ANAPHY LEC
ANATOMY – field in the biological sciences
concerned with the identification and
description of the body structures of living
things
BRANCHES OF ANATOMY:
o Gross anatomy – studies
structures that can be seen by
the naked eye
o Microscopic anatomy – studies
structures that can only be seen
with the aid of microscope
o Surface anatomy – studies
surface markings of the body to
understand internal anatomy
through visualization and
palpation
[Sternum – parts {Manubrium,
Manubriosternal Joint, Body, Xiphoid Process}
Note: The trachea will bifurcate to form the
right and left bronchi at the level of the sternal
angle.]
o Systemic anatomy – studies
structures of specific body
systems (organs that belong to
the same body system)
o Regional anatomy – studies
structures found within specific
regions of the body
o Radiographic anatomy –
studies structures that can be
viewed with radiographic
procedures: x-rays, MRI and CT
scans
[Diaphragm – separates thorax area from
abdominal area.]
o Pathological anatomy – studies
changes (gross to microscopic) in
organs or tissues associated with
the disease process (changes in
the appearance of the organ
brought about by the disease)
o Embryology – study of the
development of the first 8 weeks
of development after fertilization
of the human egg (first 8 wks is
when the fetus is developing
majority of the organs)
o Developmental Biology –
studies the complete
development of an individual from
fertilization to death
PHYSIOLOGY – field in the biological
sciences concerned with the functions of the
structures (cells, tissues, and organs)
BRANCHES OF PHYSIOLOGY:
o Endocrinology – study of
hormones
o Immunology – study of body’s
defense against invading
microorganism
o Neurophysiology – study of the
function of nerves
o Renal physiology – function of
the kidneys
o Respiratory physiology –
function of the lungs and air
passageways
o Cardiovascular physiology –
function of the heart and blood
vessels
o Pathophysiology – functional
changes associated with the
disease and aging (changes of
the function if the organ if the
organ is subjected to a disease
process/aging)
LEVELS OF STRUCTURAL
ORGANIZATION AND BODY
SYSTEMS
Cell - the smallest structural and functional unit
of the human body
o Chemical level – atoms & molecules;
smallest unit of matter that can
participate in chemical reactions
o Cellular level – molecules combine to
form cells
o Cells are basic structural and
functional unit of an organism;
smallest living unit in the human
body.
o Tissue level – group of cells and
extracellular matrix (ground substance
and fibers) that work together to perform
a particular function.
o Organ level – group of two or more
tissues functioning together
4 TYPES OF TISSUE:
Connective Tissue, Epithelial Tissue
ANAPHY LEC
Muscle Tissue, Nerve Tissue
Cytology – study of cells
Histology – study of tissues
Microscopic Anatomy – branches: Cytology
and Histology
o System level – group of related organs
with common function
o Organism level – all body systems:
Digestive + Integumentary + Skeletal +
Cardiovascular + Respiratory +
Reproductive + Muscular + Nervous +
Urinary + Endocrine + Lymphatic
System
Characteristics of the Living
Organism
1. Metabolism – sum of all the chemical
processes that occur in the body
Catabolism – breakdown of
complex chemical substances into simpler
components (e.g. Glycogenolysis; the body
will break down the stored glycogen to
produce smaller units we called glucose.)
Anabolism – building of complex
chemical substance from smaller and
simpler components (e.g. Glycogenesis; the
excess glucose will be transported in the
liver and it will be stored in the form of
glycogen.)
2. Responsiveness – ability to detect and
respond to changes
Note: Majority of the bacteria that
makes humans sick are classified as
mesophiles (growth rate: 37 degrees
celcius)
3. Movement – motion of the whole body
and even the organelles within the cells
4. Growth – an increase in body size that
results from increase in the number and
size of cells.
5. Differentiation – development of cell
from an unspecialized state
Note: living organism are
provided with stem cells and these stem
cells will give rise to cells that can
perform particular functions
6. Reproduction – (1) production of new
individual or (2) formation of new cells
for tissue repair or replacement
Homeostasis – any process that living things
use to actively maintain fairly stable conditions
necessary for survival. The body have to
maintain homeostasis
Hyperglycemia – pancreas will release
the hormone insulin which will be introduced to
the cells to be convert glucose to ATP, and will
transport glucose to the liver to store glucose in
the form of glycogen.
Hypoglycemia – pancreas will release
the hormone glucagon which will cause the
breakdown of glycogen in the liver.
Control of Homeostasis
Feedback systems – cycle of events in which
the status of a body condition is monitored,
evaluated, changed, remonitored, reevaluated
and so on.
o Control center – most of the time the
brain; sets range of values within which
a controlled condition should be
maintained
o (2) Receptor/Sensor – body structure
that monitors changes in controlled
condition and sends input to the control
center.
o (3) Effector – body structures that
receives output from the control center
and produces a response or effect that
changes controlled condition.
o Negative Feedback system – reverses
the change in the controlled condition
Example: the increase in the
