ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
BS NURSING 1ST YEAR
Anatomy
- deals w/ the body structures & the
relationship among them.
- also called Morphology, science of
form
- derived from Greek words cut
(tomy/tome) apart (ana); ana-up;
and tome – a cutting & literal
definition is to dissect or “I dissect”
Functional Anatomy – description of the
anatomy of a body part accompanied by an
explanation of its function, emphasizing the
structural characteristics
Branches of Anatomy
 Gross anatomy – body structures
that can be examined by the naked
eye; also known as Macroscopic
Anatomy.
- Systemic anatomy: specific
systems of the body.
- Regional anatomy: specific
regions of the body.
- Surface anatomy: surface
markings of the body to
understand internal anatomy.
 Microscopic anatomy – also known
as Histology, study of structures that
are so small and can only be seen
with a microscope.
- Cytology: study of cells.
- Histology: study of tissues.
 Developmental anatomy – study of
the changes that occur in the body.
- Embryology (formative
stages): how body structures
form and develop before
birth.
- Genetics (heredity): study of
genes, genetic variation and
heredity in organisms.
 Comparative anatomy – study of
similarities and differences in the
anatomy of different species.
 Pathological anatomy – structural
changes in cells, tissues and organs
caused by disease. Pathology –
study of disease.
 Radiographic anatomy – study of
internal body structures; X-rays and
other forms of radiation.
 Functional morphology – study that
explores the functional properties of
body structures and assesses the
efficiency of their design.
Physiology
- how the body parts function.
- Physio = nature; ology = the study
of.
Levels of Organization in the Human
Body
1. Chemical level – atoms (C, H, O, N, P)
smallest unit of matter atoms combine to
form molecules (DNA)
2. Cellular level – molecules form organelles
such as nucleus & mitochondria which
makes up cells.
3. Tissue level – group of two or more cells
& surrounding materials make up tissues.
Epithelial, connective, muscular & nervous.
4. Organ level – compose of 2 or more
different types of tissue performing specific
function for the body.
5. Organ system level – group of organs
that together perform a common function.
6. Organism level – any living thing, human,
all the parts of a human body functioning
together constitute the total organism.
Organ Systems of the Human Body
a. Integumentary system – forms the
external body covering; protects deeper
tissue from injury; synthesizes vitamin D;
location of cutaneous (pain, pressure, etc.)
receptors and sweat and oil glands.
b. Skeletal system – protects and supports
body organs; provides a framework the
muscles use to cause movement; blood
cells are formed within bones; stores
minerals.
c. Muscular System – allows manipulation
of the environment, locomotion, and facial
expression; maintains posture; produces
heat.
d. Nervous System – fast-acting control
system of the body; responds to internal
and external changes by activating
appropriate muscles and glands.
e. Endocrine System – glands secrete
hormones that regulate processes such as
growth, reproduction, and nutrient use by
body cells.
f. Cardiovascular System – blood vessels
transport blood, which carries oxygen,
carbon dioxide, nutrients, wastes, etc.; the
heart pumps blood.
g. Lymphatic System – picks up fluid leaked
from blood vessels and returns it to blood;
disposes of debris in the lymphatic stream;
house white blood cells (lymphocytes)
involved immunity.
h. Respiratory System – keeps blood
constantly supplied with oxygen and
removes carbon dioxide; the gaseous
exchanges occur through the walls of the air
sacs of the lungs.
i. Digestive System – breaks down food into
absorbable units that enter the blood for
distribution to body cells; indigestible
foodstuffs are eliminated as feces.
j. Urinary System – eliminates nitrogenous
wastes from the body; regulates water,
electrolyte and acid-base balance of the
blood.
k. Reproductive System- overall function is
production of offspring.
- Male reproductive system: testes
produce sperm and male sex
hormone; ducts and glands aid in
delivery of viable sperm to the
female reproductive tract.
- Female reproductive system: ovaries
produce eggs and female sex
hormones; remaining structures
serve as sites for fertilization and
development of fetus. Mammary
glands of female breast produce milk
to nourish the newborn.
