HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY WITH PATHOPHYSIOLOGY (LECTURE)
4. Immunology – study of the body’s defense
ANATOMY
- Greek word meaning “cut up” (ana = up, tomy =
process of cutting)
- Study of internal and external structures of body
and their relationships to each other.
- It is the science of body structures and the
relationships among them.
- “Form”
Divisions of Anatomy
1. Gross Anatomy – macroscopic, can be seen by
the eye; can be studied without microscope.
➢ Regional Anatomy – is the study of the
different regions of the body such as the
head and neck.
➢ Systemic Anatomy – study of the specific
systems of the body such as the reproductive
system and digestive system.
➢ Surface Anatomy – study of the landmarks of
the body surface of the different visceral
organs
2. Microscopic Anatomy – cell and molecule level,
needs microscope, cannot be seen by the naked
eye
➢ Cytology – study of cells
➢ Histology – study of tissues (groups of
specialized cells that work together to
perform functions)
➢ Histopathology – study of tissues to identify
cause of disease
3. Embryological Anatomy or Embryology – study
of prenatal development; the first eight weeks of
development after fertilization of human being;
it can be under Developmental Anatomy.
4. Developmental Anatomy – study of human
growth and development from fertilized egg to
mature adult to death.
5. Cell Anatomy – study of cellular structure.
6. Radiographic Anatomy or Radiology – study of
the structures of the body using x rays and other
noninvasive imaging techniques.
7. Pathological Anatomy – structural changes
(macroscopic to microscopic) associated with
disease.
PHYSIOLOGY
- Comes from the Greek word for the “study of
nature” (physio= nature; logy= study of)
- Study of how the structure of these organism
perform their functions
- It is the science of body functions how the body
parts work.
- “Functions”
Subspecialties of Physiology
1. Neurophysiology – study of functional
properties of nerve cells.
2. Endocrinology – study of hormones (chemical
regulators in the blood) and how they control
body functions.
3. Cardiovascular physiology – study of functions
of the heart and blood vessels
against disease causing agents
5. Respiratory physiology – study of functions of
the air passageways and lungs
6. Renal physiology – study of the functions of the
kidneys
7. Pathophysiology – study of the functional
changes associated with disease and aging.
HUMAN ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY
Human Anatomy and Physiology with Pathophysiology
- the study of the form and function of the human
body and their characteristics and the functional
changes happening due to disease and aging.
STRUCTURAL LEVELS OF THE BODY
1. Chemical Level
➢ Atoms
o simplest level, the body is composed
of atoms (indivisible)
o the basic and smallest unit of all
matter.
o Ex. Oxygen atom
➢ Molecules
o Combination of two or more atoms.
o Ex. Oxygen atom + Oxygen atom =
Oxygen molecule (O), Carbon (C),
Hydrogen (H), Phosphorus (P),
Calcium (Ca), DNA, etc.
➢ Compounds
o A molecule containing atoms of
more than one element.
o Ex. Water (H2O), Carbon Dioxide
(CO2), Carbohydrates, Proteins and
Lipids
2. Cellular Level / Cells
➢ Smallest independent units of life
➢ Basic structural and functional units of an
organism that are composed of chemicals
➢ Growth, metabolism, irritability, and
reproduction
➢ Cells vary in size from a sperm (which is
about 5 um) long to a nerve cell with thin
fibers (which maybe a meter long).
➢ Ex. Muscle cells, Nerve cells, Epithelial cells
3. Tissue Level / Tissues
➢ Made up of many similar cells that perform
a specific function.
➢ Four basic types of tissues:
 HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY WITH PATHOPHYSIOLOGY (LECTURE)
o Epithelial Tissues – covers body
surfaces, lines hollow organs and
cavities, and forms glands;
protection and secretion function
o Connective Tissues – connects,
supports, and protects body organs
while distributing blood vessels to
other tissues.
o Nervous Tissues – carries
information from one part of the
body to another through nerve
impulses; receives stimulus
o Muscular Tissues – contracts to
make body parts move and
generates heat.
4. Organ Level / Organs
➢ Tissues that are joined together
➢ structures that are composed of two or more
different types of tissues
➢ they have specific functions and usually have
recognizable shapes
➢ Ex. stomach, skin, bones, heart, liver, lungs,
and brain
5. System level / Systems / Organ system
➢ consists of related organs with a common
function.
