Biolec101 Reviewer

BIOLEC101 REVIEWER: By: Kylle E.
Alimosa (Gwapa) BSN1-A

Anatomy and Physiology 2. Anatomical Imaging
Anatomy - By the use of
Investigates the structure of the body. The word machines

“ANATOMY” means to dissect or to cut apart
- X-ray, Ultrasound,
Two Basic Approach to study anatomy
MRI, CT Scan
1. Systemic Anatomy
- Body systems
Physiology
- ex: Cardiovascular
Deals with the process/ function of living things
Nervous
Ex: Function of the
Skeletal
Heart
Muscular
Brain
2. Regional Anatomy
Lungs
- By region
Goals of Physiology
- ex: Head
1. To predict body’s response to stimuli
Abdomen
2. To know how the body maintain condition
Arm within narrow range of values of continually
changing internal and external environments
Chest
Pathophysiology
Two ways to examine internal structures
Deals with the disordered, deranged functions of
1. Surface Anatomy
human body due to diseases (Abnormal, Functional
- External features Changes)
- ex: Body
projections Structural and Functional Organization of the human

Body
- Assessment
Chemical Level
(Externally)
- The S&F of all organisms are determined by
chemical make – up.
Atoms – Basic chemical unit of chemical element
1. Chemical Level
Molecules – Electrically neutral group of two or more

atoms. Held together by chemical bond
2. Cell Level
- Basic unit of organism
3. Tissue Level
BIOLEC101 REVIEWER: By: Kylle E. Alimosa (Gwapa) BSN1-A
- Group of similar cells and material surrounding area 3. Responsiveness
- Characteristics of cells and materials surrounding - Ability of organism to sense changes in the
them determines function of the tissue environment and make adjustments that helps maintain
life
4. Organ Level
4. Growth
- Compose of two or more tissue types that together
perform one or more common function - Refers to increase size of all or part of organism
Ex: Urinary bladder  How?
Skin >  in Cell number
Stomach >  in Cell size
Heart 5. Development
5. Organ System Level - Changes an organism undergoes through time
- Group of organs classified as unit because of - It begins with fertilization and ends in death
common function
5. Development
Ex: URINARY SYSTEM
> Differentiation – Change in cell structure and
- Kidney function from generalize to specialized
- Ureter 6. Reproduction
- Urinary Bladder - Formation of new cells on new organisms
- Urethra - Without reproduction of new cells there would be no

growth and tissue repair
6. Organism Level
- Any living things considered as a whole

Homeostasis
HUMANS, ANIMALS & PLANTS
“Homeo” – Same
> Existence and maintenance of a relatively constant

Characteristics of life
within the body
1. Organization
> Despite fluctuations in either internal/external
- Organize environment
- Specific interrelationship among parts of organism In order for the cell to function normally. It depends on
and how those part interact to perform specific function the fluid environment within narrow range of condition:
2. Metabolism  Temperature
- Ability to use energy to perform vital functions such  Volume

as:
 Chemical Content
> Growth
 Fluid Balance
> Movement
 Blood Ph
> Reproduction
 Blood Sugar
 Ion balance Negative Feedback
 Blood pressure 3 Components
>>>> These conditions are called VARIABLE > The receptor/ sensor
Variables – It is called variables because their values can - monitors the value of the variable
change
- such as nerve in the skin
Ex: Body Temperature is a variable that can  in a hot
> Control Center
environment and can  in cold environment
- establish set point which the variable is
Homeostatic Mechanism
maintained
 It is homeostasis method, process, or means to
- such as part of the brain
adjust to the change in the body
> Effector
 All Homeostasis are governed by:
- can change the value of variable
> Nervous System
- such as sweat glands
> Endocrine System
Disease
- DISRUPTS Homeostasis and sometimes results in death
Negative Feedback
 Maintains homeostasis
 Any deviation from set point (normal values) is

made smaller
 It does not prevent variation but maintains

variation within normal range
Positive Feedback
 Occur when initial stimulus further stimulates

the response.
 In other words deviation from set point

becomes greater
Terminology and Body Plan  Supine – Lying face upward
 New words can be over whelming especially  Prone – Lying face downward
medical terms
 Most terms are derived from Latin/Greek
 Words are often modified by adding prefix and

suffix
Directional Terms
 It is important to know directional terms

because we/ it will be used all throughout
 Superior – Up
 Inferior - Down
Body Positions
 Anatomical Position
- A person standing erect with face forward, upper

limbs hanging to sides and palms of the hand facing
forward
 Anterior – Front (Ventral Surface)
 Posterior – Back
(Dorsal Surface)
 Superficial – Structure close to surface of the

body
 Deep – Toward the interior of the body

 Proximal – Nearest
 Distal – Distant
 Used to refer linear structures such as limbs

(Arms and Legs)
Exercise
A boy standing on his head. His nose is _________ to his

mouth.
> Answer is superior
Body parts and regions
 Central Region
 Medial – toward midline > Head, Neck and Trunk
 Lateral – away from midline  Trunk can be divided into
- Thorax – Chest
- Abdomen – Region between thorax and pelvis
- Pelvis – Inferior end of trunk associated with hips

> Can be divided into 4 sections/quadrants and 9
regions
Exercise
 Upper Limb (Arm)  Organs and their place in the abdominal

quadrants
> Arm – Shoulders to Elbow
 Spleen
> Forearm – Elbow to Wrist
- Left Upper
 Gall Bladder
- Right Upper
 Kidneys
- Left and Right Upper
 Most Stomach
- Left Upper
 Most Liver
- Right Upper
 Lower Limb (Leg) Planes
> Thigh – Hip to Knee  Imaginary flat surface – useful to discuss body in
reference sectioning the body is a way to look
> Leg – Knee to Ankle inside
 Abdomen
 Sagittal Plane
- Vertically separates right to left
 Frontal Plane
- Vertically from right to left dividing body into

anterior and posterior
 Median Plane
- is a sagittal plane that passes through midline of the

body dividing it into equally right and left
Body Cavities
 Transverse Plane
- Horizontal plane runs through surface of the

ground
- Separates body to superior and inferior
 Cavity – Empty space
 Trunk contains 3 large cavities
- Thoracic Cavity
- Abdominal Cavity - Contains:
- Pelvic Cavity - Urinary Bladder
 Thoracic Cavity - Part of large intestine
- Surrounded by rib cage - Internal reproductive organs
- Separated from abdominal cavity by muscular

diaphragm
- If divided into right and left parts by median

structure called Mediastinum
 Thoracic Cavity
- organs found in thoracic cavity mediastinum
- Heart
- Thymus (lymphoid organ that produce T cells for

immune system)
- Trachea (wind pipe)
- Esophagus (connects throat to stomach

Serous Membrane
 Abdominal Cavity
 Line the trunk cavities and covers the organs of
- Bounded by abdominal muscles
these cavities
- Contains:
 Visceral – Organ
- Stomach
 Parietal - Wall
- Intestines
- Liver
- Spleen
- Pancrea
- Kidneys
 Pericardial Cavity
- Around the heart
 Pelvic Cavity
- Small space enclose by bones of pelvis

- Anchor organs to the body wall and provides
pathways for nerves and blood vessels
 Pleural Cavity
- Surround each lungs
 Retroperitoneal
- Parietal peritoneum covers other organs
- Kidneys
- Adrenal Glands
- Pancreas
 Abdominopelvic Cavity - Parts of intestine
- Contains serous membrane lined cavity called - Urinary bladder
peritoneal cavity
 Mesenteries
- Consist of two layers of peritoneum
- Attach the intestinal organs to the abdominal

cavity
CELLS
Study of Cells
Why is it important?
- In order for us to study chemistry
- In order for us to study tissues
- Cells determine the form and functions of the human

body
- Cells are like tiny factories filled with workers

(Organelles) doing different Jobs
- Cells are specialized to perform specific functions

(Different types of cells) ➢ Communication
- Within cells (Inside), are specialized structure called - Cells produce and received chemical and electrical
signal that allows them to communicate with each other
Organelles (Little organs)
➢ Reproduction and
➢ Nucleus - is an organelle containing cells genetic
material (DNA/RNA) Inheritance
➢ Cytoplasm - Living material surrounding the nucleus - Each cell contains genetic information
- contains many types of organelles - Specialized cells:
➢ Cell membrane/ plasma membrane – enclosed - Sperm Cells
- Oocytes (Cell in ovary)
Functions of Cell - Transmit genetic info to next generation
➢ Cell Metabolism & Energy use
- Chemical reactions that occur within the cells
- Energy released during metabolism is used for cell

activities such as:
1. Synthesis of new molecules
2. Muscle contraction
3. Heat production (helps maintain body temperature) Cell membrane/ Plasma membrane
➢ Synthesis of molecules ➢ Outermost component of cell