Necessary Life Functions
 Maintaining Boundaries: maintain its
inside remains distinct from its
outside. Every cell is surrounded by
an external membrane that contains
its contents and allows needed
substances in, while preventing
entry of potentially damaging or
unnecessary substances.
 Movement: includes all the activities
promoted by the muscular system,
such as propelling from one place to
another and manipulating the
external environment. Movement
also occurs when substances such
as blood, foodstuffs, and urine are
propelled through the internal organs
of the cardiovascular, digestive, and
urinary systems, respectively.
 Responsiveness or irritability: is the
ability to sense changes (stimuli) in
 the environment then react to them
because nerve cells are highly
irritable and can communicate
rapidly with each other via electrical
impulses, which the nervous system
bears the major responsibility for
responsiveness; however, all body
cells are irritable to some extent.
 Digestion: is the process of breaking
down ingested food into simple
molecules that can be absorbed into
the blood.
 Metabolism: refers to all chemical
reactions that occurs within body
cells, includes breaking down of
complex substances into simpler
building blocks, making larger
structures from smaller ones, and
using nutrients and oxygen to
produce molecules of adenosine
triphosphate (ATP)-the energy-rich
molecules that power cellular
activities. Metabolism is regulated
chiefly by hormones secreted by the
glands of the endocrine system.
 Excretion: is the process of
removing excreta or wastes, from
the body. Getting rid of the non-
useful substances produced during
digestion and metabolism.
 Reproduction: the production of
offspring, it can occur on the cellular
or organismal level. In cellular
reproduction, the original cell
divides, producing two identical
daughter cells that may be used for
body growth and repair, while
reproduction of the human organism
produces offspring when a sperm
and eggs unites, a fertilized eggs
forms, which develops into a baby
within the female’s body.
 Growth: is an increase in size
accompanied by an increase in the
number of cells Hormones released
by the endocrine system play a
major role in directing growth.
Survival Needs of the Human Body
 Nutrients – the body takes in through
food, contain the chemicals used for
energy and cell building.
• Carbohydrates: major
energy-providing fuel for
body cells.
• Proteins and, to a lesser
extent, fats: essential for
building cell structures.
• Minerals and vitamins
are: required for chemical
reactions that go on in
cells and for oxygen
transport in the blood.
 Oxygen – all nutrients are useless
unless oxygen is available because
the chemical reactions that release
energy from foods require oxygen,
human cells can survive for only a
few minutes without it.
 Water – accounts for 60 to 80
percent of body weight, the most
abundant chemical substance in the
body and provides the fluid base for
body secretions and excretions.
 Normal body temperature – must be
maintained if chemical reactions are
to continue at life sustaining levels.
When body temperature drops
below 37 degree Celsius (98-degree
Fahrenheit), metabolic reactions
become slower and slower and
finally stop and when body
temperature is too high, chemical
reactions proceed too rapidly, and
body proteins begin to break down
and at either extreme, death occurs.
Body heat is mostly generated by
the activity of the skeletal muscles.
 Atmospheric pressure – is the
force exerted on the surface of the
body by the weight of air.
 Homeostasis
 describes the body’s ability to
maintain relatively stable internal
conditions despite the continuously
changing of the outside world.
 literal translation of homeostasis is
“unchanging” (homeo = the same;
statis = standing still), the term does
not really mean an unchanging state
instead it indicates a dynamic state
of equilibrium or a balance in which
internal conditions change and vary
but always within relatively narrow
limits.
 Homeostasis allows the organs of
the body to function effectively in a
broad range of condition.
 The internal environment includes
the tissue fluid that bathes the cells;
homeostasis involves keeping
various cells conditions within
normal limits. Characteristics that
are controlled include:
o Temperature: at 36.5 degree
Celsius
o Blood Glucose: 4-8mmol/L
o pH of the Blood: at 7.4
Homeostatic Control Mechanisms 3
Components
First component: Receptor – essentially it is
some type of sensor that monitors and
responds to such changes called stimuli by
sending information (input) to the second
element, the control center.
Second component: Control center –
determines the level (set point) at which a
variable is to be maintained, analyzes the
information it receives and then determines
the appropriate response or course of
action. The output could occur as nerve
impulses or hormones or other chemical
signals.