➢ Ex. Digestive system, which breaks down and
absorbs food. Its organs include the mouth,
salivary glands, pharynx(throat), esophagus
(food tube), stomach, small intestine, large
intestine, liver, gallbladder, and pancreas.
6. Organism Level / Organism
➢ any living individual.
➢ All the parts of the human body functioning
together constitute the total organism
ORGAN SYSTEM IN THE BODY
1. Muscular System – comprises all skeletal
muscles; primary function is locomotion
2. Nervous System – comprises brain and spinal
cord and the nerves arising from them; the
master system that coordinates the activities of
all other systems
3. Endocrine System – consisting of ductless glands
which produce secretions called hormones
4. Circulatory System – heart and blood vessels;
and the lymphatic system composing of lymph
nodes and vessels
5. Articular System – consisting of joints and their
associated bones and ligaments
6. Respiratory System – comprising the lungs and
the system of tubes for air
7. Urinary System – kidneys, urinary bladder, and
excretory passages; elimination of waste
material in urine
8. Reproductive System – comprising various
organs concerned with reproduction
9. Skeletal System – bones and cartilaginous parts
like chest and nose
10. Integumentary System – the skin and its
appendages
11. Digestive System – oral cavity, pharynx, and gut;
extends from mouth to anus; glands like the liver
and the pancreas. Concerned with the
assimilation of food
ESSENTIAL LIFE PROCESSES
1. Metabolism – the sum of all the chemical
processes that occur in the body.
➢ Catabolism – the breakdown of complex
chemical substances into simpler
components.
➢ Anabolism – the building up of complex
chemical substances from smaller, simpler
components
2. Responsiveness – is the body’s ability to detect
and respond to changes.
3. Movement – includes motion of the whole body,
individual organs, single cells, and even tiny
structures inside cells.
4. Growth – is an increase in body size that results
from an increase in the size of existing cells, an
increase in the number of cells, or both.
5. Differentiation – is the development of a cell
from an unspecialized to a specialized state
6. Reproduction – refers either to (1) the formation
of new cells for tissue growth, repair, or
replacement, or (2) the production of a new
individual
HOMEOSTASIS
- “Unchanging sameness”, “staying the same”.
homeo = sameness, stasis = standing
- Maintenance of a relatively constant internal
environment that is essential to life.
- Condition of equilibrium (balance) in the body’s
internal environment due to the constant
interaction of the body’s many regulatory
processes.
STRESS
- One way to disrupt HOMEOSTASIS
- STRESS is the overall disruption that forces the
body to make ADAPTIVE CHANGES
- Factors causing stress are called STRESSORS
- Ex. heat, cold, viruses, mental disturbances,
hormones
HOMEOSTATIC REGULATION
➢ Autoregulation – occurs when the activities
of a cell, tissue, organ, or organ system
change automatically when faced with some
environment variation
➢ Extrinsic Regulation – results from activities
of the nervous or endocrine system, organ
systems that can control or adjust the
activities of many different systems
simultaneously
HOMEOSTASIS AND BODY FLUIDS
➢ Intracellular Fluid (ICF) – fluid within cells
➢ Extracellular Fluid (ECF) – fluid outside body
cells
o Interstitial fluid – ECF that fills the
narrow spaces between cells of
tissues.
o Blood plasma – ECF within blood
vessels
o Lymph fluid – ECF within lymphatic
vessels
 HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY WITH PATHOPHYSIOLOGY (LECTURE)
o Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF) – ECF
within brain and spinal cord
o Synovial Fluid – ECF in the joints
o Aqueous humor and Vitreous body –
ECF in the eyes
EXTERNAL ENVIRONMENT
- Surrounds the body
- Changes like temp, pressure and contact with
microorganisms
- Source of oxygen and nutrients required by all
body cells.
- Waste products of cellular activity are eventually
excreted into the external environment.
