ANAPHY REVIEWER
Cardiovascular physiology – deals with the
Introduction
● Human Anatomy – study of normal structures
of the human body
Oxygen – provides energy to metabolic
activities.
● Human Physiology – study of normal
functions of the human body
Anatomy
A. Gross/Macroscopic Anatomy – without aid
of microscopes,
-Systemic Anatomy – study by systems
e.g cardiovascular, nervous, respiratory
- SURFACE ANATOMY – external
features-Regional Anatomy – regions
-Anatomical imaging – x-ray, MRI, CT
scan, ultrasound
B. Microscopic Anatomy
-Cysology – cells
-Histology – tissues
C. Embryology – study of development of fetus
from conception to birth
D. Neuroanatomy – study of nervous system
Developmental anatomy – studies the
structural changes that occur between
conception to adulthood.
Anatomical anomalies – physical
characteristics that differ from the normal pattern.
-Blue baby syndrome – certain blood vessels
arising from an infant’s heart are not attached on
their correct locations
Physiology
A. Cell Physiology – examines process in cells
B. Systemic Physiology – functions of organ
systems
C. Neurophysiology – focuses on the nervous
system
D.
heart and blood vessels
Pathology – medical science dealing with all the
aspects of disease, with an emphasis on the
cause and development of abnormal conditions
Exercise physiology – focuses on the changes in
function and structure caused by exercise
Chemical level - involves interaction between
atoms
Cells – basic unit of life
Organelles – small structures that make up
cells
ATP (adenosine triphosphate) – molecule
cells use for energy
Tissue – composed of a group similar cells and
the materials surrounding them.
Organ – composed of two or more tissue types
that perform one r more common functions.
Organ system – group of organs that together
perform a common function
Organism – any living thing that is considered
as whole
Characterisitics of Life
A. Organization – refers to the specific
interrelationships among the parts of an
organism and how those part interact to
perform specific functions
B. Metabolism – chemical reactions taking
place in an organism.
-abitlity to use energy to perform vital
functions such as growth, movement
and reproduction.
C. Responsiveness – organism’s ability to
sense changes in its external or internal
environment and adjust to those
changes
HOMEOSTASIS – maintenance of balance
of the body to the environment
 Variables – values which can
change e.g.
 body temperature
 Constant – organ systems; cannot
change
When at a cold environment – blood vessels
constrict to conserve body heat
When at a hot environment – blood vessels
dilate to disitate body heat
D. Growth – increase in size of all parts of
organism.
E. Development – changes an organism
undergoes through time
Differentiation – change in cell structure
and function from generalized to
specialized
Morphogenesis – change in the shape
of tissues, organs and the entire
organism.
F. Reproduction – formation of new cells or
organisms
SYSTEMS OF THE BODY
A. Integumentary System – provides protection,
regulates temperature, prevents water loss, and
helps produce vitamin D.
Organs present: skin, hair, nails, sweat glands
B. Skeletal System – Provides protection and
support, allows body movements, produces
blood cells, and stores minerals and fat.
Organs present: bones, associated cartilages,
ligaments, and joints.
C. Muscular system – produces body
movements, maintains posture, and produces
body heat.
Organs present: muscles
D. Lymphatic system – removes foreign
substances from the blood and lymph, combats
disease, maintain tissue fluid balance, and
absorbs fats from the digestive tract.
Organs present: lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes
E. Respiratory system – exchanges oxygen
and carbon dioxide between the blood pH.
Organs present: lungs, respiratory passages
F. Digestive system – mechanical and
chemical processes of digestion, absorption of
nutrients, elimination of wastes
Organs present: mouth, esophagus,stomach,
intestines, and accessory organs
G. Nervous system – major regulatory system
that detects sensations and controls movements,
physiological processes and intellectual
functions
Organs present: brain, spinal cord, nerves,
sensory receptors.
H. Endocrine system – major regulatory
system that influence metabolism, growth,
reproduction
Organs present: glands, pituitary that secrete
hormones
I. Cardiovascular system – transports nutrients,
waste products, gases, and hormones
throughout the body; plays a role in the immune
response and the regulation of body
temperature.
Organs present: heart, blood vessels, and blood
J. Urinary System – removes waste products
from the blood and regulates blood Ph, ion
balance, and water balance
Organs present: kidneys, urinary bladder, and
ducts that carry urine
K. Female Reproductive System – produces
oocytes and is the site of fertilization and fetal
development; produces milk for the newborn;
produces hormones that influence sexual
function and behaviors
Organs present: ovaries vagina uterus,
mammary glands, associated structures
L. Male Reproductive System- produces and
transfers sperm cells to the female and
produces hormones that influence sexual
functions and behaviors.
Organs present: testes, accessory structures,
ducts, and penis
NECESSARY LIFE FUNCTIONS Special terminology is used to

 Maintaining boundaries - Boundaries avoid misunderstanding

separate the “inside” from the “outside” Exact terms are used for:

 Movements – Locomotion, Movement of o Position

substances. o Direction

 Responsiveness - Ability to sense changes o Regions

and
o Structures
react
 Digestion - Breakdown and absorption of
ANATOMICAL POSITION
nutrients.
- Standard body position to avoid
 Metabolism - chemical reactions within the
confusion
Body
- Terminology refers to this position
 Excretion - Eliminates excreta (waste) from
regardless of actual body position
metabolic reactions; Wastes may be removed
- Stand erect, feet parallel, arms
in urine, feces, or sweat
hanging at the sides with palms
 Reproduction - Occurs on cellular level or
facing forward and thumbs pointing
organismal level.
away from the body
 Growth - Increases cell size or body size
(through increasing the number of cells)
DIRECTIONAL TERMS – explain location
of one body structure in relation to another
SURVIVAL NEEDS
- Superior (cranial or cephalic)
 Nutrients - Chemicals used for energy and
cell o Toward the head or upper part of a structure of
the body; above
building.
 Oxygen - Required for chemical reactions;
- Inferior (caudal)
respiratory and cardiovascular systems.
o Away from the head or toward the lower part
 Water - 60 to 80 percent of body weight. of a structure of the body; below
Most
abundant chemical in the human body.
- Anterior (ventral)
 Normal body temp. – 35 ºC - 37ºC (98.6ºF)
o Toward or at the front of the body; in front of
 Atmospheric pressure - appropriate for gas
exchange
- Posterior (dorsal)
o Toward or at the backside of the body; behind
THE LANGUAGE OF ANATOMY
 - Medial  Mental
o Toward or at the midline of the body; on the o Cervical (Neck)
inner side of
o Thoracic (Chest)

 Sternal
- Lateral
 Axillary
o Away from the midline of the body; on the
outer side of  Pectoral

o Abdominal
- Intermediate  Umbilical
o Between a more medial and a more lateral o Pelvic
structure
 Inguinal (Groin)

o Pubic (genital)
- Proximal
o Close to the origin of the body part or point of o Upper limb

attachment to a limb to the body trunk  Acromial (Shoulder)

 Deltoid

- Distal  Brachial (Arm)

o Farther from the origin of a body part or the  Antebrachial (Forearm)

point of attachment of a limb to the body trunk
 Antecubital (Elbow)

 Carpal (Wrist)
- Superficial (external)
o Manus
o Toward or at the body surface
 Digital

o Lower limb
- Deep (internal)
 Coxal (Hip)
o Away from the body surface; more internal
 Femoral (Thigh)

 Patellar (Knee)
REGIONAL TERMS
 Crural (Leg)
 Anterior/Ventral body landmarks
 Fibular
o Cephalic
o Pedal (Foot)
 Frontal
 Tarsal (Ankle)
 Orbital
 Digital
 Nasal
 Posterior/Dorsal body landmarks
 Buccal
o Cephalic
 Oral
 Occipital (back of head)
o Cervical BODY CAVITIES

o Back (dorsal) DORSAL BODY CAVITY

 Scapular - Cranial - Houses the brain; Protected by the

skull
 Vertebral
- Spinal - Houses the spinal cord; Protected by
 Lumbar the vertebrae
 Sacral VENTRAL BODY CAVITY
 Gluteal - Thoracic - Cavity superior to the diaphragm.
o Upper limb Houses heart, lungs, and other organs.
 Acromial (Shoulder) Protected by the rib cage.
 Brachial (Arm)
- Abdominopelvic - Cavity inferior to the
 Olecranal (Elbow)
diaphragm. contains the stomach, liver, and
 Antebrachial (Forearm)
other organs
o Manus (Hand)

 Digital
“Abdominopelvic cavity subdivisions”
o Lower limb
- Four quadrants
 Femoral (Thigh)

 Popliteal (Knee)

 Sural (Calf)

 Fibular

o Pedal (Foot)