Third component: Effector – provides the
means for the control center’s response
(output) to the stimulus. The results of the
response then feedback to influence the
stimulus, either by depressing it (Negative
feedback), so that the whole control
mechanism is shut off; or by enhancing it
(Positive feedback), so that the reaction
continues at an even faster rate. Most
homeostatic control mechanisms are
Negative Feedback Mechanisms.
Feedback Mechanisms
 It is a loop system wherein the
system responds to a perturbation
either in the same direction (positive
feedback) or in the opposite
(negative feedback).
 Homeostatic Imbalance: can be
regarded as a result of disturbances
in the homeostasis manifested
through disease; results from failure
to maintain internal balance.
 There are 2 feedback mechanisms:
Negative Feedback Mechanisms – shut
off/negates the original stimulus; reduces its
intensity resulting in the inhibition or slowing
down of process. It responds to the
perturbation in the opposite direction as the
perturbation, as opposed in the same
direction as the perturbation. A negative
feedback is a self-regulatory system in
which it feed back to the input a part of a
system’s output as to reverse the direction
of change of the output. The process
reduces the output of a system in order to
stabilize or re- establish internal equilibrium
(e.g., changes in the environment-sudden
change in body temperature).
Positive Feedback Mechanisms – are rare
because they tend to increase the original
stimulus (disturbance), enhances the
variable farther from its original value and
typically these mechanisms control
infrequent events that occur explosively and
do not require continuous adjustments. It
tends to initiate or accelerate a biological
process, the original perturbation signal is
amplified, and the output can grow
exponentially or even hyperbolically (e.g.,
Normal Childbirth Delivery – onset of
contractions; during process of blood
clotting).
Process of Feedback Mechanisms
 Variable (in Homeostasis) – there is
a particular set point that is
considered insignificant is called
normal range.
 Stimulus – provided by the variable
that is being regulated; indicates the
value of the variable produces
change or has moved away from the
set point (normal range) in variable
(imbalance).
 Receptor (sensor) – detects
change (internal and external
environment); monitors the
values of the variable and
sends data on it to the control
 center.
 Control Center – matches the
data with normal range (values)
and sends signal to the effector.
 Input – information sent along
afferent pathway to control center
 Output – information sent along
efferent pathway to effector.
Anatomical Position
The “anatomical map” is looking at the
human body from a standard starting point
and diagrams of the anatomical position
portrays the body in an:
 upright, standing position, facing the
observer
 face and feet pointing/directing
forward
 arms at the side
 forearms fully supinated
 palms facing forward, thumbs
pointing outward
Directional Terms
a. Anterior (ventral): toward or the front
of the body; in front of, ventral
direction
b. Posterior (dorsal): towards or at the
backside of the body; behind, dorsal
direction
c. Superior (cranial or cephalad);
towards the head end or upper part
of a structure or closer to the head,
or the body above
d. Inferior (caudal): away from the head
end or towards the lower part of a
structure or the body; below
e. Medial: towards or at the midline of
the body; on the inner side of
f. Lateral: away from the body midline
of the body, towards the outer side
of
g. Proximal: near the point of
attachment, towards the body; close
to the origin or the point of
attachment of a limb to the body
trunk
h. Distal: away from the attached end;
farther from the origin of a body part
or the point of attachment of a limb
to the body trunk
i. Superficial (external): towards or
near the surface, external
j. Deep (internal): towards the inside,
more internal; away from the surface
k. Intermediate: between a more
medial and a more lateral structure
l. Cephalic: towards or at the head
m. Caudal: near the tail
n. Vertebral: relating to the backbone
o. Thoracic: involving thorax or chest
p. Lumbar: lower back
q. Axial: skull, vertebral column,
thoracic cage
r. Appendicular: extremities, limbs &
girdles
s. Brachial: arm, upper arm
t. Ipsilateral: same side of the body.
u. Contralateral: opposite side of the
body.