Skin
- provides an effective barrier between the body
tissues and the consistently changing external
environment
INTERNAL ENVIRONMENT
- Water-based medium in which body cells exist
- Cells are bathed in fluid called interstitial or
tissue fluid
o Absorb oxygen and nutrients from the
surrounding interstitial fluid
o Cellular wastes diffuse into the
bloodstream via the interstitial fluid
Selective Permeability
- Allows the cell (plasma) membrane to control
the entry or exit of many substances, thereby
regulating the composition of its internal
environment
- Ensures that the chemical composition of the
fluid inside cells is different from the interstitial
fluid that bathes them
FEEDBACK SYSTEM
- The body can regulate its internal environment
through many feedback systems.
- feedback system or feedback loop is a cycle of
events in which the status of a body condition is
monitored, evaluated, changed, re monitored,
re-evaluated, and so on.
Homeostatic Control Mechanism
1. Stimulus – disrupts homeostasis by increasing or
decreasing a controlled condition
2. Receptor/Sensor – monitor changes in a
controlled condition and sends input (nerve
impulses or chemical signals) to a control center
thru the afferent pathway
3. Control – center/ Integrating system establishes
the set point, evaluates the input it receives from
the receptors, and generates output commands
(nerve impulses or chemical signals) to effectors
thru the efferent pathway
- Set point – range of values within which a
controlled condition should be maintained
4. Effectors – receive output from the control
center and produce a response or change
5. Response – return to homeostasis by correcting
the disturbance that occurred as detected by the
receptors
Negative Feedback
- If the change/ effect is opposite/ negative to the
initiating stimulus
- Most of the negative feedback mechanisms are
beneficial
- Maintenance of homeostasis by negative
feedback goes on throughout the body at all
times
 HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY WITH PATHOPHYSIOLOGY (LECTURE)
Positive Feedback
PATHOLOGY
Clinical Features
- Rare in the body because they tend to increase
the original disturbance (stimulus) and to push
the variable farther from its original value.
- Effectors respond by exaggerating or enhancing
the stimulus
- Typically used to deal with threat or stress
- Ex. Giving birth -contractions promote more
contractions until delivery
Investigations
- Study of the changes that occur in cells, tissues
and organs when altered by disease and/or
injury and the effects these have on normal body
function.
- To relate normal body function to the
pathological changes that occur and can lead to
disease processes.
- Can lead to developing understanding in relation
to the body’s transition from normal biological
functioning to diseased pathophysiological
states.
- ‘Health’ and ‘illness’ are not viewed the same in
any two individuals, as patients and their own
conception of health and illness is very different.
ETIOLOGY
- Study of the cause(s) of disease and/or injury
- Causes of disease can be either:
o Endogenous – originating from within
the body
o Exogenous – coming from outside the
body
- Diseases can be of unknown cause (Idiopathic)
- Some conditions are caused by the effects of
treatments and called iatrogenic
- Nosocomial infection denotes a new disorder,
not the patient’s original condition; acquired
during the process of receiving health care. Ex.
Hospital acquired infection
- Risk factors exist which include dietary,
occupational or lifestyle conditions. Ex. smoking
- Predisposing factors make an individual more
susceptible to disease
- Disease prevention is highlighted for healthcare
professionals to consider and incorporate if
appropriate.
- The scientific study of disease. Includes the study
of structural alterations in cells, tissues and
organs that help to identify the cause of disease.
- Etiology and pathogenesis of disease leads to
clinical features and include the signs and
symptoms of disease
o Symptoms – an indication that a disease
is present and is what the patient usually
complains of
o Sign – what the clinician or healthcare
practitioner is looking or feeling for.
- Clinical features of a disease are often
accompanied by structural or functional changes
that can be investigated.
- Some conditions identify similar clinical features
to describe them such as indigestion and angina;
the same descriptions of chest pain appear in
both conditions, and it is difficult at times to tell
them apart (differential diagnosis).
- Some conditions have the same clinical features
such as diarrhea and vomiting, which occur in a
number of conditions with the same and even
multiple symptoms that frequently occur
together.
- Proper investigation of disease is required to
ensure prompt and accurate diagnosis to allow
treatment to be instigated.
- This usually involves:
o A clinical history and examination
o A range of diagnostic interventions may
be required such as:
▪ X-ray
▪ Laboratory Investigations:
• Microbiology
• Immunology
• Biochemistry
• Hematology
• Histopathology
• Genetics