Anatomy – the science of structure
and how they control body functions.
Dissection – the careful cutting
apart of body structures to study
their relationships.
Subspecialties of Anatomy:
• Embryology – study of the first eight
weeks of development after
fertilization of a human egg.
• Developmental Biology – study of the
complete development of
individual from fertilization to death.
• Cell Biology – study of cellular
structure and functions.
• Histology – study of microscopic
structure of tissues.
• Gross Anatomy – study of structures
that can be examined without a
microscope.
• Systemic Anatomy – study of
structure of specific systems of the
human body.
• Regional Anatomy – study of specific
regions of the body such as head or
chest.
• Surface Anatomy – study of surface
markings of the body to understand
internal anatomy through
visualization and palpation.
• Radiographic Anatomy – study of
body structures that can be visualized
with x-ray.
• Pathological Anatomy – study of
structure changes associated with
disease.
Physiology – the science of body
functions
Subspecialty of Physiology:
• Neurophysiology – study of functional
properties of nerve cells.
• Endocrinology – study of hormones
• Cardiovascular Physiology – study of
functions of the heart and blood
vessels.
• Immunology – study of the body’s
defenses against disease-causing
agents.
• Respiratory Physiology – study of the
air passageways and lungs.
• Renal Physiology – study of functions
an
of the kidneys.
• Exercise Physiology – study of
changes in cell and organ functions
due to muscular activity.
• Pathophysiology – Study of functional
changes associated with disease and
aging.
Structural Organization of Matter
1. Chemical Level
▪ Atoms – proton, neutron and
electron.
▪ Molecules – two or more
atoms joined together by
covalent or ionic bond.
2. Cells – smallest structural and
functional of the human body.
3. Tissues - group of cells and the
materials surrounding them that
work together to perform a
particular function.
4. Organs - composed of two or
more tissues work together to
provide specific functions and
they usually have specific
shapes.
5. Organ System - consist of one or
more organs that provide a
common function.
a. Respiratory system
b. Endocrine system
c. Muscular system
 d. Integumentary system Blood Fluids - are defined as dilute,
e. Nervous system watery solutions containing dissolved
f. Digestive system chemicals inside or outside of the cell.
g. Excretory/Urinary system
▪ Intracellular Fluid (ICF) – fluid
h. Reproductive system
within the cells.
i. Skeletal system
▪ Extracellular Fluid (ECF) – fluid
j. Cardiovascular system
outside the cells.
k. Lymphatic system
Interstitial fluid - ECF between
Basic Life Process cells and tissues
Blood plasma – ECF within
1. Metabolism - sum of all
blood vessels.
biochemical processes of cells,
Lymph – ECF within lymphatic
tissues, organs, and organ
vessels.
systems.
Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF) –
2. Responsiveness - ability to detect
ECF in spinal cord and brain.
and respond to changes in the
Synovial Fluid – ECF in joints
internal and external environment.
Aqueous humor – ECF in eyes
3. Movement - occurs at the
intracellular, cellular, organ levels. Cellular respiration depends on the
4. Growth - increase in number of composition of interstitial fluid.
cells, size of cells, tissues, organs,
Control of homeostasis is constantly
and the body.
being challenged by:
5. Differentiation - process a cell
undergoes development from an • Physical Insults
unspecialized to a specialized cell. • Changes in the internal
6. Reproduction - formation of new environment
cells for growth, repair, or • Physiological stress
replacement, or the production of
a new individual. Diagnosis of Disease is done by
assessing:
Homeostasis - a condition of equilibrium
(balance) in the body’s internal • Signs and symptoms
environment. It is a dynamic condition • Medical history
meant to keep body functions in the • Physical examination
narrow range compatible with
Homeostasis Imbalances
maintaining life.
Disorder - is a general term for any
The two body systems that largely
change or abnormality of function.
control the body’s homeostatic state:
Disease - is a more specific term for an
1. Nervous system
illness characterized by a recognizable
2. Endocrine system
set of signs and symptoms.
 ▪ Local disease - is one that affects
one part or a limited region of the
body.
▪ Systemic disease - affects either
the entire body or several parts.
Signs – objective changes that a
clinician can observe and measure.
e.g fever, rashes
Symptoms – subjective changes in
body functions that are not apparent
to an observer. e.g headache
Diagnosis - is the art of distinguishing one
disease.
Organ Systems of the Body
1. Integumentary System – protects
body, regulates temperature, and
eliminates wastes through sweat
and other secretions.
2. Skeletal System – provides
protection and support. Houses
cells that will become red blood
cells, white blood cells, and
platelets.
3. Muscular System - Facilitate
movement and maintain posture.
Generates the heat necessary for
warm-blooded organisms to
maintain a constant body temp.
4. Nervous System - senses and
responds to body conditions
through nerve impulses.
5. Endocrine System - Regulates
the body through chemical
mechanisms.
6. Cardiovascular system - Carries
blood and nutrients to specific
locations. It regulates body
temperature, and water balance.
7. Lymphatic system and immunity -
Transports fats and proteins to
the cardiovascular system. It
filters blood and protects against
disease.
8. Respiratory system - Extracts O2
and
eliminates CO2
9. Digestive system - Accomplishes
the physical and chemical
breakdown of food and
elimination of waste.
10. Urinary system - Involved in the
collection and excretion of waste
products in urine, and the
regulation of fluid, electrolyte, &
acid/base balance.
11. Reproductive System - consists
of the ovaries, uterus and vagina
in the female, and the testes and
penis in the male.
Anatomical Terminology
Directional Terms:
• Proximal – nearest to the origination
• Distal – farther from the origination
• Ipsilateral – same side of the body
• Contralateral – opposite side of the
body
• Superficial – towards the surface
• Deep – towards the core of the body
• Visceral - pertaining to a covering
over an organ
• Parietal - pertaining to a covering
against a cavity wall
Regional Names:

Midsagittal

Frontal

Body Planes - are imaginary flat
surfaces that separate the body or body
part into portions.
• Sagittal Planes - divide the body
into right and left sides.
▪ Midsagittal plane - it divides
the body into two equal,
mirror-image halves.
▪ Parasagittal plane - to the right
and left of the midsagittal that
divide the body into unequal
“halves”.
• Frontal Planes - divide the body
(or an organ) into anterior (front)
and posterior (back) portions.
• Transverse Planes - divide the
body into superior (upper) and
inferior (lower) portions.
• Oblique Planes
Transverse
Body Cavities:
• Cranial - formed by the cranial bones
and contains brain
• Vertebral - formed by bones of
vertebral column and contains the
spinal cord
• Thoracic - also called chest cavity
▪ Mediastinal – central part of
thoracic
▪ Right and Left Pleural Cavities
▪ Pericardial – located within the
middle part of mediastinal
 • Abdominopelvic Cell Types
▪ Abdominal - contains the
• Prokaryotic
stomach, spleen, liver,
➢ first cell types on earth
gallbladder, small and large
➢ no membrane bound cell
intestines.
➢ nucleoid – region of DNA
▪ Pelvic - contains the urinary
concentration
bladder, internal organs of
• Eukaryotic
reproductive system, and
➢ Nucleus bound membrane
portions of the large intestine.
➢ Include fungi, protists, plant,
and animal cells
Cell Structure
• Organelles
• Plasma membrane
• Cytoplasm
• Cytoskeleton -
• Cilia & Flagella – provide motility
▪ Cilia - used to move
substances outside human
cells
Membranes of the body cavities: ▪ Flagella – found on sperm
cells
• Pleural membranes - covers the • Centrioles – play a role in cell
lungs (visceral pleura) and the walls division
of the pleural cavity (parietal pleura). • Nucleus – control center of cell
• Pericardial membranes - covers the • Nuclear Envelope - separates
heart (visceral pericardium) and the nucleus from rest of cell
pericardial cavity walls (parietal • DNA – hereditary material
pericardium). • Nucleolus
• Peritoneal membranes - covers the • Endoplasmic Reticulum
abdominal organs (visceral ▪ Rough ER
peritoneum) and the abdominal ▪ Smooth ER
cavity walls (parietal peritoneum). • Golgi Apparatus
Cells – smallest living unit • Lysosomes
• Vacuoles
Robert Hooke – coined the term cell
• Mitochondria
Theodor Schwann & Matthias Schleiden ▪ have their own DNA
(1839) - all living things are made of ▪ breakdown fuel molecules
cells ▪ ATP – release energy

Rudolf Virchow - all cells come from

cells
 Cellular Transport
❖ Passive transport – no energy
required
▪ Diffusion – molecules move to
equalize concentration
▪ Osmosis – fluid flows from lower
solute concentration.
Hypotonic - solutes in cell
more than outside
Isotonic - solutes equal
inside & out of cell
Hypertonic - Solutes
greater outside cell
▪ Facilitated diffusion – no energy
is used.
❖ Active Transport – molecular
movement and requires energy.
❖ Endocytosis – movement is into cell.
Types of Endocytosis:
▪ Bulk-phase
▪ Receptor mediated
Forms of Endocytosis:
▪ Phagocytosis – cell eating
▪ Pinocytosis – cell drinking
❖ Exocytosis – cell discharges
material.
Histology - is the scientific field that
studies tissues
2. Connective Tissue - serve varied
Tissue - is a group of similar cells
organized for a specific function
1. Epithelial Tissue - cover external
and internal surfaces of the body;
epithelial tissues also form secretory
glands.
Epithelia fit into two categories:
▪ Covering and lining epithelia
a. Simple Squamous Epithelium
– single layer of flat cells;
filtration and diffusion
b. Simple Cuboidal Epithelium -
single layer of cube shaped
cells; secretion and absorption
c. Simple Columnar Epithelium –
single layer of non-ciliated
cells with nuclei near base of
cells
d. Ciliated Simple Columnar
Epithelium - single layer of
ciliated cells with nuclei near
base of cells
e. Pseudostratified Columnar
Epithelium – not a true
stratified tissue; nuclei of cells
are at different levels
f. Stratified Squamous
Epithelium –
g. Transitional Epithelium –
▪ Glandular Epithelia - glands
secrete a variety of chemicals,
and are usually not directly on
surfaces.
a. Endocrine glands –
produce hormones that
regulate various activities
b. Exocrine glands – produce
substances such as sweat,
oil, earwax, saliva, or
digestive enzymes.
structural functions, as well as
energy storage, fluid transport, and
other roles.
• Loose Connective Tissue -
many cells, fibers loosely
arranged
a. Areolar tissue –
strength, elasticity, and
support.
b. Adipose tissue –
reduce heat loss