- Cells synthesis various types of molecules, including ➢ Encloses the cytoplasm, forms boundary between
protein, nucleic acid and lipids material inside the cell and outside the cell
- The different cells in our body do not all produce the ➢ Extracellular substances -substances outside the cell
same molecules. Therefore, the structural and
functional characteristics of cells are determined by the - Usually fluid such as Ions, metabolites and proteins
types of molecules
➢ Intracellular substances -substances inside the cell
➢ Cell membrane is made up of ➢ Membrane channel and carrier molecules - involved
with the movement of substances through cell
2 major type of molecules
membrane
- Phospholipids
-membrane protein unction as membrane channel
- Proteins
➢ Receptor molecules - part of intercellular
In Addition: communication system
- Cholesterol
- Carbohydrates Movement through the cell membrane
➢ Cell membrane are selectively permeable meaning

they allow substances, but not others
(Specific only) to pass into/ out of cell
➢ 2 types:
➢ Passive - Does NOT require the cell to expend energy
- Diffusion, osmosis and facilitated diffusion
➢ Active - Does require the cell to expend energy
- Active transport, secondary active transport,

endocytosis and exocytosis
➢ Diffusion - A solution generally composed of 2 major

➢ Fluid Mosaic Model - Studies arrangement of
parts
molecules in the cell membrane
➢ Solute - dissolved in a predominant liquid/ gas
➢ Phospholipids - Form double layer
- Polar -Hydrophilic( Water loving) ➢ Solvent - substances that dissolve solute
- Non polar -Hydrophobic(Water fearing) ➢ In diffusion, solutes such as ions/molecules tend to

move from high concentration of a solute to an area of
low concentration
➢ Concentration Gradient
- is the difference in the concentration of solute in a

solvent between 2 points divided by the distance
➢ Move down its concentration gradient - solute is

diffusing from high to low
➢ Moving up its concentration gradient - solute moves

➢ Phospholipids has fluid quality meaning they are not from low to high (this second type of movement does
completely stationary but able to move not occur by diffusion and requires energy in order to
➢ Cholesterol - gives phospholipid added strength and occur)
stability by limiting the amount of movement
➢ As the solution rises its weight produces Hydrostatic

pressure which moves water out of the tube back into
➢ In the body diffusion is an important means of
surrounding the tube
transporting substances through intra and extra cellular
fluids ➢ Osmosis stops if osmotic pressure is equal to
hydrostatic pressure
➢ Phospholipid bilayer - acts as barrier to most water-
soluble substances ➢ The greater the concentration the greater the
osmotic pressure
➢ Certain water-soluble substances can diffuse
between phospholipid molecule of membrane other ➢ Hypotonic - solution has lower concentration of
water-soluble substances such as ions can diffuse across solute and high concentration of water (solution is
cell membrane only by passing through cell membrane watery)
channel
- Thus the solution has less tone/ osmotic pressure
➢ Molecules that are lipid-soluble such as O2 and CO2
and steroids pass easily through phospholipid bilayer ➢ Lysis - Rupture of cells
- If cells swell enough

➢ Only specific substances can enter
➢ 2 types of Channels
➢ 1.) Leak Channels - allows ions to pass through
➢ 2.) Gated Channels - limit movement of ions across

membrane by opening/ closing
➢ Osmosis - is the diffusion of water (a solvent) across

a selectively permeable membrane; from high to low
concentration
➢ Isotonic - Concentration of various solutes and water
➢ Osmosis is important to cells because large volume are the same on both sides of the membrane
changes caused by water movement can disrupt normal
cell function
➢ Concentration of a solution is expressed not in terms

of H2O but in terms of solute concentration
➢ Osmotic Pressure - is the movement of water across

a selectively permeable membrane
➢ Osmotic pressure is a measure of tendency of water

to move by osmosis across a selectively permeable
membrane
➢ Hypertonic - The solution has higher concentration of from area of high Concentration to low concentration of
solute and a lower concentration of water relative to that substances
the cytoplasm of the cell (Solution is salty)
➢ Crenation - Cell shrinkage
➢ Active Transport - is a carrier mediated process that

moves substances across the cell membrane from low
to high Concentration
➢ Active transport requires energy (ATP)
➢ If ATP is not available Active transport stops
➢ In some cases active transport exchange one

substance for another
Carrier Mediated transport Mechanism
Ex:
➢ Many nutrient molecules such as amino acids and
glucose cannot enter cell by diffusion. Likewise, many ➢ Sodium potassium pump
polar molecules produced in cell cannot leave the cell ➢ Moves Na+ out of cells and K+ into cells
by diffusion
➢ Secondary Active Transport -
➢ Carrier molecules - proteins within the cell's
membrane are involved in carrier mediated transport Involves the active transport of one substance
mechanism - Process of carrying such as sodium across the cell membrane
➢ The diffusion of that transported substance down its

concentration gradient provides energy to transport a
second substance such as glucose
➢ Endocytosis & Exocytosis -
Large water-soluble molecules that cannot be

transported, small pieces of matter and even whole
cells
➢ 3 types of carrier mediated transport
➢They can be transported through membrane bound
➢ Facilitated Diffusion - is a carrier mediated transport sacs called vesicles
process that moves substances across cell membrane
➢ Nucleus - is bounded by Nuclear envelope - consist of
outer and inner membrane with narrow space between
➢ At some point on the surface of nucleus the outer

and inner membrane come together to form nuclear
pores - Through which material can pass through in/out
nucleus
➢ NUCLEUS (little nut/ stone of fruit)
➢ The nuclei of human cells contain 23 pairs of

chromosomes - carrying genetic info in the form of
➢ The cell membrane contains specific receptor genes, which contains DNA and proteins
molecules that binds to specific substance -
Endocytosis is triggered
➢ Substances is transported in to the cell. This process

is called Receptor-mediated endocytosis
➢ Phagocytosis (Cell eating) is often used for

endocytosis when solid particles are ingested
➢ Pinocytosis if vesicles are formed and contains liquid
➢ Exocytosis (Opposite of endocytosis) ➢ NUCLEUS (little nut/ stone of fruit)
➢ Material in vesicle is released from the cell ➢ Chromatin - chromosomes are loosely coiled
➢ In some cells, Membrane bound sacs called secretory ➢ When cells prepares to divide chromosomes become
vesicles accumulate materials for release tightly coiled until visible to microscope
➢ Genes that influences the structural and functional

features of every individual are positive of DNA
molecules
Organelles
➢ NUCLEUS (little nut/ stone of fruit) ➢ Is a large

➢ Ribosomes - are organelles where protein are
organelle usually located near the center of the cell
produced
➢ All cells of the body have nucleus at some point in
➢ May attached to other organelles such as:
their life cycle
endoplasmic reticulum
➢ Ribosomes that are not attached to any organelle are ➢ Golgi App are present in larger numbers and most
called free ribosomes highly develop in cells that secret protein such as:
- Salivary Glands
- Pancreas
➢ Rough and Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum
➢ ER (Endoplasmic Reticulum) (a network) are series of

membranes forming sacs and tubules
➢ Rough ER ➢ Secretory Vesicles - are membrane bound sacs that

- Are ER with ribosomes attached carry substances from GA “those that are pinched off”
to cell membrane, where vesicle contents are released
- Major sire of protein synthesis
➢ In many cells' SV accumulate in cytoplasm and are
➢ Smooth ER released to exterior when cells receive signals
- Are ER without ribosomes attached
- Major site for lipid synthesis
➢ Lysosomes and Peroxisomes
- Are membrane bound sacs containing enzymes within

the cells
➢ Golgi Apparatus/ Golgi complex ➢ Lysosomes breakdown phagocytized material
- Series of closely packed membrane sacs that collect, ➢ Peroxisomes breakdown fatty acids, amino acids and
modify, package and distribute proteins and lipids hydrogen peroxides
produced by
➢ Lysosomes is referred to as intra-cellular digestive
ER systems
➢ Golgi App chemically modifies protein by attaching

carb/lipid
➢ Proteins are then packaged to membrane sacs

➢ They facilitate chromosome movement during cell
division
➢ Centrome - specialized area of cytoplasm close to the

nucleus where microtubule formation occurs
- contains 2 centrioles, each centriole is a small

➢ Mitochondria - are major sites for ATP production cylindrical organelle composed of microtubule
which cells use as an energy source organized into 9 triples, each triplet consist of 3 parallel
microtubules joined together
➢ Have inner and outer membrane separated by space
- Outer - Smooth contour
- Inner - Rough contour -
Called Cristae
➢ Mitochondrial matrix - material within the inner

membrane, contains enzymes and mitochondrial DNA
➢ Mitochondria carryout Aerobic
Respiration - Breaks down of glucose in the

presence of O2 to produce CO2, water and ATP
➢ Cilia, Flagella and Microvilli
➢ Cilia (an eyelash) move substances over the surface

of the cells
➢ Flagella (a whip), one per cell, are much longer than

cilia and propel sperm cells
➢ Microvilli (shaggy hair) increase the surface area of

cells and aid in absorption
➢ Cilia vary in number from 0 to thousands per cell
➢ Cilia are numerous on surface cells that line the

