells stick together, as shown in Table 2. This test is called ABO typing, where
we can determine the blood type; A, B, AB, and O. Based on Table 2, blood sample from Student A
shows no agglutination for both Anti-A and Anti-B serum, which determined that the student’s blood
type is O as O blood consist of anti-A and anti-B antibodies. For Student B, the sample blood shows
agglutination when anti-A serum was dropped, making their blood type to be B. Type B blood
contains antigen A, hence it will make the blood cells stick to each other. As for Student C, no
agglutination in both blood sample which conclude the blood type is O. Student D’s blood sample
shows agglutination on Anti-B serum. This shows the blood type of student D is A as the antibodies
in the blood react with antigen B.

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CONLCUSION

We were able to locate our radial artery, which we could utilize to check our pulse. We
discovered that when the subjects completed the exercise, their heart rates increased because their
hearts required pumping more blood so that oxygen could diffuse into the cell body faster and be
used in cell respiration. During this experiment, we discovered that everyone's heart rate is different,
and that when we exercise intensively, our heart rate rises.

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REFERENCES

MyHealth.Alberta.ca. (2019). Alberta.ca.

https://myhealth.alberta.ca/

Health Engine (2006 June 26), Cardiovascular system (heart) anatomy, Retrieved.

https://healthengine.com.au/info/cardiovascular-system-heart#:~:text=The%20cardiovas
cular%20syst em%20can%20be,are%20like%20the%20delivery%20routes

Solomon, E, at al (2018) Biology (11th ed), Cengage Learning

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