 Calcaneal

 Plantar

BODY PLANES- Sections are cuts along

- Nine Regions
imaginary lines known as planes.
 Sagittal section - Divides left and right
parts.
 Median/Midsagittal section – divides
equal
left and right parts.
 Frontal/coronal – divides anterior and
posterior parts.
 Transverse/cross – divides into superior
and inferior parts
 Other body cavities include: o Information flows from control center to
effector along efferent pathway
o Oral and digestive cavities
FEEDBACK MECHANISMS
o Nasal cavity
Positive feedback
o Orbital cavities
o Rare in the human body

o Increases the original stimulus to push the

o Middle ear cavities
variable further

o Reaction occurs at a faster rate

HOMEOSTASIS
o In the body, positive feedback occurs in blood
- maintenance of relatively stable internal
conditions clotting and during the birth of a baby

o A dynamic state of equilibrium, or balance Negative Feedback

o Necessary for normal body functioning and to o Includes most homeostatic control
sustain life mechanisms

o Shuts off the original stimulus or reduces its

Main controlling systems: intensity

o Nervous system o Works like a household thermostat

o Endocrine system CELL AND TISSUES

 Homeostatic imbalance CELL PHYSIOLOGY

o A disturbance in homeostasis result in disease  Cell Environment

MAINTAINING HOMEOSTASIS o 60% is made of water

All homeostatic control mechanisms have at o 40% intracellular fluid (ICF)

least three components: receptor, control center, o 20% extracellular fluid
and effector
(ECF)
Receptor
- 5% plasma
o Respond to changes in the environment
(stimuli) - 15% interstitial fluid

o Sends information to control center along and

afferent pathway
 Electrolytes
Control Center
o ICF
o Determines set point o Analyzes information
 Potassium
o Determines appropriate response
 Magnesium
Effector
 Phosphates
o Provides a means for response to the stimulus
 Sulfates
 Proteins and organic  Enzymes

anion  Markers

o ECF  Adhesions

 Sodium  Pumps

 Chloride

 Bicarbonate  Cytoplasm

 Calcium o Inner environment of the cell

o Fluid (Cytosol)

 Cation – positively charged ions

 Anion – negatively charged ions  Nucleus

 Most abundant extracellular cation o Contains the genetic material

= SODIUM o It directs the cell activity

 Most abundant intracellular anion =

POTASSIUM ORGANELLES

 Most abundant extracellular cation  Mitochondria “powerhouse of the

= POTASSIUM cell”

 Most abundant intracellular anion =  Endoplasmic reticulum (smooth

ORGANIC ANION and rough)

o Rough ER – creates

PARTS OF THE CELL protein field vesicles;

CELL MEMBRANE ribosomes

 Plasma Membrane o Smooth ER – responsible for lipid

synthesis; detoxification of the cell
 Outer covering of the cell
 Golgi Apparatus – packages and
 Characteristcs: modifies protein filled vesicles sent by
o Bilipid layer rough ER; lysosome production

o Amphipathic in nature  Lysosomes – “cell scavenger,”

“demolition site,” “suicidal bag.” Digest
(Hydrophilic head and Hydrophobic tail) unwanted substances such as bacteria and
worn out cells.
o Semipermeable membrane
 Peroxisomes – detoxification of free
o PROTEINS (RICEMAP)
radicals and harmful substances
 Receptors
 Cytoskeleton – framework of the cell.
 Ion channels Supports the cytoplasm. Forms cilia,
flagella, centriole and spindle fibers
 Carriers
 o Cilia – responsible for the movement
around the cell. Responsible for the movement
over the surface of the cell o Chromosomes are split- away or separated

o Flagella – responsible for the  Telophase

movement of sperm o Final
o Centrioles – center of microtubule o Final stage
formation
o Cleavage furrow
o Spindle fibers/Mitotic
o Re-appearance of nuclear
spindle – assist in the separation of
chromosomes during cell division envelope and nucleus

PROCESS OF CELL DIVISION CELL TRANSPORT MECHANISM

 Mitosis  Vesicular transport

o Body cells o Exocytosis – expulsion of cell content

o Growth and tissue repair o Endocytosis – ingestion of particles

o 46 single parent cell - Phagocytosis – cell-eating, ingestion of

large and solid particles, bacteria
o Undergoes cell division
- Pinocytosis – cell- drinking, ingestion of
once small or liquid particles
o DIPLOID  Diffusion
 Meiosis o Simple Diffusion – spontaneous movement of
o Sex cells/Gametes molecules from higher to lower areas of
concentration. Factors that increases the rate
o For reproduction of diffusion:

o Twice cell division  Higher temperature

o HAPLOID  Smaller molecules

PHASES OF CELL DIVISION  Increase partition rate (liquid solubility)

 Prophase o Facilitated Diffusion

o Nucleus and nuclear envelope disappear - Carrier mediated – uses carrier protein.
Glucose and amino acids.
o Centrioles move to opposite poles
- Channel mediated (voltage, ligand gated)
o Chromosomes are paired
 Osmosis – spontaneous movement of
 Metaphase water from a higher concentration and
o Midline or equidistant spontaneous movement of solvents from
lower to higher areas of concentration
o Chromosomes are aligned in the middle by
microtubules  Primary active transport

 Anaphase BODY TISSUES

o Away
 Group of cells with similar structure and o Functions in absorption, secretion, and
function filtration

 Four primary types: o Very thin (so not suited for protection)

o Epithelial tissue  Simple squamous epithelium

o Connective tissue o Single layer of flat cells

o Muscle tissue o Locations—usually forms membranes

o Nervous tissue  Lines air sacs of the lungs

EPITHILEAL TISSUE  Forms walls of capillaries

 Locations:  Forms serous membranes (serosae) that

line and cover organs in ventral cavity
o Body coverings
o Functions in diffusion, filtration, or secretion in
o Body linings membranes
o Glandular tissue  Simple cuboidal epithelium
 Functions: o Single layer of cubelike cells
o Protection o Locations
o Absorption  Common in glands and their ducts
o Filtration  Forms walls of kidney tubules
o Secretion  Covers the surface of ovaries
 Hallmarks of epithelial tissues: o Functions in secretion and absorption; ciliated
o Cover and line body surfaces types propel mucus or reproductive cells

o Often form sheets with one free surface, the
apical surface, and an anchored surface, the
basement membrane
o Avascular (no blood supply)
o Regenerate easily if well nourished
 Classification of epithelia
o Number of cell layers
Simple—one layer
 Simple columnar epithelium
o Single layer of tall cells
 Goblet cells secrete mucus
o Locations
 Lining of the digestive tract from stomach to
anus
 Mucous membranes (mucosae) line body
cavities opening to the exterior

Stratified—more than one layer o Functions in secretion and absorption; ciliated

o Shape of cells
 Squamous— flattened, like fish scales
 Cuboidal—cube- shaped, like dice
 Columnar—shaped like columns
 Simple epithelia
types propel mucus or reproductive cells
 Pseudostratified columnar epithelium
o All cells rest on a basement membrane
o Single layer, but some cells are shorter than
others giving a false (pseudo) impression of
stratification
o Location: respiratory tract, where it is ciliated o One or more cells responsible for secreting a
and known as pseudostratified ciliated
columnar epithelium particular product

o Functions in absorption or secretion o Secretions contain protein molecules in an

aqueous (water-based) fluid
 Stratified epithelia
o Secretion is an active process
o Consist of two or more cell layers
 Two major gland types develop
o Function primarily in protection
from epithelial sheets
 Stratified squamous epithelium
o Endocrine glands
o Most common stratified epithelium
 Ductless; secretions (hormones) diffuse into
o Named for cells present at the free (apical) blood vessels
surface, which are squamous
 Examples include thyroid, adrenals, and
o Functions as a protective covering where pituitary
friction is common
o Exocrine glands
o Locations—lining of the:
 Secretions empty through ducts to the
 Skin (outer portion) epithelial surface

 Mouth  Include sweat and oil glands, liver, and

pancreas (both internal and external)
 Esophagus
CONNECTIVE TISSUE
 Stratified cuboidal epithelium — two
layers of cuboidal cells; functions in  Found everywhere in the body to connect
protection body parts

 Stratified columnar epithelium —  Includes the most abundant and widely

surface cells are columnar, and cells distributed tissues
underneath vary in size and shape;
functions in protection  Functions