➢ Cytoskeleton - supports the cytoplasm and respiratory tract
organelles and its involved with cell movements
➢ Cytoskeleton is composed of microtubules,

microfilaments and intermediate filaments
➢ Like skeleton of the body acts as internal framework

of the cell
➢ Consist of protein structures that support the cell
➢ Holds organelles in place
➢ Enable the cell to change shape
➢ Centrioles - located in the centrosome, are made up Whole Cell Activity

of microtubules ➢Cells characteristics are ultimately determined by:
- Types of protein they produce
➢Protein produced are in turn determined by genetic

info in the nucleus
➢Human body is composed of trillions of cells. With

many different characteristics. Each human begins life
as single cell. Through cell division and cell
differentiation. The cells that make up human body is
➢ Gene Expression involves 2 steps:
formed.
Gene Expression ➢ Transcription - making a copy of the “recipe” (takes

place in the nucleus)
➢ DNA - Contains the information that directs protein
synthesis ➢ Translation - Changing something from one form to
another
➢ This process is called Gene Expression. Protein
produced in cell include those that serve as structural ➢ Messenger RNA (mRNA) - Copy of the gene produced
components inside the cell secreted to the outside of during transcription -these mRNA travels from the
the cell and enzymes that regulate chemical reactions in nucleus to the ribosomes in the cytoplasm where
the cell information in the copy is then used to construct a
protein by means of translation
➢ DNA influences the S&F characteristics of the entire
organism ➢ Transfer RNA (tRNA) - carry amino acids (the
ingredient necessary to synthesize a protein) to the
➢ How? ribosomes
- because it directs protein synthesis ➢ Transcription - Is the first step in gene expression and
it takes place in the nucleus of the cell, DNA Determines
- this determines individuals color of the eye, hair and
the structure of mRNA through transcription.
other inherited traits
➢ During Transcription the double strands of a DNA
segment separate and DNA nucleotides of the gene pair
with RNA nucleotides forming mRNA
➢ Now each nucleotide of DNA contains one of the

following:
- Thymine, Adenine, Cytosine/ Guanine
➢ Now each nucleotide of mRNA contains:
➢ DNA molecules consist of nucleotides joined - Uracil, Adenine, Cytosine/ Guanine

together to form two (2) nucleotide strands ➢ The number and sequence of nucleotides in the DNA
➢ The 2 strands are connected and resemble a ladder. serve as a template to determine the number and
That is twisted around its long axis sequence of nucleotides in mRNA
➢ Gene - is a sequence of nucleotides that provides a ➢ Transcription - Is the first step in gene expression and
chemical set of instructions for making a specific protein it takes place in the nucleus of the cell, DNA Determines
- “Recipe” - for making protein
➢ DNA nucleotides pair only with specific RNA
➢ Each DNA molecule contains different genes nucleotides
➢ DN ’s thymine with RN ’s adenine (T-A)
➢ DN ’s adenine with RN ’s Uracil ( -U)
➢ DN ’s cytosine with RN ’s guanine (C-G)
➢ DN ’s Guanine with RN ’s cytosine (G-C) ➢ Translation - Synthesis of protein based on the

information of mRNA. Translation occurs in Ribosomes.
➢ After they pair up and enzyme catalyzes (accelerate)
reaction that form chemical ➢ During translation a ribosome bind to mRNA
bonds between the RNA nucleotides to form a long ➢ It aligns mRNA and tRNA molecules (codons align
mRNA segment with anticodons)
➢ Once the mRNA has been transcribed (copied) ➢ Peptide bond - enzyme associated with the ribosome
portions of mRNA maybe removed (Chemical for bonding)
➢ Transcription - Is the first step in gene expression and ➢ Polypeptide chain is formed during the process
it takes place in the nucleus of the cell, DNA Determines
Cell cycle
➢ Codons - group of 3 nucleotides
➢ During growth and development, cell division allows
➢ The information in mRNA is carried in groups of three for a dramatic increase in cell number
➢ There are 64 possible mRNA codons but only 20 ➢ 2 major phases:
amino acids. As a result, more than 1 codon can specify
the same amino acid ➢ 1.) Interphase
➢ Example: (non-dividing phase)
-CGA , CGG, CGU and CGC code for amino acid arginine 2.) Cell division
-UUU & UUC code for phenylalanine
➢ There are some codons that specify a particular

amino acid - These are called stop codon because it acts
as signal to end translation process
➢ Translation - Synthesis of protein based on the

information of mRNA. Translation occurs in Ribosomes.
➢ mRNA pass through the nuclear pores to the

ribosome
➢ The process of translation requires two other types ➢ DNA replicates during Interphase
of RNA
➢ Cell Division occurs through mitosis which divides
1.) Ribosomal RNA into 4 stages:
2.) tRNA (Transfer RNA) - Prophase: each chromosome consist of 2 chromatids
joined at the centromere
➢ In each tRNA there is a 3-nucleotide sequence called
Anticodon - Metaphase: chromosome align at the center of the cell
- Anaphase: Chromatids separate at the centromere and
migrate to opposite poles
- Telophase: The two new nuclei assume their normal

structure and cell division is complete, producing 2 new
daughter cells
Differentiation
➢ Bone cells, do not look like or function the same as

muscle cells, nerve cells or red blood cells
➢ This process by which cells develop with specialized

structure and function is called Differentiation.
Apoptosis (Cell Death)
➢ Is programmed death of cells. Apoptosis regulates

the number of cells within various tissues of the body
➢ Normal process
TISSUES >> Simple Squamous Epithelium
> Is a group of specialized cells and the = Single Layer of flat, Often hexagonal cells; the
nuclei appear as bumps when viewed in cross
extracellular surrounding them section because the cells are so flat
> Cells of particular tissue share common Function: Diffusion, filtration, some secretion and
structure and function some protection against friction
Location: Lining of blood vessels, Lymphatic
>Histology – Microscopic study of tissue vessels, Alveoli, Kidney tubules, Lining of serous
(histo-, Tissue, -ology, Study) membranes (pleural, pericardial, peritoneal)
>> Simple Cuboidal Epithelium
> The Structure of each tissue type is
= Single layer of cube shape cells, some cells have
related to its function (Meaning, the shape microvilli or cilia
and size of tissue have a reason and that is Function: Secretion and absorption
related to its function) Location: Kidney tubules, Glands, Bronchioles of
> Disease – May be caused by changes in Lungs, Surface of the ovaries
tissue >> Simple Columnar Epithelium
= Single layer of tall narrow cells some cells have
4 Basic tissue types are microvilli or cilia
1.) Epithelial Function: Movement of particles out of the
bronchioles of the lungs by ciliated cells,
2.) Connective partially responsible for the movement of oocytes
through the uterine, Secretion
3.) Muscle
Location: Kidney tubules, Glands, Bronchioles of
4.) Nervous lungs, Uterine tubes, Stomach, Intestines, Gall
bladder
1. Epithelial cells
3 types of epithelium: (Base on shapes) >> Pseudostratified Columnar
= Squamous – cells are flat, scale like.
Epithelium
= Single layer of cells; some cells are tall and thin
= Cuboidal – cells are cube shaped about as wide and reach the free surface, The cells are almost
as they are tall, cube like. always ciliated and are associated with goblet
cells that secrete mucus onto free surface
= Columnar – cells tend to be taller than they are
wide Function: Synthesize and secrete mucus onto the
free surface, Move mucus that contains foreign particles
Classification of epithelia: over the surface of the free surface
= Simple epithelium – consists of single layer of Location: Lining of nasal cavity, Nasal sinuses,
cells, with each cell extending from the basement Auditory tubes, Pharynx, Trachea, Bronchi of lungs
membrane to free surface >> Stratified Squamous Epithelium
= Stratified epithelium – consists of more than one = Several layers of cells that are cuboidal in the basal
layer, Progressively flattened toward the surface
layer of cells, but only the basal layer attaches the
deepest layer to the basement membrane Function: Protects against abrasion, Forms a barrier
against infection
Location: Keratinized outer layer of the skin, Non – > Gap junctions – small channels that allow small
Keratinized (Mouth, Throat, Larynx, Esophagus, Anus, molecules and ions to pass from one epithelial cell
Vagina, Inferior urethra) to an adjacent one
>> Transitional Epithelium

= Stratified cells that appear cuboidal when the organ
or tube is not stretched and squamous when the organ
or tube is stretched by fluid
Function: Accommodates fluctuations in the volume
fluid in an organ or a tube, Protects against the caustic
effects of urine
Location: Lining of urinary bladder, ureter and =Glands=
superior urethra >Are secretory organs
>Are composed of epithelium with a supporting
network of connective tissue
=Free surfaces= (How do glands develop?)
>By infolding or outfolding of epithelium in the
Smooth – reduces friction as material moves embryo
across it, Lined with microvilli or
Cilia
Endothelium – the lining of the blood vessels is a
specialized type of simple squamous epithelium
(smooth)
>If the gland maintains an open contact with the

epithelium from which it develop, a duct is
present
=Cell connection= >Exocrine glands –glands with duct
> Cells have structure that hold one cell to one >Endocrine glands –glands without duct
another or to the basement membrane >Hormones – cellular products of endocrine
These structures do 3 things: glands
1.) mechanically bind the cells together
2.) help form a permeability barrier
3.) provide a mechanism for intercellular 2. Connective Tissue
communication
> Is a diverse primary tissue type that makes up
> Desmosome (a band) – are mechanical links that
bind cells together every organ in the body. Connective tissue differs
> Hemidesmosomes – modified desmosomes, also from the other 3 tissue types in that it consist of
anchor cells to the basement membrane cells separated from each other by abundant
> Tight junction – bind adjacent cells together extracellular matrix.
>> Reticular Tissue