 Anterior Body Landmarks 6. Occipital: posterior surface of head
or base of skull
7. Olecranon: posterior surface of
1. Abdominal: anterior body trunk elbow
inferior to ribs 8. Plantar: sole of the foot (inferior
2. Acromial: point of shoulder body surface)
3. Antebrachial: forearm 9. Popliteal: posterior knee area
4. Antecubital: anterior surface of 10. Sacral: area between hips
elbow 11. Scapular: shoulder blade region
5. Axillary: armpit 12. Sural: posterior surface of leg; calf
6. Brachial: arm 13. Vertebral: area of spinal column
7. Buccal: cheek area
8. Carpal: wrist
9. Cervical: neck region
10. Coxal: hip
11. Crural: leg
12. Deltoid: curve of shoulder formed by
large deltoid muscle
13. Digital: fingers, toes
14. Femoral: thigh
15. Fibular: lateral part of leg
16. Frontal: forehead
17. Inguinal: area where thigh meets
body trunk; groin
18. Mental: chin
19. Nasal: nose area
20. Oral: mouth
21. Orbital: eye area
22. Patellar: anterior knee
23. Pelvic: area overlying the pelvis Body Planes & Sections
anteriorly
24. Pubic: genital region
25. Sternal: breastbone area – cut into sections along a flat surface
26. Tarsal: ankle region called a plane.
27. Thoracic: chest – Anatomical variability-is the normal
28. Umbilical: navel flexibility in the topography and
morphology of body structures.
Posterior Body Landmarks a) Frontal (coronal): lies vertically (runs
parallel to the long axis of the body)
and divides the body into dorsal and
1. Calcaneal: heel of foot ventral (back and front, or posterior
2. Cephalic: head and anterior) portions/parts.
3. Femoral: thigh b) Sagittal: (also runs parallel to the
4. Gluteal: buttock long axis of the body) divides the
5. Lumbar: area of back between ribs body into right and left
and hips, the loin portions/parts.
 c) Median (midsagittal): divides the
body into right and left, in equal
portions/parts by cutting/passing
through the midline structures.
d) Parasagittal: vertical plane that is off
the center and divides the body into
right and left, in unequal
portions/parts.
e) Transverse (horizontal): runs
horizontally (runs perpendicular to
the long axis of the body) from right
to left dividing the body into superior
and inferior portions/parts.
f) Oblique: any type of cutting
sections/angle except vertical and
horizontal angle.
The Human Body
• Humans are vertebrates and
share basic features
– Tube-within-a-tube
– Bilateral symmetry
– Dorsal hollow nerve cord
– Notochord and vertebrae
– Segmentation
– Pharyngeal pouches
Body Cavities
• Protects internal organs.
Two Major Body Cavities:
Dorsal Body Cavity – nervous system
1. Cranial Cavity: in the skull, encases
the brain.
2. Vertebral/Spinal Cavity: encloses the
delicate spinal cord.
Ventral Body Cavity – internal organs called
viscera.
1. Thoracic Cavity: surrounded by the
ribs & muscles of the chest.
• Pleural cavity – enveloping
the lung.
• Mediastinum – surrounds
esophagus, trachea
• Pericardial cavity – encloses
the heart.
2. Abdominopelvic Cavity: consists of
the abdominal cavity and pelvic
cavity; it is surrounded by the
abdominal walls and pelvic girdle
• Abdominal cavity – the space
occupied by the ventral
internal organs’ inferior to the
diaphragm and superior to
the pelvic cavity (stomach,
intestines, spleen, liver).
• Pelvic cavity – the space
occupied by the ventral
internal organs that are
bordered by the bones of the
pelvic girdle (urinary bladder,
rectum, some reproductive
organs).
Membranes in the Ventral Body Cavity
Serous membrane – a thin, double layered
membrane.
• Parietal serous membrane/layer –
outer wall of a body cavity.
• Visceral serous membrane/layer –
covers & adheres to the viscera
within the cavities.
• Serous fluid/serosal fluid –
lubricating fluid, allows the viscera to
move.
Heart
• Pericardium/pericardial serous
membrane
• Parietal pericardium
• Pericardial space w/ serous fluid
• Visceral pericardium
Lungs
• Pleural/pleura serous membrane
 • Parietal pleura
• Pleural space
• Visceral pleura
Abdominopelvic
• Peritoneal/peritoneum serous
membrane
• Parietal peritoneum
• Peritoneum space
• Visceral peritoneum
• Some organs are not surrounded by
the peritoneum; instead they are
posterior to it.