 Stratified cuboidal and columnar o Protection

o Rare in human body o Support

o Found mainly in ducts of large glands o Binding

 Transitional epithelium  Characteristics of connective tissue

o Composed of modified stratified squamous o Variations in blood supply

epithelium  Some tissue types are well vascularized
o Shape of cells depends upon the amount of  Some have a poor blood supply or are
stretching avascular

o Functions in stretching and the ability to return o Extracellular matrix

to normal shape  Nonliving material that surrounds living cells
o Location: lining of urinary system organs  Two main elements of the
 Glandular epithelia extracellular matrix
o Ground substance — mostly water, along with
adhesion proteins and polysaccharide molecules
o Fibers
 Collagen (white) fibers
 Elastic (yellow) fibers
 Reticular fibers (a type of collagen)
 Types of connective tissue from most
rigid to softest, or most fluid:
o Bone
o Cartilage
o Dense connective tissue
o Loose connective tissue
o Blood
 Bone (osseous tissue)
o Composed of:
 Osteocytes (bone cells) sitting in lacunae
(cavities)
 Hard matrix of calcium salts
 Large numbers of collagen fibers
o Functions to protect and support the body
 Cartilage
o Less hard and more flexible than bone
o Found in only a few places in the body
o Chondrocyte (cartilage cell) is the major cell
type
o Types
 Hyaline cartilage
 Fibro cartilage
 Elastic cartilage
 Hyaline cartilage
o Most widespread type of cartilage
o Abundant collagen fibers hidden by a glassy,
rubbery matrix
o Locations
 Trachea
 Attaches ribs to the breastbone
 Covers ends of long bones
 Entire fetal skeleton prior to birth
 Epiphyseal (growth) plates in long bones
 Elastic cartilage (not pictured)
o Provides elasticity
o Location: supports the external ear
 Fibrocartilage
o Highly compressible
o Location: forms cushionlike discs between
vertebrae of the spinal column
 Dense connective tissue (dense fibrous
tissue)
o Main matrix element is collagen fiber
o Fibroblasts are cells that make fibers
o Locations
 Tendons—attach skeletal muscle to bone
 Ligaments—attach bone to bone at joints
and are more elastic than tendons
 Dermis—lower layers of the skin
 Loose connective tissue
o Softer, have more cells and fewer fibers than
other connective tissues (except blood)
o Types
 Areolar
 Adipose
 Reticular
 Areolar connective tissue
o Most widely distributed connective tissue
o Soft, pliable tissue like “cobwebs”
o Functions as a universal packing tissue and
“glue” to hold organs in place
o Layer of areolar tissue called lamina propria
underlies all membranes
o All fiber types form a loose network
o Can soak up excess fluid (causes edema)
 Adipose connective tissue
o An areolar tissue in which adipose (fat) cells
dominate
o Functions
Insulates the body
Protects some organs
Serves as a site of fuel storage
o Locations
Subcutaneous tissue beneath the
skin
Protects organs, such as the kidneys
Fat “depots” include hips, breasts, and belly
 Reticular connective tissue
o Delicate network of interwoven fibers with
reticular cells (like fibroblasts)
o Forms stroma (internal framework) of organs
o Locations
Lymph nodes
Spleen
Bone marrow
 Blood (vascular tissue)
o Blood cells surrounded by fluid matrix known
as blood plasma
o Soluble fibers are visible only during clotting
o Functions as the transport vehicle for the
cardiovascular system, carrying:
 Nutrients
 Wastes
 Respiratory gases
MUSCLE TISSUE
 Function is to contract, or shorten, to
produce movement
 Three types of muscle tissue
o Skeletal
o Cardiac
o Smooth
 Skeletal muscle tissue
o Packaged by connective tissue sheets into
skeletal muscles, which are attached to the
skeleton and pull on bones or skin
o Voluntarily (consciously) controlled
o Produces gross body movements or facial
expressions
o Characteristics of skeletal muscle cells
 Striations (stripes)
 Multinucleate (more than one nucleus)
 Long, cylindrical shape
 Cardiac muscle tissue
o Involuntarily controlled
o Found only in the heart
o Pumps blood through blood vessels
o Characteristics of cardiac muscle cells
 Striations
 One nucleus per cell
 Short, branching cells
 Intercalated discs contain gap junctions
to connect cells together
 Smooth (visceral) muscle tissue
o Involuntarily controlled
o Found in walls of hollow organs such as
stomach, uterus, and blood vessels
o Peristalsis, a wavelike activity, is a typical
activity
o Characteristics of smooth muscle cells
 No visible striations
 One nucleus per cell
 Spindle-shaped cells
NERVOUS TISSUE
 Function is to receive and conduct
electrochemical impulses to and from body
parts
o Irritability
o Conductivity
 Composed of neurons and nerve support
cells
o Support cells called neuroglia insulate, protect,
and support neurons
TISSUE REPAIR (WOUND HEALING)
 Tissue repair (wound healing) occurs in
two ways:
o Regeneration
- Replacement of destroyed tissue by the
same kind of cells
o Fibrosis
- Repair by dense (fibrous) connective tissue
(scar tissue)
 Whether regeneration or fibrosis occurs
depends on:
o Type of tissue damaged
o Severity of the injury
 Clean cuts (incisions) heal more
successfully than ragged tears of the tissue
 Events of tissue repair
o Inflammation sets the stage
- Capillaries become very permeable
- Clotting proteins migrate into the area from
the bloodstream
- A clot walls off the injured area
o Granulation tissue forms
 Growth of new capillaries
 Phagocytes dispose of blood clot and
fibroblasts
 Rebuild collagen fibers
o Regeneration and fibrosis effect permanent
repair
 Scab detaches
 Whether scar is visible or invisible
depends on severity of wound
 Tissues that regenerate easily
o Epithelial tissue (skin and mucous membranes)
o Fibrous connective tissues and bone
 Tissues that regenerate poorly
o Skeletal muscle
 Tissues that are replaced largely with
scar tissue
o Cardiac muscle
o Nervous tissue within the brain and spinal cord
SKIN AND BODY MEMBRANES
BODY MEMBRANES
1. Epithelial Membranes
o Epithelial membranes are simple organs
o Also called covering and lining membranes
o These membranes contain:
 Epithelial tissue layer
 Connective tissue layer
 Cutaneous membrane = skin
o Dry membrane
o Outermost protective boundary
o Construction
 Epidermis is composed of keratinized
stratified squamous epithelium
 Dermis is mostly dense (fibrous) o Aids in hemostasis
connective tissue
o Temperature regulation
 Mucous membranes (mucosae)
o Elimination
o Moist membranes
o Synthesis of Vitamin D
o Line all body cavities that open to the exterior
body surface o Oil production

o Adapted for absorption or secretion o Cosmesis

o Construction 3 LAYERS OF THE SKIN

 Epithelium type depends on site  Epidermis

 Loose connective tissue (lamina propria) o Outermost layer of the skin

 Serous membranes (serosae) o 5 layers/strata:

o Line open body cavities that are closed to the  Stratum Corneum
exterior of the body - Water proof characteristic
o Occur in pairs, separated by serous fluid, with - Protection against infection
a visceral and parietal layer
 Stratum Lucidum
o Construction
- Located on palms and soles
 Simple squamous epithelium
 Stratum Granulosum
 Areolar connective tissue
- Water retention and heat regulation
2. Connective Tissue Membranes
 Stratum Spinosum
 Synovial Membrane
- Protects the basale
o Loose areolar connective tissue only (no
epithelial tissue)  Stratum Basale /Germinativum

o Line fibrous capsules surrounding joints - Contains melanocytes

 Line bursae - Epidermal regeneration

 Line tendon sheaths  Dermis

o Secrete a lubricating fluid to cushion organs o “corium”

moving against each other during muscle activity
o “true skin”
THE INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
o 20-30 times thicker that the epidermis
 SKIN - Largest organ, 15-20% of body
o 2 layers:
weight.
 Papillary Layer
 Functions of the skin:
- Fingerprints
o Protection
- Footprints
o Insulation
 Reticular Layer
o Receptors in the dermis
 - Contains free nerve endings, blood vessels,
sebaceous glands & sweat gland.
- Has elastin and collagen.
 Subcutaneous Tissue
o Produced by hair follicle
o Root is enclosed in the follicle
o Shaft projects from the surface of the scalp or
skin

o “Hypodermis” o Consists of hard keratinized epithelial cells

o Contains fats and loose connective tissues o Melanocytes provide pigment for hair color

o Functions: o Hair grows in the matrix of the hair bulb in

stratum basale
 Support
o Has 3 concentric layers
 Insulation
known as:
 Cushion
 Cuticle
 Storage of energy.
 Cortex
SKIN COLOR
 Medulla
 Three pigments contribute to skin
color o 2 types:

o Melanin - Terminal hair- course, thick, pigmented.