= Fine network of reticular fibers irregularly
arranged
Function: Provides a superstructure for lymphatic
and hemopoietic tissues
Location: Within lymph, Nodes, Spleen, Bone
>>Areolar Connective Tissue marrow
= Fine network of fibers with spaces between
Function: Loose packing, Support, Nourishment
for the structures with which it is associated
Location: Widely distributed throughout the
body, Substances in which epithelial basement
membrane rest, Muscles, Nerves, Attaches skin to
underlying tissues
>> Dense Regular Collagenous
Connective Tissues
= Matrix composed of collagen fibers running in
somewhat the same direction in tendons and
ligaments
= Run in several directions in the dermis of the
skin and in organs capsules
Function: Withstand great pulling forces
exerted in the direction of fiber orientation due to
>>Adipose Tissue great tensile strength and stretch resistance
= Little extracellular matrix surrounding cells
Location: Tendons (attach
= Fat cells are so full of lipids that the cytoplasm is
muscle to bones), Ligaments (Attach
pushed to the periphery of the cell
bones to bones)
Function: Packing material, Thermal insulator,
Energy storage, Protection of organs against injury
from being bumped or jarred
Location: Widely distributed throughout the
body, Substances in which epithelial basement
membrane rest, Muscles, Nerves, Attaches skin to
underlying tissues
>> Dense Irregular Collagenous Connective

Tissues
= Matrix composed of collagen fibers running in
somewhat the same direction in elastic ligaments
= Elastic fiber run in connective tissue of blood
vessels wall
Function: Capable of stretching and recoiling like
a rubber band with strength in the direction of
fiber orientation
Location: Elastic ligaments between the
vertebrae and along the dorsal aspect of the neck,
Vocal cords, Blood vessel walls
>> Elastic Cartilage

= Similar to hyaline cartilage, but matrix also
>> Hyaline Cartilage contains elastic fibers
= Collagen fibers are small and evenly dispersed Function: Provides rigidity with even more
in the matrix flexible than hyaline cartilage because elastic fibers
= Chondrocytes are found in spaces return to their original shape after being stretched
Function: Allows growth of Location: External ears, Epiglottis, Auditory

tubes
long bones, Provides rigidity with some flexibility in
trachea, bronchi, ribs and nose
Location: Growing long bones, Cartilage rings
of the respiratory system, Costal cartilage or ribs,
nasal cartilage
>> Supporting Connective Tissue

= Hard, Bony matrix, Many osteocytes
Function: Provides great strength and support
and protects internal organs such as brain, Bone
also provides attachment sites for muscles and
ligaments
>> Fibrocartilage Location: All bones of the body
=Collagen fibers similar to those in hyaline
cartilage
=Fibers are more numerous than in other
cartilages and are arranged in thick bundles
Function: Somewhat flexible and capable of
withstanding considerable pressure connects
structures subjected to great pressure
Location: Inverted disks pubic symphysis and
articular disks (Knee and temporomandibul ar (Jaw)
joints) >> Fluid Connective Tissue: Blood
= Branched and connected to one another
= Formed elements, Fluid matrix by intercalated disks which contain gap
Function: Transport oxygen, carbon dioxide, junctions
hormones, nutrients, waste products and other Function: Pumps the blood, Under
substances, Protects body from infection involuntary (Unconscious) control
Location: Within the blood vessels, White Location: In the heart
blood cells frequently leave the blood vessels and
enter extracellular spaces
>> Smooth Muscle

3. Muscle Tissues = Smooth muscle cells are tapered at each
end, are not striated
>Is to contract or shorten, making = Have single nucleus
movements possible Function: Regulate the size of the organs,
>Muscle contraction results from contractile Forces fluid through tubes, Controls the
proteins located within the muscle cells amount of light entering the eye, Produces
goosebumps in the skin
>> Skeletal Muscle Location: In hollow organs such as the
stomach and the intestines, Skin, eyes
= Skeletal muscle cells or fibers appear
striated (banded)
= Cells are large, long and cylindrical with
many nuclei
Function: Movement of the body under
voluntary control
Location: Attach to bone or other
connective tissue
4. Nerve Tissue
>Forms the brain, spinal
cord and nerves
>Responsible for coordinating and controlling
many body activities
Ex: Conscious control of skeletal muscles and
unconscious regulation of cardiac muscle are all
>> Cardiac Muscle accomplished by nervous tissue
= Cardiac muscle cells are cylindrical and >>Nervous tissue
striated and have single nucleus = A neuron consists
of dendrites
= A cell body and a long axon, glia or support cells = Digestive, Respiratory, and
surround neuron
reproductive tracts
Function: Neurons transmit information in the
form of action potentials, Store information,
Integrate and
evaluate data, Protect and form specialized sheaths
around axons
Location: In the brain, Spinal cord, ganglia
3. Serous Membrane
> Line cavities that do not open to
exterior of the body such as:
= Pleural, pericardial and
Peritoneal
4. Synovial Membrane
Tissue Membranes > Line cavities of freely movable
> Is a thin sheet or later of tissue that joints.
covers structure or lines a cavity > Synovial fluid – makes joints very slippery,
(consist of epithelium) thereby reducing friction and allowing smooth
> There are 4 membranes in the body movement within the joint
1 external and 3 internal:
1. External tissue membrane is the

skin
2. Mucous Membrane
> Line cavities that open to the
outside of the body such as:
>Chronic inflammation – results when the
Inflammation agent responsible for an injury is not
removed or something else interferes with
>Occurs when tissues are damage. the healing process.
Ex:
< When viruses infect epithelial cells
Tissue Repair
of the upper respiratory tract; <> Is the substitution of viable cells
for dead cells
<> Inflammation are produced
<> Repair can occur through
<> Inflammation can also result from regeneration or by fibrosis
the immediate and painful events that
= Fibrosis – replacement of a new type
follow trauma
of tissue develops that eventually
<> Inflammation mobilize the body causes scar production
defenses and isolates and destroys
microorganisms
Inflammation five major symptoms:

= Heat
= Redness
= Swelling
= Pain
= Disturbance of function
>Chemical mediators – released or

activated in the injured tissues.
- This includes histamine and prostaglandin
- Chemical mediators also increase
permeability of blood vessels.
>Edema – Swelling, this mechanism helps
prevent the spread of infectious agents
INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM EYEBROWS KEEPS SWEAT OUT OF THE
EYES
The integumentary system consists of
the skin and accessory structures, EYELASHES PROTECT THE EYES FROM
such as hair, glands, and nails. FOREIGN
Integument means covering. OBJECTS
The appearance of the integumentary HAIR IN THE NOSE AND EARS
system can indicate physiological INTACT SKIN REDUCE WATER LOSS
imbalances in the body. (ITS LIPIDS
FUNCTIONS: ACT AS A BARRIER TO WATER
1. PROTECTION DIFFUSION)
2. SENSATION
3. VITAMIN D PRODUCTION 2. SENSATION
4. TEMPERATURE REGULATION THE INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM HAS
SENSORY
5. EXCRETION
RECEPTORS THAT CAN DETECT :
1. PROTECTION
HEAT
PROVIDES PROTECTION AGAINST:
COLD
ABRASION
TOUCH
ULTRAVIOLIET LIGHTS (Melanin
absorbs UV PRESSURE
lights) PAIN
MICROORGANISMS AND OTHER SENSORY RECEPTORS
FOREIGN 1. Thermoreceptors (temperature)
SUBTANCES 2. Nociceptors (pain) = stimulates
HAIR ON THE HEAD ACT AS HEAT involuntary motor response ex .
INSULATOR. Pulling of hands away from a hot
surface.
3. Mechanoreceptors (pressure) -the body temperature is within
normal range even when
Merkel receptor = detects steady
environmental temperature varies.
pressure from small objects.
• Radiation (infrared energy)
Meissner corpuscle =useful for
detecting texture or movement of • Convection (air movement)
objects against the skin. • Conduction (direct contact with an
Pacinian corpuscle = detects large object)
changes in the environment i.e • Perspiration
vibrations.
5. EXCRETION
Small amount of waste products are
3. VITAMIN D PRODUCTION lost through the skin in gland
UV LIGHT secretions.
↓
PRECURSOR MOLECULE is formed SKIN
↓
Carried by the blood to the Liver to
modify it.
↓
Kidneys modify it further.
↓
 The skin is made up of two major
Formation of active Vitamin D. tissue layers: the epidermis and
the dermis.
 The epidermis is the most
4. TEMPERATURE REGULATION
superficial layer of skin.
Thermoregulation - (Homeostasis)  It is a layer of epithelial tissue
that rests on the dermis.
 The dermis is a layer of dense Outer layer of dead epithelial cells
connective tissue. (resists abrasion and forms a
 The skin rests on the permeability barrier)
subcutaneous tissue, which is a Keratinization
layer of connective tissue.
Cells change shape and chemical
The subcutaneous tissue is not part of composition
the skin.
Older cells are pushed to the surface
New cell formation by Mitosis
EPIDERMIS AND DERMIS
KERATINOCYTES
EPIDERMIS
 Cells of the epidermis
 The epidermis prevents water  The body’s most abundant
loss and resists abrasion. epithelial cells
 The epidermis, known as the  Contain large amounts of keratin
cutaneous membrane, is a  Gives the Stratum corneum
keratinized stratified squamous structural strength
epithelium.
 The epidermis is composed of
distinct layers called strata.
 The most superficial stratum of
the epidermis, consists of dead
squamous cells filled with
keratin.
 Keratin gives the stratum
corneum its structural strength.
 Cells of the deepest strata
perform mitosis. STRATUM CORNEUM
 As new cells form, they push - The most superficial stratum
older cells to the surface, where of the epidermis.
they slough, or flake off. - Consists of dead squamous
cells filled with Keratin.
- Coated and surrounded by DERMIS
Lipids
 The dermis is composed of
- Composed of 25 or more
dense collagenous connective
layers of dead squamous cells
tissue containing fibroblasts,
joined by desmosomes.
adipocytes, and macrophages.
- Over a bony prominence, the
 Nerves, hair follicles, smooth
stratum corneum can thicken
muscles, glands, and
to form a cone-shaped
lymphatic vessels extend into
structure called corn (callus)
the dermis.
STRATUM LUCIDUM  Collagen fibers, oriented in
- A thin, clear layer of dead skin many directions, and elastic
cells in the fibers are responsible for the
epidermis named for its structural strength of the
translucent appearance. dermis and resistance to
stretch.
STRATUM GRANULOSUM
 Some collagen fibers are
- The thin layer of cells in the oriented in more directions
epidermis. than others, forming cleavage
STRATUM SPINOSUM lines.
 Cleavage lines, or tension
- The cells in these layers have lines, in the skin, are more
lots of desmosomes (spiny resistant to stretch.
appearance).  An incision made parallel with
STRATUM BASALE these lines tends to gap less
and produce less scar tissue.
- Deepest Stratum
 If the skin is overstretched for
- Consist of cuboidal or
columnar cells that undergo any reason, the dermis can be
damaged, leaving stretch
- MITOTIC DIVISION about
every 19 days. marks.
Dermal papillae are projections