• Retroperitoneal – kidneys, adrenal
glands, pancreas, duodenum of
small intestine, ascending &
descending colons of large intestine
• Mesenteries – parts of the
peritoneum that hold the abdominal
organs in place & provide a
passageway for blood vessels &
nerve to the organs.
Abdominal Regions & Quadrants
 The Regions of the abdomen are
theoretical divisions used by
clinicians to help localize, identify
and diagnose a symptom, there are
two main forms of categorization:
dividing the abdomen into four
quadrants, and divides it into nine
segments (regions).
 Four region scheme principle:
vertical line through line alba
(median plane) crosses horizontal
line through the umbilicus (trans
umbilical plane)
 4 Quadrants
- Right upper quadrant
- Left upper quadrant
- Right lower quadrant
- Left lower quadrant
Body parts or organs found/contain in each
quadrant in craniocaudal orders:
a) Right Upper Quadrant:
o the right lobe of the liver
o the gallbladder
o the pylorus of the stomach
o the 3 first parts of the duodenum
o the head of the pancreas
o the right kidney and the right
suprarenal gland
o the distal ascending colon
o the hepatic flexure of the colon
o the right half of the transverse colon
b) Right Lower Quadrant:
o the majority of the ileum
o the cecum and vermiform appendix
o the proximal ascending colon
o the proximal right ureter
c) Left Upper Quadrant:
o the left lobe of the liver
o the spleen
o the jejunum
o the proximal ileum
o the body and the tail of the pancreas
o the left kidney and the left
suprarenal gland
o the left half of the transverse colon
o the splenic flexure of the colon
o the superior part of the descending
colon
d) Left Lower Quadrant:
 o the distal descending colon
o the sigmoid colon
o the left ureter
e) Depending on the sex of the
individual, both the right and left
lower quadrants contain either:
o an ovary
o a uterine tube
o a ductus deferens
o the uterus
o the urinary bladder
 Nine Region scheme principle: two
vertical midclavicular lines (left and
right) cross two horizontal: subcostal
(through lower edge of 10th costal
cartilage) and trans tubular (through
tubercles of the iliac crest)
 9 Abdominal regions
- Right and Left Hypochondriac
Regions
- Epigastric Regions
- Right and Left Lumbar Regions
- Umbilical Regions
- Right and Left Iliac Regions
- Hypogastric Regions
o the stomach
o the top of the left lobe of the liver
o the left kidney
o the spleen
o the tail of the pancreas
o parts of the small intestine
o the transverse colon
o the descending colon
b) Right Hypochondriac Region:
o the liver
o the gallbladder
o the small intestine
o the ascending colon
o the transverse colon
o the right kidney
c) Epigastric Region:
o the esophagus
o the stomach
o the liver
o the spleen
o the pancreas
o the right and left kidneys
o the right and left ureters
o the right and left suprarenal glands
o the small intestine
o the transverse colon
d) Left Lumbar Region:
o a portion of the small intestine
o a part of the descending colon
o a tip of the left kidney

Right Lumbar Region:

o the tip of the liver
o the gallbladder
o the small intestine
o the ascending colon
o the right kidney
e) Umbilical Region:
o the stomach
Body parts or organs found/contain in
each region in craniocaudally from left to o the pancreas
right orders: o the small intestine
o the transverse colon
a) Left Hypochondriac Region: o the right and left kidneys
o the right and left ureters
o the cisterna chyli
f) Left Inguinal/iliac Region:
o part of the small intestine
o the descending colon
o the sigmoid colon
o the left ovary and the left fallopian
tube in females
g) Right Inguinal/Iliac Region:
o the small intestine
o the appendix
o the cecum
o the ascending colon
o the right ovary and right fallopian
tube in females
h) Hypogastric Region:
o the small intestine
o the sigmoid colon
o the rectum
o the urinary bladder
o the right and left ureters
o the uterus, the right and left ovaries
and the fallopian tubes can be found
in females
o the vas deferens, the seminal
vesicle and the prostate can be
found in males

Cells/Cytology