Seen in scalps, eyebrows, eyelashes.
- Yellow, reddish brown, or black pigments
- Vellus- short and fine. Seen in chest
o Carotene
and arms.
- Orange-yellow pigment from some
vegetables  Nails

o Hemoglobin o Heavily keratinized, scalelike modifications of

- Red coloring from blood cells in dermal
capillaries
- Oxygen content determines the extent of red
coloring
the epidermis
o Stratum basale extends beneath the nail bed,
which is responsible for growth
o Lack of pigment makes nails colorless

 Redness (erythema)—due to  Sebaceus/oil gland

embarrassment, inflammation, hypertension,
fever, or allergy
 Pallor (blanching)—due to emotional
stress (such as fear), anemia, low blood
pressure, impaired blood flow to an area
 Jaundice (yellow cast)—indicates a
liver disorder
 Bruises (black and blue marks) —
hematomas
APPENDAGES OF THE SKIN
 Hair
o Located all over the skin except for palms and
soles
o Produce sebum (oil)
- Makes skin soft and moist
- Prevents hair from becoming brittle
- Kills bacteria
o Most have ducts that empty into hair follicles;
others open directly onto skin surface
o Glands are activated at puberty
 Sweat Gland/ Sudoriferous Gland
o Produce sweat o Widely distributed in skin
o Two types of sudoriferous glands:
a. Eccrine glands-Open via duct to sweat pores
on the skin’s surface
- Produce acidic sweat
- Water, salts, vitamin C, traces of
metabolic waste
- Function in body temperature
regulation
b. Apocrine glands
- Ducts empty into hair follicles in the
armpit and genitals
- Begin to function at puberty
- Release sweat that also contains fatty
acids and proteins (milky or yellowish color)
- Play a minimal role in body
temperature regulation
HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCES OF SKIN
 Infections and allergies
o Athlete’s foot
- Caused by fungal infection (Tinea pedis) Itchy,
red peeling skin between the toes
o Boils (furuncles) and carbuncles
- Caused by inflammation of hair follicles
- Carbuncles are clusters of boils caused by
bacteria
o Cold sores (fever blisters)
- Caused by human herpesvirus 1
- Blisters itch and sting
o Contact Dermatitis
- Caused by exposure to chemicals that provoke
allergic responses
- Itching, redness, and swelling of the skin
o Impetigo
- Caused by bacterial infection
- Pink, fluid-filled raised lesions around
mouth/nose
o Psoriasis
- Triggered by trauma, infection, hormonal
changes, or stress
- Red, epidermal lesions covered with dry,
silvery scales that itch, burn, crack, or
sometimes bleed
o Burns
- Tissue damage and cell death caused by heat,
electricity, UV radiation, or chemicals
- Associated dangers:
 Protein denaturation and cell death
 Dehydration and electrolyte imbalance
 Circulatory shock
- Result in loss of body fluids and infection from
the invasion of bacteria
- Extent of a burn is estimated using the rule
of nines
 Body is divided into 11 areas for quick
estimation
 Each area represents about 9 percent of
total body surface area
 The area surrounding the genitals (the
perineum) represents 1 percent of body
surface area
o First-degree burn
- Only epidermis I damaged
- Skin is red or swollen
o Second-degree burn
- Epidermis and superficial part of the dermis are
damaged.
- Skin is red, painful, and blistered
- Regrowth of epithelium can occur
o Third-degree burn
- Destroys the epidermis and dermis; burned
area is painless
- Requires skin graft, as regeneration is not
possible
- Burnes area is blanched or black.
o Fourth-degree burn
- Extends to deeper tissues (bone, muscle,
tendons)
- Appears dry and leathery
- Requires surgery and grafting
- May require amputation
SKELETAL SYSTEM
The skeletal system is your body’s central
framework. It consists of bones and connective
tissue, including cartilage, tendons, and
ligaments. It’s also called the musculoskeletal
system.
FUNCTION
What does the skeletal system do?
The skeletal system has many functions.
Besides giving us our human shape and
features, it:
 Allows movement: Your skeleton
supports your body weight to help you
stand and move. Joints, connective
tissue and muscles work together to
make your body parts mobile.
 Produces blood cells: Bones contain
bone marrow. Red and white blood cells
are produced in the bone marrow.
 Protects and supports organs: Your
skull shields your brain, your ribs protect
your heart and lungs, and your
backbone protects your spine.
 Stores minerals: Bones hold your
body’s supply of minerals like calcium
and vitamin D.
ANATOMY
What are the parts of the skeletal system?
The skeletal system is a network of many
different parts that work together to help you
move. The main part of your skeletal system
consists of your bones, hard structures that
create your body’s framework — the skeleton.
There are 206 bones in an adult human skeleton.
Each bone has three main layers:
 Periosteum: The periosteum is a tough
membrane that covers and protects the
outside of the bone.
 Compact bone: Below the periosteum,
compact bone is white, hard, and
smooth. It provides structural support
and protection.
 Spongy bone: The core, inner layer of
the bone is softer than compact bone. It
has small holes called pores to store
marrow.
The other components of your skeletal system
include:
 Cartilage: This smooth and flexible
substance covers the tips of your bones
where they meet. It enables bones to
move without friction (rubbing against
each other). When cartilage wears away,
as in arthritis, it can be painful and
cause movement problems.
 Joints: A joint is where two or more
bones in the body come together. There
are three different joint types. The types
of joints are:
o Immovable joints: Immovable
joints don’t let the bones move
at all, like the joints between
your skull bones.
o Partly movable joints: These
joints allow limited movement.
The joints in your rib cage are
partly movable joints.
o Movable joints: Movable joints
allow a wide range of motion.
Your elbow, shoulder, and knee
are movable joints.
  Ligaments: Bands of strong connective
tissue called ligaments hold bones
together.
 Tendons: Tendons are bands of tissue
that connect the ends of a muscle to
your bone.
Bone Remodeling- removal of existing bone by
osteoclasts and the deposition of new bone by
osteoblasts.
Bone Repair- when bone is broken, blood
vessels in the bone are also damaged. The
vessels bleed, and a clot forms in the damaged
area.
Cartilaginous Joints- unite 2 bones by means
of cartilage
Synovial Joints- freely movable joints that
contain synovial fluid in a cavity surrounding the
ends of articulating bones.
 Plane/gliding joints- consist of 2 opposed
flat surfaces that glide over each other
 Saddle joints- 2 saddle-shaped articulating
surfaces oriented at right angles to each
other.
 Hinge joints- permit movement in one plane
only.
 Pivot joints- restrict movement to rotation
around a single axis.
 Ball-and-socket joints- consist of a ball
(head) at the end of one bone and a socket
in an adjacent bone into which a portion of
the ball fits.
 Ellipsoid or condyloid joints- elongated ball-
and-socket joints.
MUSCULAR SYSTEM
The muscular system consists of 600 muscles.
PRIMARY PURPOSE:
- To provide movement for the body. And the
muscles receive the ability to move the body
throughout the nervous system.
5 MAJOR PROPERTIES OF THE MUSCULAR
SYSTEM
1. Muscles are excitable or Irritable
- These means that they are capable of
receiving stimulation and responding to
stimulation from the nerves
2. Muscles are contractible
- After receiving stimulation, they are capable off
contracting or shortening.
3. Extensible
- A muscle can be stretched without damage by
the application of force.
4. Elasticity
- A muscle is able to return to its original resting
shape and length after being extended or
contracted.
5. Adaptability
- The muscular system is adaptable in that it can
be changed in response to how it is used. For
example muscles is enlarged or undergo
hypertrophy with increased work but on the
other hand it can go into atrophy or waste away
if deprived of work.
5 TYPES OF MUSCLE MOVEMENT
1. ADDUCTION-
- Moving a body part toward the midline of the
body.
2. ABDUCTION-
- Moving a body part away from the body.
3. FLEXION-
- Bending a joint to decrease the angle between
two bones or two body parts.
4. EXTENSION-
- Straightening and extending of the joint to
increase the angle between two bones or body
parts.
5. ROTATION-
- Rotation involves moving a body part around
an axis.
3 MAIN TYPES OF MUSCLES
1. CARDIAC MUSCLE-
- It is an involuntary muscle meaning it operates
without any control. These muscles from the
walls of the heart and contracts to circulate the
blood.
2. VISCERAL OR SMOOTH MUSCLES-
- They are also considered as involuntary.
These muscles are found in organ systems such
as the digestive or respiratory system.
3. SKELETAL MUSCLE-
- This is typically what we think about muscles,
these muscles attach to the skeleton and
provide the skeleton with the ability to move.
They are classified as Voluntary muscles