toward the epidermis found in the
upper part of the dermis. The dermal  Most melanin molecules are
papillae contain many blood vessels. brown to black pigments, but
The dermal papillae in the palms of some are yellowish or reddish.
the hands, the soles of the feet, and  Melanin provides protection
the tips of the digits are arranged in against ultraviolet light from the
parallel, curving ridges that shape the sun.
overlying epidermis into fingerprints  Melanin is produced by
and footprints. melanocytes and then packaged
into vesicles called
SUB CUTANEOUS TISSUE
melanosomes, which move into
 Also called HYPODERMIS the cell processes of
 Made up of loose connective melanocytes.
tissues, including adipose tissues  (Epithelial cells phagocytize the
 Contains about half of the body’s tips of the melanocyte cell
stored lipids processes, thereby acquiring
 Functions as PADDING and melanosomes.)
INSULATION
Melanin Transfer to Epithelial Cells
 Responsible for some of the
difference in appearance
between men and women and of
the same sex.
SKIN COLOR
 The two primary pigments are
melanin and carotene.
 Melanin is the group of pigments
primarily responsible for skin, CAROTENE
hair, and eye color.  Orange-yellow pigment.
 Carotene is a yellow pigment  Found in plants such as squash
found in plants such as squash and carrots (source of Vitamin A)
and carrots.  Lipid-soluble; when consumed, it
accumulates in the stratum
corneum and in the adipocytes
MELANIN
of the dermis and subcutaneous  Forms the base of the hair
tissues. follicle that rests on the Hair
Papilla.
HAIR PAPILLA
ACCESORY STRUCTURES
 A mass of connective tissue,
HAIR, GLANDS, NAILS
nerve endings and blood
1) HAIR capillaries at the base of the hair
 Found everywhere on the skin follicle.
except on :
ARRECTOR PILI
 Palms
 Soles  Smooth muscle cells
 Parts of the genitalia  Contraction causes a raised area
 Distal segment of the fingers and of skin (goose bumps).
toes
PARTS OF THE HAIR
Each strand of hair is made up of:
A. Medulla - innermost layer of the
hair shaft
B. Cortex - surrounds the medulla
* Contains most of the hair's
pigment, melanin.*
C. Cuticle - the outermost part of
the hair that covers the Cortex. 2) GLANDS
 2 Major Glands of the Skin:
HAIR SHAFT A. Sebaceous Glands - produce
 The hair that is visible. SEBUM
 Protrudes above the surface of B. Sweat Glands
the skin. 1. Eccrine sweat glands
2. Apocrine sweat glands
HAIR BULB
ECCRINE SWEAT GLANDS
 Are simple, coiled, tubular  Nutrient source for
glands and release sweat bacteria, which cause
by merocrine secretion. odors
 Most numerous in the
palms and soles.
 Secretion mostly water
with few salts.
 Coiled, tubular glands that
discharge directly onto skin
surface (sensible
perspiration)
 Widely distributed on body
surface specially on palms
and soles
APOCRINE SWEAT GLANDS
 Simple, coiled, and tubular.
 Produces a thick secretion
rich in organic substances  NAIL BODY = Visible Part
released by Merocrine  NAIL ROOT = part of the nail
secretion. covered by skin
 Open into hair follicles but  CUTICLE ( EPONYCHIUM)
only in ARMPITS and  LUNULA = small part of the nail
GENITALIA (becomes active Matrix ( crescent shape)
at puberty).  Note : Unlike hair, nails grow
 Found in armpits, around continuously and do not have a
nipples and in pubic region. resting stage.
 Secrete products into hair
follicles via merocrine
secretion.
 Produce sticky, cloudy
secretion
 RASHES AND LESIONS IN THE
SKIN CAN BE SYMPTOMS OF
PROBLEMS ELSEWHERE IN THE
BODY.
BURNS
 A burn is injury to a tissue
caused by heat, cold, friction,
The nail is a thin plate, consisting of
chemicals, electricity, or
layers of dead stratum corneun
radiation.
cells
 Burns are classified according to
that
their depth.
 Partial-thickness burns are
classified as first-degree and
contain a very hard type of keratin. second-degree.
 A full-thickness burn is a third-
degree burn.
DIAGNOSTIC AID FIRST- DEGREE BURN
 THE INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM IS - A first-degree (superficial)
USEFUL IN DIAGNOSIS BECAUSE burn involves only the
IT IS OBSERVED EASILY. epidermis and is red and
 CYANOSIS, A BLUISH COLOR TO painful.
THE SKIN CAUSED BY - Slight edema, or swelling, may
DECREASED BLOOD O2 be present.
CONTENT, IS AN INDICATION OF - They can be caused by
IMPAIRED CIRCULATORY OR sunburn or brief exposure to
RESPIRATORY FUNCTION. very hot or very cold objects,
 A YELLOWISH SKIN COLOR, and they heal without scarring
CALLED JAUNDICE, in about a week
CAN OCCUR WHEN THE LIVER IS
DAMAGED BY A DISEASE, SUCH SECOND- DEGREE BURN
AS VIRAL HEPATITIS.
- Second-degree (partial- and sweat glands, as well as
thickness) burns damage both from the edges of the wound.
the epidermis and the dermis.  Deep partial-thickness and full-
- If dermal damage is minimal, thickness burns
symptoms include redness, take a long time to heal, and
pain, edema, and blisters. they form scar tissue with
- Healing takes about 2 weeks, disfiguring and debilitating
and no scarring results. wound contractures.
- If the burn goes deep into the EFFECTS OF AGING ON THE
dermis, the wound appears
INTEGUMENTARY
red, tan, or white; can take
several months to heal and SYSTEM
might scar.  Thinning of the Epidermis.
THIRD- DEGREE BURN  The amount of collagen in the
dermis decreases
- Third-degree (full-thickness)
 Vitamin D3 production declines
burns damage the complete
 Blood supply to dermis is
epidermis and dermis.
reduced
- The region of third-degree
 Function of hair follicles decline
burn is usually painless
 Dermis thins and elastic fibers
because sensory receptors in
decreases
the epidermis and dermis
have been destroyed.  Loss of adipose tissue
- Third-degree burns appear  Repair rate slows
white, tan, brown, black, or  Skin is drier as sebaceous glands
deep cherry red. activity decreases.
BURN HEALING SKIN CANCER
 In all second-degree burns, the  Most common cancer.