blood glucose level will be
responded by the release of
insulin and the insulin will cause
the glucose level to go down.
o Positive Feedback system – tends to
strengthen or reinforce a change in one
body’s-controlled condition
Example: the descending of the
baby’s head would cause cervix
dilatation and the brain will cause
the posterior pituitary to release
oxytocin which will act on the
smooth muscle of the uterus,
causing them to contract. The
contraction of the uterine smooth
muscle will cause the baby to be
pushed farther downwards.
Basic Anatomical Terminology
• Body positions
• Anatomical position
ANAPHY LEC
Ipsilateral = On the same side of the body as
another structure
Contralateral = On the opposite side of the
body as another structure
• Standard position of reference Proximal = Nearer to the attachment of the
• Stand erect facing the observer limb to the trunk, or nearer to the origin of the
• Head level structure
• Eyes facing directly forward
• Feet flat on floor and directed forwards Distal = Father from the attachment of the limb
• Upper limbs at the sides with palms facing to the trunk, or farther from the origin of the
forward structure
• Body positions Superficial = Towards the surface of the body
• Reclining (lain down) body positions
• Prone position = if the body is lying face Deep = Away from the surface of the body
down Planes are imaginary flat surfaces that pass
• Supine position = if the body is lying face up through the body parts
Major Regions of the Body
• (1) Head Sagittal planes = vertical plane that divides
• Skull - encloses and protect the brain the body or organ into right and left side
• Face - front portion of the head that Midsagittal/Median – divide the body into 2
includes the eyes, nose, mouth, cheeks equal parts
and chin
• (2) Neck – supports the head and attach it to Parasagittal – divide the body away from the
the trunk midline into unequal right and left
Frontal/Coronal plane = divides the body into
• (3) Trunk front and back
• Chest
• Abdomen Transverse plane/Horizontal plane = divides
• Pelvis the body into superior and inferior
• (4) Upper Limbs
Oblique plane = passes through the body or
• Proximal – shoulder to elbow
organ at an angle other than 90 degrees
• Distal – from elbow to wrist and hand
• (5) Lower limbs Sections – are cut portions of the body or
• Buttocks one of its organs made along of the planes
• Thigh – Buttocks to knee {Transverse, Frontal, Sagittal}
• Leg – Knee to ankle
• Ankle Body Cavities – Spaces within the body that
• Foot help protect, separates and support internal
organs
Directional terms A. Cranial cavity – contains the brain
Superior/Cephalic/Cranial = Upper part of a B. Vertebral/Spinal cavity – contains the
structure; Towards the head spinal cord
Inferior/Caudal = Away from the head and • Continuous with each other and are
lower part of a structure composed of meninges and
cerebrospinal fluid for additional
Anterior/Ventral = Near to or at the front of the
protection of the brain and spinal cord
body
Note: Whiplash injury can cause extensive to
Posterior/Dorsal = Near to or at the back of
the brain with the absence of meninges and
the body
cerebrospinal fluids.
Medial = Nearer to the midline
Skull > Meninges (protective sheet) >
Lateral = Farther from the midline Cerebrospinal Fluid (cushion) > Brain
ANAPHY LEC
C. Thoracic cavity – also known as chest Serous membrane of the _______ is called
cavity _______.
• Formed(surrounded) by the ribs,
• Pleural cavity – pleura
muscles of the chest, sternum and
thoracic portion of the vertebral column • Pericardial cavity – pericardium
• Peritoneal/Abdominal cavity – peritoneum
3 smaller cavities of thoracic cavity
• Mucous membrane – line cavities or tube
• Pericardial cavity – fluid-filled space that that open to the exterior portion of the body
encloses the heart
• Nasal cavity and oral cavity (exposed
• Pleural cavity – 2 fluid-filled spaces that to external environment)
enclose the lungs
Abdominal Regions and Quadrants
• Mediastinum – central portion of the thoracic
cavity 2 methods of dividing the abdominopelvic
cavity
• Found between the lungs
• First method = draw two horizontal and
• Extends from the sternum to the vertebral vertical lines which will assume a tic-tac-toe
column grid; divides the abdominopelvic cavity into 9
regions
• Extends from the first rib to diaphragm
Organs in the Mediastinum – Thymus,
Esophagus, Trachea, and Aorta
D. Diaphragm – separates the thoracic cavity
from the abdominal cavity
Note: diaphragm is not a cavity but a skeletal
muscle
E. Abdominal cavity – contains the stomach,
spleen, liver, gallbladder, small intestine and
most(some) of the large intestine
F. Pelvic cavity – contains the urinary bladder,
some portions of the large intestine and
internal organs of the male and female
reproductive system
• Organs that belong to the abdominopelvic
cavity are referred to as viscera or visceral
organs

Membranes – thin, pliable tissue that

covers, lines and partitions structures
• Serous membranes – double layered
membrane covering body cavities that do not
directly open to the exterior
• Pleural cavity, pericardial cavity, abdominal
cavity
2 Layers of Serous Membranes: • Second method = draw a midsagittal line
• (1) Parietal layer – thin lining epithelium that and a transumbilical line, abdomen is divided
lines the wall of the cavity into four quadrants

• (2) Visceral layer – a thin epithelium that

adheres to the viscera or organ