because we have to make a conscious effort or
decision to make them move. Although muscles
makes obviously make up the muscle system,
there are also supportive structures that we
need to look at that are also a necessary part of
the system tendons and fascia are important
structures for the skeletal musces.
SUPPORTIVE STRUCTURES
1. TENDONS-
- Attach muscles to the bones.
2. FASCIA-
- Attach muscle to other muscle.
Tendons and fascia work together with the
muscles, which create the muscular system
necessary for movement.
LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
The lymphatic system is a network of tissues,
vessels and organs that work together to move a
colorless, watery fluid called lymph back into
your circulatory system (your bloodstream).
Some 20 liters of plasma flow through your
body’s arteries and smaller arteriole blood
vessels and capillaries every day. After
delivering nutrients to the body’s cells and
tissues and receiving their waste products,
about 17 liters are returned to the circulation by
way of veins. The remaining three liters seep
through the capillaries and into your body’s
tissues. The lymphatic system collects this
excess fluid, now called lymph, from tissues in
your body and moves it along until it's ultimately
returned to your bloodstream.
Your lymphatic system has many functions. Its
key functions include:
 Maintains fluid levels in your
body: As just described, the lymphatic
system collects excess fluid that drains
from cells and tissue throughout your
body and returns it to your bloodstream,
which is then recirculated through your
body.
 Absorbs fats from the digestive
tract: Lymph includes fluids from your
intestines that contain fats and proteins
and transports it back to your
bloodstream.
 Protects your body against foreign
invaders: The lymphatic system is part
of the immune system. It produces and
releases lymphocytes (white blood cells)
and other immune cells that monitor and
then destroy the foreign invaders —
such as bacteria, viruses, parasites and
fungi — that may enter your body.
 Transports and removes waste
products and abnormal cells from the
lymph.
ANATOMY
What are the parts of the lymphatic system?
The lymphatic system consists of many parts.
These include:
 Lymph: Lymph, also called lymphatic
fluid, is a collection of the extra fluid that
drains from cells and tissues (that is not
reabsorbed into the capillaries) plus
other substances. The other substances
include proteins, minerals, fats, nutrients,
damaged cells, cancer cells and foreign
invaders (bacteria, viruses, etc). Lymph
also transports infection-fighting white
blood cells (lymphocytes).
 Lymph nodes: Lymph nodes are bean-
shaped glands that monitor and cleanse
the lymph as it filters through them. The
nodes filter out the damaged cells and
cancer cells. These lymph nodes also
produce and store lymphocytes and
other immune system cells that attack
and destroy bacteria and other harmful
substances in the fluid. You have about
600 lymph nodes scattered throughout
your body. Some exist as a single node;
others are closely connected groups
called chains. A few of the more familiar
locations of lymph nodes are in your
armpit, groin and neck. Lymph nodes
are connected to others by the
lymphatic vessels.·
 Lymphatic vessels: Lymphatic vessels
are the network of capillaries
(microvessels) and a large network of
tubes located throughout your body that
transport lymph away from tissues.
Lymphatic vessels collect and filter
lymph (at the nodes) as it continues to
move toward larger vessels called
collecting ducts. These vessels operate
very much like your veins do: They work
under very low pressure, have a series
of valves in them to keep the fluid
moving in one direction.
 Collecting ducts: Lymphatic vessels
empty the lymph into the right lymphatic
duct and left lymphatic duct (also called
the thoracic duct). These ducts connect
to the subclavian vein, which returns
lymph to your bloodstream. The
subclavian vein runs below your
collarbone. Returning lymph to the
bloodstream helps to maintain normal
blood volume and pressure. It also
prevents the excess buildup of fluid
around the tissues (called edema).
The lymphatic system collects excess fluid that
drains from cells and tissue throughout the body
and returns it to the bloodstream, which is then
recirculated through the body.
 Spleen: This largest lymphatic organ is
located on your left side under your ribs
and above your stomach. The spleen
filters and stores blood and produces
white blood cells that fight infection or
disease.
 Thymus: This organ is located in the
upper chest beneath the breast bone. It
matures a specific type of white blood
cell that fights off foreign organisms.
 Tonsils and adenoid: These lymphoid
organs trap pathogens from the food
you eat and the air you breathe. They
are your body’s first line of defense
against foreign invaders.
 Bone marrow: This is the soft, spongy
tissue in the center of certain bones,
such as the hip bone and breastbone.
White blood cells, red blood cells, and
platelets are made in the bone marrow.
  Peyer’s patches: These are small
masses of lymphatic tissue in the
mucous membrane that lines your small
intestine. These lymphoid cells monitor
and destroy bacteria in the intestines.
 Appendix: Your appendix contains
lymphoid tissue that can destroy
bacteria before it breaches the intestine
wall during absorption. Scientists also
believe the appendix plays a role in
housing “good bacteria” and
repopulating our gut with good bacteria
after an infection has cleared.
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
The respiratory system is the network of organs
and tissues that help you breathe. It includes
your airways, lungs and blood vessels. The
muscles that power your lungs are also part of
the respiratory system. These parts work
together to move oxygen throughout the body
and clean out waste gases like carbon dioxide.
FUNCTION
What does the respiratory system do?
The respiratory system has many functions.
Besides helping you inhale (breathe in) and
exhale (breathe out), it:
 Allows you to talk and to smell.
 Warms air to match your body
temperature and moisturizes it to the
humidity level your body needs.
 Delivers oxygen to the cells in your body.
 Removes waste gases, including carbon
dioxide, from the body when you exhale.
 Protects your airways from harmful
substances and irritants.
ANATOMY
What are the parts of the respiratory system?
The respiratory system has many different parts
that work together to help you breathe. Each
group of parts has many separate components.
Your airways deliver air to your lungs. Your
airways are a complicated system that includes
your:
 Mouth and nose: Openings that pull air
from outside your body into your
respiratory system.
 Sinuses: Hollow areas between the
bones in your head that help regulate
the temperature and humidity of the air
you inhale.
 Pharynx (throat): Tube that delivers air
from your mouth and nose to the
trachea (windpipe).
 Trachea: Passage connecting your
throat and lungs.
 Bronchial tubes: Tubes at the bottom
of your windpipe that connect into each
lung.
 Lungs: Two organs that remove oxygen
from the air and pass it into your blood.
From your lungs, your bloodstream delivers
oxygen to all your organs and other tissues.
Muscles and bones help move the air you inhale
into and out of your lungs. Some of the bones
and muscles in the respiratory system include
your:
 Diaphragm: Muscle that helps your
lungs pull in air and push it out.
 Ribs: Bones that surround and protect
your lungs and heart.
When you breathe out, your blood carries
carbon dioxide and other waste out of the body.
Other components that work with the lungs and
blood vessels include:
 Alveoli: Tiny air sacs in the lungs where
the exchange of oxygen and carbon
dioxide takes place.
 Bronchioles: Small branches of the
bronchial tubes that lead to the alveoli.
 Capillaries: Blood vessels in the alveoli
walls that move oxygen and carbon
dioxide.
 Lung lobes: Sections of the lungs —
three lobes in the right lung and two in
the left lung.
  Pleura: Thin sacs that surround each What organs make up the digestive system?
lung lobe and separate your lungs from
the chest wall. The main organs that make up the digestive
system (in order of their function) are the mouth,
Some of the other components of your esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large
respiratory system include: intestine, rectum and anus. Helping them along
the way are the pancreas, gall bladder and liver.
 Cilia: Tiny hairs that move in a wave-
like motion to filter dust and other Here’s how these organs work together in
your digestive system.
irritants out of your airways.
 Epiglottis: Tissue flap at the entrance
to the trachea that closes when you
swallow to keep food and liquids out of
your airway.
 Larynx (voice box): Hollow organ that
allows you to talk and make sounds
when air moves in and out.