epidermis, including the stratum  Mainly caused by UV light
basale where the stem cells are exposure.
found, is damaged.  Fair-skinned people more prone
 The epidermis regenerates from  Prevented by limiting sun
epithelial tissue in hair follicles exposure and using sunscreens
 UVA rays cause tan and is
associated with malignant
melanomas
 UVB rays cause sunburns
 Sunscreens should block UVA
and UVB rays
TYPES OF SKIN CANCER
BASAL CELL CARCINOMA: cells in
stratum basale affected cancer
removed by surgery
SQUAMOUS CELL CARCINOMA: cells
above stratum basale affected can
cause death
MALIGNANT MELANOMA: arises from
melanocytes in a mole rare type can
cause death
SKELETAL SYSTEM  SKULL: Encloses and
protects the brain
SKELETON
 VERTEBRAE: Surround the
• Derived from a Greek word spinal cord
meaning DRIED…but is far from  RIB CAGE: Protects
being dry and non-living. the lungs, heart
• SKELETAL SYSTEM and other organs of
the thorax
• Consist of dynamic, living tissues
3. MOVEMENT
that are :
 TENDONS: Strong
• ABLE TO GROW bands of
• DETECT PAIN STIMULI connective tissue,
attach skeletal muscles to
• ADAPT TO STRESS bones
• UNDERGO REPAIR AFTER INJURY  JOINTS: 2 or more
bones come
FUNCTIONS
together allow
1. SUPPORT movement between bones
 Rigid, Strong bone is well suited 4. STORAGE
for bearing weight and is major  Some minerals in the
supporting tissue of the body. blood principally stored in
the bone
 CARTILAGE: Provides firm
 Adipose tissue: stored
yet flexible support with
within bone
certain structures (nose,
cavities
external ear, thoracic cage)
 If needed a lipids are
 LIGAMENTS: Strong bands of released into the blood
fibrous connective tissue that for source of energy
attach to bones and hold them 5. BLOOD CELL PRODUCTION
together (BONE-BONE)  Many bones contain
2. PROTECTION cavities filled with red
 Bone is hard and protects bone marrow, which
the organ it surrounds
produce blood cells and
platelets.
 Hematopoiesis- bloodcell
formation BONE CELLS
 Occurs in the marrow of 1. OSTEOBLASTS
certain bones
 Bone forming cells
 Produce collagen and
BONE HISTOLOGY proteoglycans
BONE CONSISTS:  Produces MATRIX VESICLES
1. BONE CELLS ( osteoblasts) à hydroxyapatite crystals à
 Produce the bone matrix hydroxyapatite formation
 Function in the bone

formation, repair and
remodeling
2. EXTRACELLULAR BONE
MATRIX 2. OSTEOCYTES
 Responsible for the  Osteoblast surrounded by bone
characteristics of bone matrix
EXTRACELLULAR BONE MATRIX  Relatively inactive
 Organic material : collagen  Possible for them to produce the
and proteoglycans component needed to
maintain the bone matrix.
 Inorganic material:
HYDROXYAPATITE
 Like reinforced concrete
 STONG AND FLEXIBLE
3. OSTEOCLASTS
 Bone-destroying cells BONE FORMATION/OSSIFICATION
 Contribute to bone repair and 1. INTRAMEMBRANOUS
remodeling by removingexisting OSSIFICATION
bone. - Occurs when osteoblasts begin
 Breakdown bone that mobilizes to produce bone in connective
ca2+ and phosphate ions for use tissue membranes.
in metabolic processes. - Ex. Skull, the mandible, maxilla,
and clavicles.
II. ENDOCHONDRAL OSSIFICATION
- Bone formation that occurs
inside cartilage.
- Ex. Bones at the base of the skull
and most of the remaining
skeletal system.
OSSIFICATION
 Formation of bone by
CLASSIFICATION OF BONE TISSUE
osteoblasts
 According to the organization of
 Occurs by appositional growth
collagen fibers within the bone
on the surface of previously
matrix.
existing bone or cartilage.
1. WOVEN BONE
 Collagen fibers are randomly
oriented
 First formed during fetal
development/during the repair
Osteoblasts beneath the periosteum
of a fracture.*
cover the surface of pre-existing
bone. 2. LAMELLAR BONE
 Mature bone that is organized  Very porous and is located in the
into thin sheets à lamellae epiphyses of long bones and
lines the medullary cavity of
After its formation, osteoclasts break
long bones
down the woven bone and osteoblasts
build new matrix.  Less bone matrix
 Composed of small needle-like
pieces of bones with open
spaces.
 TRABECULAE – delicate
interconnecting rods or plates of
bone
 Add strength to a
bone without the added
 Classified according to the weight
amount of bone matrix to bone  Spaces between trabaculae are
space filled with marrow
1. SPONGY 2. CORTICAL
2. CORTICAL  Forms the perimeter of diaphysis
of a long bone and the thinner
surfaces of all other bones
 made of osteons or haversian
system.
 Predictable pattern of repeating
units:
 OSTEONS – consist of connective
rings of lamellae surrounding
central canal.
1. SPONGY /Cancellous Bone
 BLOOD VESSELS: run parallel to
the long axis of the bone.
Located In the central canals/
haversian canal
 CANALICULI – give osteon the
appearance of having tiny cracks
within lamella
• 1.) LONG BONES – hands, arms, legs, feet
• Diaphysis –shaft of the long bone;

compact bone
• Epiphysis – ends; spongy bone
• 2.) SHORT BONES – wrists, ankles
• 3.) FLAT BONES – ribs, shoulders, hip bones,

cranial bones
• 4.) IRREGULAR BONES – vertebrae, facial bones.
• ARTICULAR CARTILAGE – covers the joint

surfaces of bones.
• PERIOSTEUM – rest of the bone.
1. LONG BONES
 Longer than they are wide.
 This shape enhances their function in

BONE ANATOMY movement of appendages
1. LONG BONES  Most of the upper and lower limbs (arms and
2. SHORT legs) are long bones
3. FLAT
4. IRREGULAR
2. SHORT BONES
 Approximately as wide as they are long
 Bones of the wrist and ankle
 Short bones helps transfer force between long

bones
3. FLAT BONES
 Relatively thin, flattened shape.

STRUCTURE OF LONG BONES
 Flat bones are well suited to providing a strong
barrier around soft organs such as brain and  DIAPHYSIS
heart
 Shaft
 Growing between two ends
 Primary ossification center is in the diaphysis.
 EPIPHYSIS
 Develops from a center of ossification
 ARTICULAR CARTILAGE
 Covers the ends of the epiphysis where thebone

articulates (joints) with other bones
4. IRREGULAR BONES
 Providing protection while allowing bending

and flexing of certain body regions such as
spine
 do not fit in other three categories.

 PERIOSTEUM
 Connective tissue membrane that covers the

outer surface of a bone
 Ligaments and tendons attach to bone through

the periosteum
 Bones grow in diameter
 ENDOSTEUM
 Thin connective tissue membrane lining
the inner cavities of bone
 ARTICULAR CARTILAGE
 Covers the ends of the epiphysis where the STRUCTURE OF FLAT, SHORT, AND IRREGULAR BONES
bone articulates (joints) with other bones
 Interior framework of spongy bone
 EPIPHYSEAL PLATE sandwiched between two layers of
 Separates the epiphysis from the diaphysis compact bone
 Where growth in bone length occurs  Not elongated
 becomes ossified and is called  No diaphysis

the EPIPHYSEAL LINE  Small epiphyses
Bones contains cavities
 MEDULLARY CAVITY – large (in cavities)
 These spaces are filled with soft
 tissue called MARROW:
 YELLOW MARROW – consist mostly of adipose

tissue
 RED MARROW – consist mostly of blood REVIEW

forming cells and is the only site of blood
formation in adults  OSTEOBLAST – bone forming cells
 OSTEOCLAST – bone destroying cells
 Osteoclast contribute also in bone repair and

remodeling
 Bones of the base of the skull, part of the
mandible, the epiphyses of the clavicles, and
BONE OSSIFICATION
most of the remaining skeletal system
 OSSIFICATION – to make, is the formation of
 Occurs by deposition of new bone lamella onto
bone by osteoblast until it becomes or
existing bone or other connective tissue
completely surrounded by bone matrix and it
becomes a mature bone cell/osteocyte
 In fetus, bones develop by two process:
1 INTRAMEMBRANOUS OSSIFICATION
 bone formation that occurs within

connective tissue membrane
2. ENDOCHONDRAL OSSIFICATION
 bone formation occurs inside hyaline

cartilage
 Growth in the length of bone which is major

source of increased height occurs in epiphyseal
plate
 This type of bone occurs through endochondral

ossification
FACTORS AFFECTING BONE GROWTH

INTRAMEMBRANOUS OSSIFICATION
1. NUTRITION
 Begins at approximately the eighth week of
 Calcium
embryonic development
 Vitamin D
 Completed: 2 years of age
 Necessary for the normal
E.g.
absorption of calcium from the
 Skull bones Intestines
 Part of the mandible (lower jaw),  Vitamin C
 Diaphysss of the clavicles (collarbones)  Collagen synthesis by osteoblasts
2. HORMONES
ENDOCHONDRAL OSSIFICATION  Growth hormone
 Formation of cartilage: end of the 4th week of  Stimulating interstitial cartilage