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

Your digestive system is made up of the

gastrointestinal (GI) tract and your liver,
pancreas and gallbladder. The GI tract is a
series of hollow organs that are connected to
each other from your mouth to your anus. The
organs that make up your GI tract, in the order
that they are connected, include your mouth,
esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large
intestine and anus. Mouth

What does the digestive system do?
Your digestive system is uniquely constructed to
do its job of turning your food into the nutrients
and energy you need to survive. And when it’s
done with that, it handily packages your solid
waste, or stool, for disposal when you have a
bowel movement.
Why is digestion important?
The mouth is the beginning of the digestive tract.
In fact, digestion starts before you even take a
bite. Your salivary glands get active as you see
and smell that pasta dish or warm bread. After
you start eating, you chew your food into pieces
that are more easily digested. Your saliva mixes
with the food to begin to break it down into a
form your body can absorb and use. When you
swallow, your tongue passes the food into your
throat and into your esophagus.

Digestion is important because your body needs Esophagus

nutrients from the food you eat and the liquids
you drink in order to stay healthy and function
properly. Nutrients include carbohydrates,
proteins, fats, vitamins, minerals and water.
Your digestive system breaks down and absorbs
nutrients from the food and liquids you consume
to use for important things like energy, growth
and repairing cells.
ANATOMY
Located in your throat near your trachea
(windpipe), the esophagus receives food from
your mouth when you swallow. The epiglottis is
a small flap that folds over your windpipe as you
swallow to prevent you from choking (when food
goes into your windpipe). A series of muscular
contractions within the esophagus
called peristalsis delivers food to your stomach.
But first a ring-like muscle at the bottom of your
esophagus called the lower esophageal
sphincter has to relax to let the food in. The
sphincter then contracts and prevents the
contents of the stomach from flowing back into
the esophagus. (When it doesn’t and these
contents flow back into the esophagus, you may
experience acid reflux or heartburn.)
Stomach
The stomach is a hollow organ, or "container,"
that holds food while it is being mixed with
stomach enzymes. These enzymes continue the
process of breaking down food into a usable
form. Cells in the lining of your stomach secrete
a strong acid and powerful enzymes that are
responsible for the breakdown process. When
the contents of the stomach are processed
enough, they’re released into the small intestine.
Small intestine
Made up of three segments — the duodenum,
jejunum, and ileum — the small intestine is a 22-
foot long muscular tube that breaks down food
using enzymes released by the pancreas and
bile from the liver. Peristalsis also works in this
organ, moving food through and mixing it with
digestive juices from the pancreas and liver.
The duodenum is the first segment of the small
intestine. It’s largely responsible for the
continuous breaking-down process. The jejunum
and ileum lower in the intestine are mainly
responsible for the absorption of nutrients into
the bloodstream.
Contents of the small intestine start out semi-
solid and end in a liquid form after passing
through the organ. Water, bile, enzymes and
mucus contribute to the change in consistency.
Once the nutrients have been absorbed and the
leftover-food residue liquid has passed through
the small intestine, it then moves on to the large
intestine (colon).
Pancreas
The pancreas secretes digestive enzymes into
the duodenum that break down protein, fats and
carbohydrates. The pancreas also makes insulin,
passing it directly into the bloodstream. Insulin is
the chief hormone in your body for metabolizing
sugar.
Liver
The liver has many functions, but its main job
within the digestive system is to process the
nutrients absorbed from the small intestine. Bile
from the liver secreted into the small intestine
also plays an important role in digesting fat and
some vitamins.
The liver is your body's chemical "factory." It
takes the raw materials absorbed by the
intestine and makes all the various chemicals
your body needs to function.
The liver also detoxifies potentially harmful
chemicals. It breaks down and secretes many
drugs that can be toxic to your body.
Gallbladder
The gallbladder stores and concentrates bile
from the liver, and then releases it into the
duodenum in the small intestine to help absorb
and digest fats.
Colon
The colon is responsible for processing waste so
that emptying your bowels is easy and
convenient. It’s a 6-foot long muscular tube that
connects the small intestine to the rectum.
The colon is made up of the cecum, the
ascending (right) colon, the transverse (across)
colon, the descending (left) colon, and the
sigmoid colon, which connects to the rectum.
Stool, or waste left over from the digestive
process, is passed through the colon by means
of peristalsis, first in a liquid state and ultimately
in a solid form. As stool passes through the
colon, water is removed. Stool is stored in the
sigmoid (S-shaped) colon until a "mass
movement" empties it into the rectum once or
twice a day.
It normally takes about 36 hours for stool to get
through the colon. The stool itself is mostly food
debris and bacteria. These “good” bacteria
perform several useful functions, such as
synthesizing various vitamins, processing waste
products and food particles and protecting
against harmful bacteria. When the descending
colon becomes full of stool, or feces, it empties
its contents into the rectum to begin the process
of elimination (a bowel movement).
Rectum
The rectum is a straight, 8-inch chamber that
connects the colon to the anus. The rectum's job
is to receive stool from the colon, let you know
that there is stool to be evacuated (pooped out)
and to hold the stool until evacuation happens.
When anything (gas or stool) comes into the
rectum, sensors send a message to the brain.
The brain then decides if the rectal contents can
be released or not.
If they can, the sphincters relax and the rectum
contracts, disposing its contents. If the contents
cannot be disposed, the sphincter contracts and
the rectum accommodates so that the sensation
temporarily goes away.
Anus
The anus is the last part of the digestive tract. It
is a 2-inch long canal consisting of the pelvic
floor muscles and the two anal sphincters
(internal and external). The lining of the upper
anus is able to detect rectal contents. It lets you
know whether the contents are liquid, gas or
solid.
The anus is surrounded by sphincter muscles
that are important in allowing control of stool.
The pelvic floor muscle creates an angle
between the rectum and the anus that stops
stool from coming out when it’s not supposed to.
The internal sphincter is always tight, except
when stool enters the rectum. This keeps
us continent (prevents us from pooping
involuntarily) when we are asleep or otherwise
unaware of the presence of stool.
When we get an urge to go to the bathroom, we
rely on our external sphincter to hold the stool
until reaching a toilet, where it then relaxes to
release the contents.
NERVOUS SYSTEM
Your nervous system guides almost everything
you do, think, say or feel. It controls complicated
processes like movement, thought and memory.
It also plays an essential role in the things your
body does without thinking, such as breathing,
blushing and blinking.
Your nervous system affects every aspect of
your health, including your:
 Thoughts, memory, learning, and
feelings.
 Movements, such as balance and
coordination.
 Senses, including how your brain
interprets what you see, hear, taste,
touch and feel.
 Sleep, healing and aging.
 Heartbeat and breathing patterns.
 Response to stressful situations.
 Digestion, as well as how hungry and
thirsty you feel.
 Body processes, such as puberty.
This complex system is the command center for
your body. It regulates your body’s systems and
allows you to experience your environment.
A vast network of nerves sends electrical signals
to and from other cells, glands, and muscles all
over your body. These nerves receive
information from the world around you. Then the
nerves interpret the information and control your
response. It’s almost like an enormous
information highway running throughout your
body.
FUNCTION
What does the nervous system do?
Your nervous system uses specialized cells
called neurons to send signals, or messages, all
over your body. These electrical signals travel
between your brain, skin, organs, glands and
muscles.
The messages help you move your limbs and
feel sensations, such as pain. Your eyes, ears,
tongue, nose and the nerves all over your body
take in information about your environment.
Then nerves carry that data to and from your
brain.
Different kinds of neurons send different signals.
Motor neurons tell your muscles to move.
Sensory neurons take information from your
senses and send signals to your brain. Other
types of neurons control the things your body
does automatically, like breathing, shivering,
having a regular heartbeat and digesting food.
ANATOMY
What are the parts of the nervous system?
The nervous system has two main parts. Each
part contains billions of cells called neurons, or
nerve cells. These special cells send and
receive electrical signals through your body to
tell it what to do.
The main parts of the nervous system are:
Central nervous system (CNS): Your brain and
spinal cord make up your CNS. Your brain uses
your nerves to send messages to the rest of
your body. Each nerve has a protective outer
layer called myelin. Myelin insulates the nerve
and helps the messages get through.
Peripheral nervous system: Your peripheral
nervous system consists of many nerves that
branch out from your CNS all over your body.
This system relays information from your brain
and spinal cord to your organs, arms, legs,
fingers and toes. Your peripheral nervous
system contains your:
 Somatic nervous system, which
guides your voluntary movements.
 Autonomic nervous system, which
controls the activities you do without
thinking about them.
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
Your endocrine system is made up of several
organs called glands. These glands, located all
over your body, create and secrete (release)
hormones.
Hormones are chemicals that coordinate
different functions in your body by carrying
messages through your blood to your organs,
skin, muscles and other tissues. These signals
tell your body what to do and when to do it.
FUNCTION
What does the endocrine system do and how
does it work?
Your endocrine system continuously monitors
the amount of hormones in your blood.
Hormones deliver their messages by locking into
the cells they target so they can relay the
message.
The pituitary gland senses when your hormone
levels rise, and tells other glands to stop
producing and releasing hormones. When
hormone levels dip below a certain point, the
pituitary gland can instruct other glands to
produce and release more. This process, called
homeostasis, works similarly to the thermostat in
your house. Hormones affect nearly every
process in your body, including:
 Metabolism (the way you break down
food and get energy from nutrients).
 Growth and development.
 Emotions and mood.
 Fertility and sexual function.
 Sleep.
 Blood pressure.
Sometimes glands produce too much or not
enough of a hormone. This imbalance can
cause health problems, such as weight gain,
high blood pressure and changes in sleep, mood
and behavior. Many things can affect how your
body creates and releases hormones. Illness,
stress and certain medications can cause a
hormone imbalance.
ANATOMY
What are the parts of the endocrine system?
The endocrine system is made up of organs
called glands. Glands produce and release
different hormones that target specific things in
the body. You have glands all over your body,
including in your neck, brain and reproductive
organs. Some glands are tiny, about the size of
a grain of rice or a pea. The largest gland is the
pancreas, which is about 6 inches long.
The main glands that produce hormones include: testosterone. This hormone affects
sperm production, muscle strength and
 Hypothalamus: This gland is located in sex drive.
your brain and controls your endocrine
system. It uses information from your CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM
nervous system to determine when to
tell other glands, including the pituitary  The cardiovascular system consists of the
gland, to produce hormones. The heart, blood vessels, and blood. Its primary
hypothalamus controls many processes function is to transport nutrients and
in your body, including your mood, oxygen-rich blood to all parts of the body
hunger and thirst, sleep patterns and and to carry deoxygenated blood back to
sexual function. the lungs.
 Pituitary: This little gland is only about
the size of a pea, but it has a big job. It Components of the cardiovascular system
makes hormones that control several The cardiovascular system is the system
other glands such as the thyroid gland, responsible for delivering blood to different parts
adrenal glands, ovaries and testicles. of the body. It consists of the following organs
The pituitary gland is in charge of many and tissues:
different functions, including how your
body grows. It’s located at the base of
your brain.  The heart: A muscular pump that forces
 Thyroid: Your thyroid is a butterfly-
blood around the body.
shaped gland in the front of your neck.
It’s responsible for your metabolism
 A closed system of blood
(how your body uses energy).
 Parathyroid: These four tiny glands are vessels: These vessels include:
no larger than a grain of rice. They
control the level of calcium in your body. o Arteries: Vessels that carry
For your heart, kidneys, bones and
nervous system to work, you need the blood away from the heart.
right amount of calcium.
 Adrenal: You have two adrenal glands, o Veins: Vessels that bring blood
one on top of each kidney. They control
your metabolism, blood pressure, sexual back to the heart.
development and response to stress.
 Pineal: This gland manages your sleep
o Capillaries: Tiny vessels that
cycle by releasing melatonin, a hormone
that causes you to feel sleepy. branch off from arteries to
 Pancreas: Your pancreas is part of your
endocrine system, and it plays a deliver blood to all body
significant role in your digestive tissuesTrusted Source.
system too. It makes a hormone called
insulin that controls the level of sugar in
your blood. There are two blood circulatory systems in the
 Ovaries: In women, the ovaries release
sex hormones called estrogen, body. The first is the systemic circulatory
progesterone and testosterone. Women
system. This is the main blood circulatory
have two ovaries in their lower abdomen,
one on either side. system that transports blood to the organs,
 Testes: In men, the testes (testicles)
tissues, and cells throughout the body.
make sperm and release the hormone
The second is the pulmonary circulatory 5. The blood returns to the heart and flows
system. This circulatory system moves blood into the left atrium (upper left chamber)
between the heart and lungs. It is where oxygen via four pulmonary veins.
enters the blood and carbon dioxide leaves the
6. Blood flows through the mitral valve and
blood.
enters the left ventricle (lower left
Structure of the heart
chamber).

7. The left ventricle pumps the blood

The heart consists of four distinct chambers: two
through the aortic valve into a large
upper chambers called “atria” and two lower
artery called the “aorta.” This artery
chambers called “ventricles.” A wall or “septum”
delivers blood to the rest of the body.
separates the atria and ventricles. Valves control
the flow of blood within the different chambers.
The importance of the heart

Blood follows the following path through the

The heart pumps blood through closed vessels
heart:
to every tissue within the body. The blood itself
then delivers nutrients and oxygen to all cells in
1. Blood lacking oxygen returns from the
the body. Without blood, the cells and tissues
body and enters the right atrium (upper
would not function at their total capacity and
right chamber) via the inferior vena cava
would begin to malfunction and die.
and superior vena cava veins.
What is the cardiac cycle?
2. Blood flows through the tricuspid valve
and enters the right ventricle (lower right The cardiac cycle consists of two phases.
chamber).

The first phase is diastole, in which the

3. The right ventricle pumps blood through
ventricles fill with blood. It begins when the
the pulmonary valve and out of the heart
aortic or pulmonary valve closes and ends when
via the main pulmonary artery.
the mitral or tricuspid valve closes. During
4. The blood then flows through the left
diastole, blood vessels return blood to the heart
and right pulmonary arteries into the
in preparation for the next contraction of the
lungs. Here, the process of breathing
ventricles.
draws oxygen into the blood and
removes carbon dioxide. As a result, the
The second phase is systole, in which the
blood is now rich in oxygen.
ventricles contract and eject blood. It begins

when the mitral or tricuspid valve closes and
ends when the aortic or pulmonary valve closes.
The pressure inside the ventricles becomes
greater than the pressure inside adjacent blood
vessels, thereby forcing the blood from the
ventricles to the vessels.
URINARY SYSTEM
The urinary system works as a filter, removing
toxins and wastes from your body through urine.
It uses a series of tubes and ducts to pass this
waste. These tubes are connected to your blood
vessels and digestive system. Your urinary
system helps the rest of your body work properly.
FUNCTION
What does the urinary system do?
Your urinary system filters your blood to get rid
of what your body doesn’t need. It eliminates
extra water and salt, toxins, and other waste
products. Different parts of the urinary system
perform tasks including:
 Filtering blood.
 Separating the toxins you don’t need
from the nutrients you do need.
 Storing and carrying urine out of your
body.
How does the urinary system clean my blood?
Your kidneys are an essential part of filtering
your blood. Here’s how the urinary system works:
1. Your blood enters each kidney through
lots of little arteries.
2. Your kidneys filter your blood,
separating toxins from nutrients.
3. Vitamins, minerals, nutrients and
proteins return to your bloodstream.
4. Waste products and urine move through
your ureters to your bladder. Your
bladder stores urine until you use the
toilet.
5. Urine leaves your body through your
urethra.
ANATOMY
What are the parts of the urinary system?
The kidneys, ureters, bladder and urethra make
up the urinary system. They all work together to
filter, store and remove liquid waste from your
body. Here’s what each organ does:
 Kidneys: These organs work constantly.
They filter your blood and make urine,
which your body eliminates. You have
two kidneys, one on either side of the
back of your abdomen, just below your
rib cage. Each kidney is about as big as
your fist.
 Ureters: These two thin tubes inside
your pelvis carry urine from your kidneys
to your bladder.
 Bladder: Your bladder holds urine until
you’re ready to empty it (pee). It’s hollow,
made of muscle, and shaped like a
balloon. Your bladder expands as it fills
up. Most bladders can hold up to 2 cups
of urine.
 Urethra: This tube carries urine from
your bladder out of your body. It ends in
an opening to the outside of your body
in the penis (in men) or in front of the
vagina (in women).
FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
The female reproductive system is a group of
organs that work together to enable reproduction,
pregnancy, and childbirth. It also produces
female sex hormones, including estrogen
and progesterone.
The system consists of organs and tissues
inside the body and some that are visible
outside the body. The internal organs include:
  ovaries  contribute to the health of the bones,
heart, liver, brain, and other tissues
 fallopian tubes
 influence mood, sleep, and sex drive
 uterus

 cervix Fallopian tubes

 Vagina
The fallopian tubes are passageways that carry
Ovaries eggs toward the uterus. They consist of several
parts:
Most females have two ovaries, one on each
side of the uterus. They are about the shape and  the infundibulum, which is a funnel-
size of an almond and have two key functions: shaped opening near the ovaries
producing hormones and releasing eggs.
 the fimbriae, which are finger-like
projections surrounding the opening
At birth, two ovaries contain
 cilia, which are hair-like structures inside
approximately 700,000Trusted Source oocytes,
the fallopian tubes
which are immature eggs. When a person
reaches puberty, these eggs begin to develop
When an ovary releases an egg, fluid and the
and mature inside the ovary follicles. Around
fimbriae propel it toward the fallopian tube
once each month, the ovaries release a mature
opening. Once inside, the cilia move the egg
egg.
toward the uterus. This journey takes about 7
daysTrusted Source.
This process is known as ovulation, and it is part
of the menstrual cycle. It is also what makes
During this time, it is possible for sperm to
pregnancy possible.
fertilize the egg if a person has sexual
intercourse. Most fertilization happens in the
The hormones the ovaries produce regulate the
fallopian tubes.
menstrual cycle. They also:

Uterus
 influence the development of female sex
traits
The uterus is an organ that is about the shape
 facilitate pregnancy, childbirth, and
and size of a pear. It is also known as the womb.
breast milk production
It consists of muscular walls and a lining  Protecting against bacteria: The
(endometrium) that grows and diminishes with mucus also stops bacteria from entering
each menstrual cycle. the uterus and keeps the vagina healthy.