embryonic development growth and appositional bone growth
 Thyroid hormone
 Sex hormones
 Burst of growth at puberty stimulate
ossification of epiphyseal plates, à he
cessation of growth
BONE REPAIR
SKELETAL ANATOMY OVERVIEW
 Bone is a living tissue that can undergo repair if

it is damaged
CALCIUM HOMEOSTASIS
 Bones play an important role in regulating

blood ca2+ levels which iscritical for normal
muscle and nervous system functions
 Bone is the major storage site for calcium  General considerations in bone anatomy
 FUNCTION:  Average adult skeleton contains 206 bones
 Muscle contraction and membrane potentials TERMS:
2 MAIN HORMONES:  FORAMEN – hole in a bone
 Parathyroid hormone  Hole exist because some structures

such as a nerve or blood vessel passes
 Calcitonin through the bone at that point
 CANAL/MEATUS – tunnel like passage through

bone
 FOSSA
• Depression in a bone
 TUBERCLE/ TUBEROSITY
• Rounded projection SKELETAL ANATOMY - AXIAL SKELETONS
 PROCESS SKULL
• sharp Projection  22 bones of the skull are divided into those of

the braincase and those of the face
 CONDYLE
 Brain case (neurocranium) consist of 8 bones
• smooth rounded end of bone where it forms a
that immediately surround and protect the
joint with another bone
brain
DIVIDED TO:
 Facial consist of 14 bones
 AXIAL (viscerocranium)
 Skull, auditory ossicles, hyoid bone, vertebral

column, and rib cage (thoracic cage).
 APPENDICULAR
 Bones of the upper limbs, the lower limbs, and

the girdles
• 1.) AXIAL SKELETON
• Skull
• Vertebral column
• Rib cage • 8 cranial bones

• 2.) APPENDICULAR SKELETON • CRANIAL BONES:
• Bones of arms • Frontal bone
• Bones of legs • Parietal bone (2)
• Shoulder girdle • Temporal bone (2) – external auditory meatus
• Pelvic girdle • Occipital bone – foramen magnum
• Sphenoid bone – sella turcica (pituitary gland)
• Ethmoid bone – crista galli (anchors the cranial

meninges)
 Separates 2 parietal bone
 LAMBOID SUTURES:
 Separates Parietal from Occipital bone
FACIAL BONES
SKULL
 Brain case (Neurocranium)
TEMPORAL BONE
 SQUAMOUS SUTURE:
 Separates TEMPORAL and
PARIETAL bone
 ZYGOMATIC BONE
 Cheekbone
 ZYGOMATIC ARCH
 Joined processes from the temporal

and zygomatic bones,
 MAXILLA
 jawbone forms the upper jaw
 MANDIBLE
 forms the lower jaw

SKULL
 Brain case (neurocranium)
 FRONTAL BONE:
 OCCCIPITAL BONE
 PARIETAL BONE
 CORONAL SUTURES:
 Separates the frontal and parietal
 SAGITTAL SUTURES:
Made up of 4 bones (2 pairs)
1. Palatine processes of the twomaxillary bones,
2. Horizontal plates of the two palatine bones
 FORAMEN MAGNUM
 Passes through the occipital bone Base of the

skull
 Entrance of vertebral arteries

 Prominent openings
 OCCIPITAL CONDYLES
ORBIT (EYE SOCKET)
 Articulation between the skull and
Each orbit has several openings through
the vertebral column which structures communicate with other
cavities
 MANDIBULAR FOSSA
 Largest of these are:
 Mandible articulates with the rest of the skull
1. Superior and Inferior orbital fissures – provides
 CAROTID CANALS
openings through which blood vessels pass to face
 Entrance of internal carotid arteries
2. OPTIC FORAMEN
 HARD PALATE  Optic nerve for the sense of
 Floor of the nasal cavity. vision passes through
3. NASOLACRIMAL CANAL
 Passes from the orbit into the nasal cavity
 Contains a duct that carries tears from eyes to

nasal cavity
 Each lateral walls of the nasal cavity has three

(3) bony shelves:
 NASAL CONCHAE
 Resembling a conch shell, the conchae

increase the surface area in the nasal
cavity.
 The increase surface area of the

overlying epithelium facilitates
moistening and warming of the air
inhaled through nose
 NASAL SEPTUM
 Divides the nasal cavity into left and right

halves, two structures form the nasal septum
 NASAL BONES
 Forms the bridge of thenose
 External part of the nose is formed mostly of

cartilage
 Paranasal sinuses – air cavities located in the

maxillae, frontal, sphenoid, and
ethmoid bones.
 Functions: - make the skull lighter
 Provide resonance for the voice
 Mastoid sinuses – air cavities in the mastoid
process of each temporal bone and open in the
middle ear.
 3 Auditory Bones of the midlle ear: 4.) Provides a sire for muscle attachment
 Malleus
5.) Permits movement of the head and trunk
 Incus`
 Stapes 26 individual
 Group into 5 regions:
1.) CERVICAL vertebrae – 7(C1 -C7)
2.) THORACIC vertebrae – 12(T1-T12)
3.) LUMBAR vertebrae – 5(L1-L5)
4.) SACRAL bone – 1 (fuse to one from 5) 5.)

COCCYX bone - 1 (fuse to one from 5)
 General Features of the Vertebrae
 VERTEBRAL COLUMN
“SPINE”
 Central axis of the skeleton extending from the

base of the skull to slightly past the end of
pelvis
 BODY
 Disk-shaped
 Largest part with flat surfaces; forms the

anterior wall of the vertebral foramen
 Intervertebral disks are located between the

bodies
 VERTEBRAL FORAMEN
 Hole in each vertebra through which the spinal

cord passes
FUCTIONS:
 PEDICLE
1.) Supports the weight of
the head and trunk  Foot of the arch with one on each side
2.) Protects the spinal cord  LAMINA
3.) Allows spinal nerves to exit the spinal cord  Posterior part of the arch
 VERTEBRAL ARCH  Articulates with the occipital
 Forms the lateral and posterior walls of the  Condyles on the base of the skull
vertebral foramen; possesses several processes
 “Yes” motion or to tilt from side to side
and articular surfaces
 AXIS
 TRANSVERSE PROCESS
 Rotation occurs
 Process projecting laterally from
the  “No” motion of the head
 junction of the lamina and pedicle  Dens (odontoid process)
 a site of muscle attachment  Dens fits into vertebral foramen of the
atlas
 SPINOUS PROCESS
 SACRAL VERTEBRAE
 Process projecting posteriorly at the point
 Five vertebrae are fused into a single bone
 where the two laminae join
called the SACRUM
 ARTICULAR PROCESSES
 SACRAL PROMONTORY
 Superior and inferior projections containing
 separates the abdominal cavity from
articular facets where vertebrae articulate with
the pelvic cavity.
each other;
 COCCYX
 Strengthen the vertebral column
 Tailbone
 Allow for movement
 Consists of three to five semifused
INTERVERTEBRAL DISKS
vertebrae
 Fibrocartilage
 Easily broken
 Located between the bodies of adjacent
vertebrae prevent the vertebral bodies from
rubbing against each other
EXTERNAL: ANNULUS FIBROSUS
INTERNAL: NUCLEUS PULPOSUS
 ATLAS  RIB CAGE

 First cervical vertebra  Protects the vital organs within thorax and
prevents the collapse of the thorax during
 Holds up the head
respiration
 No body and no spinous process
 There are 12 pairs of ribs divided into  Located between the sword-shaped ends
of the clavicles where
TRUE ribs and FALSE ribs
the articulate with the sternum
 TRUE RIBS: 1-7 attach directly to the sternum
 STERNAL ANGLE
by means of costal cartilage
 Can be felt at the junction of the manubrium
 FALSE RIBS: 8-10 do not attach directly to the
and the body of the sternum this junction
sternum (ribs 8-10 attach to the sternum by a
common cartilage)  important landmark: identifies the location of
the second rib
 FLOATING RIBS: Ribs 11-12. Do not attach at all
to sternum and are called  Consists:
 UPPER and LOWER limbs
 SHOULDER and PELVIC girdles
 PECTORAL & SHOULDER GIRDLE
 Consist of four bones:
à 2 scapulae and 2clavicles
à Attach upper limb to the body
 Scapula/ shoulder blade – is a flat, triangular

 STERNUM/BREAST BONE bone with three large fossae where muscles
extending to the arm are attached
 Divided into 3: (sword-shaped)
1. MANUBRIUM: handle
 First rib and clavicle attachment
2. BODY: blade
 3rd to 7th - ribs are attached
3. XIPHOID PROCESS: the tip
 No ribs attached
 GLENOID CAVITY:
 Under scapula
 Head of the humerus connects to the

scapula
 ACROMION PROCESS:
 Extends from the scapular spine to
form the point of the shoulder