 Allowing fluids to drain: At the bottom

After ovulation, the endometrium gets thicker in
of the cervix is a small opening that
preparation for a fertilized egg. If not fertilized,
allows fluids, such as menstrual blood,
the egg dies, and the lining of the womb sheds
to pass through.
after around 2 weeksTrusted Source. The lining
breaks down into blood, which then leaves the
Below the cervix is the vagina, which is a flexible,
body through the vagina. This is menstruation,
tubular structure that connects the internal and
also called a period.
external reproductive organs. It sits behind the
bladder and in front of the digestive tract.
If an egg does become fertilized by sperm, it will
implant into the lining of the uterus and begin to
The vagina allows fluids, such as menstrual
develop. The cells divide and grow, becoming
blood and discharge, to leave the body. It also
an embryo. Over time, it grows into a fetus,
allows semen, which contains sperm, to enter
which receives oxygen and nutrients from the
the body.
placenta via the umbilical cord.

This can happen in several ways, such as during

When it is time for the fetus to be born, the
penetrative sex with someone who has a penis,
uterus begins strong muscle contractions that
or during artificial insemination. This is a
dilate the cervix and push the fetus out.
procedure where a doctor inserts semen into the
uterus to help someone conceive.
Cervix and vagina

Clitoris
The cervix is a narrow structure at the bottom of
the uterus. It has several functions:
Just inside the body, around the entrance to the
vagina, is the clitoris. This organ is most well
 Producing mucus: The
known for the clitoral glans, which is a small but
cervix produces cervical mucus, which
highly sensitive tissue that sits above the vaginal
stops sperm from entering the uterus
opening. Most of the clitoris is actually internal.
when a person is not fertile or when they
are pregnant.
The clitoral glans is at the top of the clitoris.
From there, the clitoris splits into two parts that
extend down either side of the vagina. It is
around 5 inches (12.7 centimeters) long and
consists of spongy tissue that contains
thousands of nerve endings.
The clitoris responds to sexual stimulation.
When a person experiences arousal, it becomes
swollen. It is the main organ responsible
for female orgasms.
Vulva
Share on PinterestDesign by Diego Sabogal
The vulva is the external part of the female
reproductive system. It includes the:
 Vestibule: This is the entrance to the
vagina. Around the vestibule sit the
greater vestibular glands, which produce
fluid to keep the area from getting dry.
During sexual arousal, these glands
produce more fluid to help with
lubrication.
 Hymen: Some people with vulvas also
have a hymen. This is a thin, delicate
tissue that partially covers the entrance
to the vagina. When someone has
penetrative sex for the first time, the
hymen can stretch or break. But not
everyone has a hymen, and it can also
stretch for a number of other
reasons. Learn more here.
 Urethra: This is where urine comes
from. The urethra is part of the urinary
system and sits just above the vaginal
opening.
 Labia minora: These are smaller lips
that surround the entrance to the vagina.
 Clitoral hood and glans: The clitoral
hood is a small piece of tissue that
protects the external part of the clitoris.
It sits at the top of the labia minora.
 Labia majora: These are the larger lips
that surround the vulva. After puberty,
they typically have pubic hair. At the top
of the vulva is also the mons pubis,
which is a rounded pad of fat that sits
over the pubic bone.
MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
The male reproductive system includes a group
of organs that make up a man’s reproductive
and urinary system. These organs do the
following jobs within your body:
 They produce, maintain and transport
sperm (the male reproductive cells) and
semen (the protective fluid around
sperm).
 They discharge sperm into the female
reproductive tract.
 They produce and secrete male sex
hormones.
The male reproductive system is made up of
internal (inside your body) and external (outside
your body) parts. Together, these organs help
you urinate (rid your body of liquid waste
materials), have sexual intercourse and make
children.
FUNCTION
How does the male reproductive system
function?
The entire male reproductive system is
dependent on hormones. These are chemicals
that stimulate or regulate the activity of your
cells or organs. The primary hormones involved
in the functioning of the male reproductive
system are follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH),
luteinizing hormone (LH) and testosterone.
FSH and LH are produced by the pituitary gland.
It’s located at the base of your brain and it’s
responsible for many functions in your body.
FSH is necessary for sperm production
(spermatogenesis). LH stimulates the production
of testosterone, which is necessary to continue
the process of spermatogenesis. Testosterone is
also important in the development of male
characteristics, including muscle mass and
strength, fat distribution, bone mass and sex
drive.
ANATOMY
What are the external male reproductive
structures?
Most of the male reproductive system is located
outside of your abdominal cavity or pelvis. The
external parts of the male reproductive system
include the penis, the scrotum and the testicles.
Penis
The penis is the male organ for sexual
intercourse. It has three parts:
 The root: This is the part of the penis
that attaches to the wall of your
abdomen.
 The body or shaft: Shaped like a tube
or cylinder, the body of the penis is
made up of three internal chambers.
Inside these chambers there’s a special,
sponge-like erectile tissue that contains
thousands of large spaces that fill with
blood when you’re sexually aroused. As
the penis fills with blood, it becomes
rigid and erect, which allows for
penetration during sex. The skin of the
penis is loose and elastic, allowing for
changes in penis size during an erection.
 The glans: This is the cone-shaped end
of the penis. The glans, which is also
called the head of the penis, is covered
with a loose layer of skin called foreskin.
This skin is sometimes removed in a
procedure called circumcision.
The opening of the urethra — the tube that
transports both semen and urine out of the body
— is located at the tip of the glans penis. The
penis also contains many sensitive nerve
endings.
Semen, which contains sperm, is expelled
(ejaculated) through the end of the penis when a
man reaches sexual climax (orgasm). When the
penis is erect, the flow of urine is blocked from
the urethra, allowing only semen to be
ejaculated at orgasm.
Scrotum
The scrotum is the loose pouch-like sac of skin
that hangs behind the penis. It holds the
testicles (also called testes), as well as many
nerves and blood vessels. The scrotum protects
your testes, as well as providing a sort of climate
control system. For normal sperm development,
the testes must be at a temperature slightly
cooler than the body temperature. Special
muscles in the wall of the scrotum allow it to
contract (tighten) and relax, moving the testicles
closer to the body for warmth and protection or
farther away from the body to cool the
temperature.
Testicles (testes)
The testes are oval organs about the size of
very large olives that lie in the scrotum, secured
at either end by a structure called the spermatic
cord. Most men have two testes. The testes are
responsible for making testosterone, the primary
male sex hormone, and for producing sperm.
Within the testes are coiled masses of tubes
called seminiferous tubules. These tubules are
responsible for producing the sperm cells
through a process called spermatogenesis.
Epididymis
The epididymis is a long, coiled tube that rests
on the backside of each testicle. It carries and
stores sperm cells that are created in the testes.
It’s also the job of the epididymis to bring the
sperm to maturity — the sperm that emerge
from the testes are immature and incapable
of fertilization. During sexual arousal,
contractions force the sperm into the vas
deferens.
What are the internal male reproductive
organs?
You have several internal organs — also called
accessory organs — that play a big part in the
male reproductive system. These organs include:
additional fluid to the ejaculate. Prostate
fluids also help to nourish the sperm.
The urethra, which carries the ejaculate
to be expelled during orgasm, runs
through the center of the prostate gland.
 Bulbourethral glands: The
bulbourethral glands, or Cowper’s
glands, are pea-sized structures located
on the sides of the urethra, just below
the prostate gland. These glands
produce a clear, slippery fluid that
empties directly into the urethra. This
fluid serves to lubricate the urethra and
to neutralize any acidity that may be
present due to residual drops of urine in
the urethra.

 Vas deferens: The vas deferens is a

long, muscular tube that travels from the
epididymis into the pelvic cavity, to just
behind the bladder. The vas deferens
transports mature sperm to the urethra
in preparation for ejaculation.
 Ejaculatory ducts: These ducts are
formed by the fusion of the vas deferens
and the seminal vesicles. The
ejaculatory ducts empty into the urethra.
 Urethra: The urethra is the tube that
carries urine from the bladder to outside
of your body. In males, it has the
additional function of expelling
(ejaculating) semen when you reach
orgasm. When the penis is erect during
sex, the flow of urine is blocked from the
urethra, allowing only semen to be
ejaculated at orgasm.
 Seminal vesicles: The seminal vesicles
are sac-like pouches that attach to the
vas deferens near the base of the
bladder. The seminal vesicles make a
sugar-rich fluid (fructose) that provides
sperm with a source of energy and
helps with the sperms’ ability to move
(motility). The fluid of the seminal
vesicles makes up most of the volume
of your ejaculatory fluid, or ejaculate.
 Prostate gland: The prostate gland is a
walnut-sized structure that’s located
below the urinary bladder in front of the
rectum. The prostate gland contributes