 JUGULAR NOTCH
 Articulates with the clavicle
 CORACOID PROCESS
 Provides for the attachment of arm and
chest muscles
 UPPER LIMB
 Humerus
 Radio-ulna
 Carpals
 Metacarpals
 Phalanges
FORE ARM
 elbow to wrist, has two bones
 Ulna – on the medial
 Radius – on the lateral (thumb)
 Proximal end of ulna:
 TROCHLEAR NOTCH – fits tightly over the end

of the humerus forming most of the elbow joint
 OLECRANON PROCESS – can be felt as the point

of the elbow
 CORONOID PROCESS – which helps the grip of

ulna on the distal end of humerus
ARM
 Distal end of ulna:
 Region between shoulder and
elbow it contains the Humerus  STYLOID PROCESS – located
on medial side
 The proximal end: a smooth rounded head
which attaches humerus to the scapula
 Proximal end of the humerus is divided into 2

tubercle
 GREATER TUBERCLE
 LESSER TUBERCLE
 DELTOID TUBEROSITY
 Deltoid muscles are attached
 EPICONDYLES
 Provides attachments sites for forearm

muscles
 Each hip is formed by three bones fused to one
another to form a single bone
WRIST
 Relatively short region between the forearm

and the hand, it is composed of eight carpal
bones:
1.) Scaphoid
2.) Lunate
3.) Triquetrum
4.) Pisiform
5.) Hamate
6.) Capitate 7.) Trapezoid 8.) Trapezium
PELVIC GIRDLE
 another to form a single bone 1.) ilium – most

superior
2.) ischium – inferior and posterior
3.) pubis – inferior and anterior
 Iliac crest – can be seen along the superior

margin of each ilium
 Anterior superior iliac spine – important hip

HAND landmark
 Five metacarpal bones are attached to the  PUBIC SYMPHYSIS:
carpal bones and form the bony framework of
the hand  Where hip bones converge anteriorly
 Metacarpal bones are aligned with the five  SACROILIAC JOINTS

digits, the thumb and fingers.  Where bones hip bones articulate with sacrum
 They are numbered from 1 – 5 from the thumb posteriorly
to little finger  OBTURATOR FORAMEN
 Phalanges – 3 small bones in the finger  Large hole in each hip bone that is close off by
PELVIC GIRDLE muscles and other structures
 Place where the lower limb attach to the body LOWER LIMB
 The right and left hip bones join each other Consist of bones of the THIGH, LEG, ANKLE and FOOT
anteriorly and sacrum posteriorly  THIGH – region between the hip and the knee it
 Pelvis – basin includes pelvic girdle and coccyx contains a single bone called femur
 The head of femur articulates with the

acetabulum of the hip bone
 CONDYLES – distal end of femur, articulates  ANKLE – consist of the distal ends of tibia and
with the tibia fibula forming partial socket that
articulates with a bone of the foot (talus)
 EPICONDYLES – located medial and lateral to
condyles  Prominence can be seen on each side of ankle
these are:
 PATELLA – knee cap
 MEDIAL MALLEOLUS – of the tibia
 LATERAL MALLEOLUS – of the fibula
FOOT
 There are 7 tarsal bones (soles of the foot)
 Talus (ankle bone)
 Calcaneus (heel)
 Cuboid
 Navicular
 Medial cuneiform
 Intermediate cuneiform
 LEG – region between the knee and the ankle it
contains 2 bones:  Lateral cuneiform
 TIBIA (SHINE BONE) – is larger of the two and is
major weight bearing bone of the leg
 FIBULA – does not articulate with the femur,

but its head is attached to the proximal end of
tibia
SKELETAL SYSTEM – JOINTS

 Articulations, are commonly named
according to the bones or portions of
bones that join together
3 TYPES:
1. FIBROUS JOINTS
 Articulating surface of two bones united by

fibrous connective tissue, they have no joint
cavity, exhibit little or no movement,
Divided into 3:
A. SUTURES – are fibrous joint between bones of the

skull
2. CARTILAGINOUS JOINTS
 Unite 2 bones by fibrocartilage or hyaline

cartilage
 More movement than fibrous joints but less

than that of synovial joint
1. Primary (synchondroses)
 Epiphyseal (growth) plates are

B. SYNDESMOSES - are fibrous joints in which the bones 2. Secondary (symphyses)
are separated by some distance and held together by
ligaments  Manubriosternal joint
à ex: distal part of radius and ulna  Intervertebral discs
C. GOMPHOSES – consist of pegs fitted into sockets and  Pubic symphysis.

held in place by ligaments
3. SYNOVIAL JOINTS expose bone to contamination. Open injuries
carry a higher risk of infection.
 Freely movable joints that contain fluid in the
cavity surrounding the ends of articulating
bones
 Connects bones with a fibrous joint capsule that

is continuous with the bones’ periosteum
FRACTURE
A bone fracture medical condition in which there is a  Compression fractures: usually occurs in the
break in the continuity of the bone. A bone fracture
can be the result of high force impact or stress, or vertebrae, for example when the front
trivial injury as a result of certain medical
portion of a vertebra in the spine collapses
conditions that weaken the bones, such as
due to osteoporosis (a medical condition
osteoporosis, bone cancer, or osteogenesis imperfecta,
where the fracture is then properly termed a which causes bones to become brittle and susceptible
pathologic fracture. to fracture, with or without trauma).
CLASSIFICATION  Other types of fracture are:
• By cause  Complete fracture: A fracture in which bone

fragments separate completely.
• Traumatic fracture - This is a fracture due to
sustained trauma. e.g.- Fractures caused by a  Incomplete fracture: A fracture in which the
fall, road traffic accident, fight etc. bone fragments are still partially joined. In
such cases, there is a crack in the osseous
• Pathological fracture - A fracture through a
tissue that does not completely traverse the
bone which has been made weak by some
width of the bone.
underlying disease is called pathological
fracture. e.g.- a fracture through a bone
weakened by metastasis. Osteoporosis is the
most common cause of pathological fracture.
• All fractures can be broadly described as:
• Closed (simple) fractures: are those in which

the skin is intact
• Open (compound) fractures: involve wounds

that communicate with the fracture, or where
fracture hematoma is exposed, and may thus
 Linear fracture: A fracture that is
parallel to the bone's long axis.
 Transverse fracture: A fracture that
is at a right angle to the bone's long

axis.
 Oblique fracture: A fracture that is
diagonal to a bone's long axis.
 Spiral fracture: A fracture where at least one

part of the bone has been twisted.
 Comminuted fracture: A fracture in which the

bone has broken into a number of pieces.
 Impacted fracture: A fracture caused when

bone fragments are driven into each other.
STUDY
SMART,
BSN1-A!
Wake up with
determination.
Go to bed with
satisfaction.
God bless us!
- Kylle <3

Biolec101 Reviewer

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BIOLEC101 REVIEWER: By: Kylle E.

Alimosa (Gwapa) BSN1-A

Anatomy - By the use of

Investigates the structure of the body. The word machines

projections Structural and Functional Organization of the human

Atoms – Basic chemical unit of chemical element

Molecules – Electrically neutral group of two or more

- Basic unit of organism

Ex: Urinary bladder  How?

Skin >  in Cell number

Stomach >  in Cell size

5. Organ System Level - Changes an organism undergoes through time

- Urinary Bladder - Formation of new cells on new organisms

- Urethra - Without reproduction of new cells there would be no

- Any living things considered as a whole

> Existence and maintenance of a relatively constant

- Ability to use energy to perform vital functions such  Volume

 Blood pressure 3 Components

- DISRUPTS Homeostasis and sometimes results in death

 Any deviation from set point (normal values) is

 It does not prevent variation but maintains

 Occur when initial stimulus further stimulates

 In other words deviation from set point

Terminology and Body Plan  Supine – Lying face upward

 Most terms are derived from Latin/Greek

 Words are often modified by adding prefix and

 It is important to know directional terms

- A person standing erect with face forward, upper

 Superficial – Structure close to surface of the

 Deep – Toward the interior of the body

 Used to refer linear structures such as limbs

A boy standing on his head. His nose is _________ to his

> Answer is superior

Body parts and regions

 Medial – toward midline > Head, Neck and Trunk

 Lateral – away from midline  Trunk can be divided into

- Abdomen – Region between thorax and pelvis

- Pelvis – Inferior end of trunk associated with hips

 Upper Limb (Arm)  Organs and their place in the abdominal

- Left and Right Upper

 Lower Limb (Leg) Planes

- Vertically separates right to left

- Vertically from right to left dividing body into

- is a sagittal plane that passes through midline of the

- Horizontal plane runs through surface of the

- Separates body to superior and inferior

 Cavity – Empty space

 Trunk contains 3 large cavities

- Pelvic Cavity - Urinary Bladder

 Thoracic Cavity - Part of large intestine

- Surrounded by rib cage - Internal reproductive organs

- Separated from abdominal cavity by muscular

- If divided into right and left parts by median

- organs found in thoracic cavity mediastinum

- Thymus (lymphoid organ that produce T cells for

- Trachea (wind pipe)

- Esophagus (connects throat to stomach

- Around the heart

- Small space enclose by bones of pelvis

- Surround each lungs

- Parietal peritoneum covers other organs

- Consist of two layers of peritoneum