Chapter 1: The Human Organism STRUCTURAL AND FUNCTIONAL Reproduction: formation of new cells

ORGANIZATION (AMOCTOSO) or new organisms. Generation of new

Anatomy: investigate body structure.
individuals.
The term means to dissect. 1. Atom
2. Molecules HOMEOSTASIS – maintenance of
Physiology: investigate processes and
3. Organelle constant internal environment despite
functions.
4. Cells fluctuations in the external or internal
Types of Physiology 5. Tissue environment.
6. Organ
1. Human Physiology; studies Variable: measures of body properties
7. System
the human organism. that may change in value. Examples:
8. Organism
2. Systematic Physiology: body temperature, heart rate, blood
studies body organ-system. CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE pressure and blood glucose levels.
3. Cellular Physiology: studies
Organization: functional Normal Range of Homeostasis:
body cells.
interrelationships between parts. normal extent of increase and
Importance of Anatomy and decrease around a set point.
Metabolism: sum of all chemical and
Physiology
physical changes sustaining Set Point of Homeostasis: normal, or
 Responds to stimuli. organisms. It is the ability to acquire average value of a variable.
 Environmental changes. and use energy in support of these
TYPES OF HOMEOSTASIS
 Environmental cues. changes.
 Diseases 1. Negative Feedback – the main
Responsiveness: ability to sense and
 Injury mechanism used homeostatic
respond to environmental changes. It
regulation. It gives a
includes both internal and external
Types of Anatomy counteraction to balance the
environments.
homeostasis.
1. Systemic: studies body organ-
Growth: can increase in size. Size of 2. Positive Feedback –
systems.
cells, groups of cells, extracellular mechanisms occur when the
2. Regional: studies body
materials. initial stimulus further stimulates
regions.
the response. It reinforces or
3. Surface: studies external Development: changes in form and
tolerate the initial change in
features. For example: bone size. Changes in cell structure and
variable.
projections. function from generalized to
4. Anatomical Imaging: using specialized – differentiation.
technologies.
COMPONENTS OF FEEDBACK anterior and posterior in Median Plane: a sagittal plane along
humans. the midline that divides body into equal
 Receptor – detects change in
left and right halves.
variable. Medial: close to midline.
 Control Center – receives Transverse Plane: a horizontal plane
Lateral: away from the midline.
receptor signal. It establishes that separates the body into superior
set point and sends signal to Proximal: close to the point of and inferior parts.
effector. attachment.
Frontal Plane: a vertical plane that
 Effector - directly causes
Distal: away from the point of separates the body into anterior and
change in variable.
attachment. posterior parts.
TERMINOLOGY AND THE BODY
Superficial: structure close to the BODY REGIONS
PLAN
surface.
Upper Limbs: upper arm, forearm,
Anatomical Position
Deep: structure toward the interior of wrist, hand.
- Person standing erect with face the body.
Lower Limbs: thigh, lower leg, ankle,
and palms forward.
foot.
- All relational descriptions based
on the anatomical position, Central Region: head, neck, trunk.
regardless of body orientation.
SUBDIVISIONS OF THE ABDOMEN

DIRECTIONAL TERMS
Superior: Above
Inferior: below
Anterior: front. Also: ventral
Posterior: back. Also: dorsal
 In four-legged animals, the BODY PLANES
terms ventral (belly) and
dorsal (back) correspond to Sagittal Plane: separates the body
into right and left parts.
BODY CAVITIES
Thoracic Cavities: space within chest
wall and diaphragm. Contains heart,
lungs, thymus gland, esophagus, and
trachea.
 Mediastinum: space between
lungs. Contains heart, thymus
gland, esophagus, and trachea.
Abdominal Cavity: space between
diaphragm and pelvis. Contains
stomach, intestines, liver, spleen,
pancreas and kidneys.
Pelvis Cavity: space within pelvis.
Contains urinary bladder, reproductive
organs, part of large intestine.
SEROUS MEMBRANES – line trunk
cavities, cover organs
STRUCTURE OF SEROUD
MEMBRANE
1. Visceral Serous Membrane –
covers organs.
2. Parietal Serous Membrane –
the outer membrane.
3. Cavity – a fluid-filled space
between the membrane. A
hollow space. It reduces friction
for it to function efficiently.
PERICARDIUM – around the heart.
 Visceral Pericardium: covers
heart.
 Parietal pericardium: thick,
fibrous
 Pericardial cavity: reduces
friction.
PLEURA – around the lungs
 visceral pleura: covers lungs.
 Parietal pleura: lines inner wall
of thorax
 Pleural cavity: reduces friction.
Adheres lungs to thoracic wall.
PERITONEUM – around
abdominopelvic cavity and its organs.
 Visceral peritoneum: covers
and anchors organs. Double
layers called mesenteries.
 Parietal peritoneum: lines
inner wall of abdominopelvic
cavity.
 Peritoneal cavity: reduces
friction.
Chapter 2: The Chemical Basis of
Life
Matter: anything that occupies space
and has mass.
Mass: amount of matter in an object.
Weight: gravitational force acting on
object.
Element: simplest form of matter.
Atom: smallest particle of an element.
Contains protons, electrons, and
neutrons.
SUBATOMIC PARTICLES
 Proton: positive charged
located inside the nucleus.
 Neutron: neutral charged
particle located inside the
nucleus.
 Electron: negative charged
particle located outside the
nucleus.
Atomic number: the number
protons in each atoms.
Mass number: the number of protons
and neutrons in each atom.
No. of protons + no. of neutrons =
mass number
CHEMICAL BONDS – occur when bond that ionic or
outermost electrons are transferred or covalent bonds.
shared between atoms.
Molecules: two or more atoms
TYPES OF CHEMICAL BONDS chemically combine.
1. Ionic Bonding Compound: chemical combination of
- Ion: a charged atom two or more different types of atoms.
formed because of a
CHEMICAL REACTION – occur when
donation or gain of an
there is a formation or breaking of
electron.
chemical bonds between atoms, ions,
- Occurs when there is an
molecules, or compounds.
attraction between two
oppositely charged ions. Reactants: substances that enter into
2. Covalent Bonding the reaction.
- occurs when atoms
share one or more pairs Products: substances that result from
of electrons. the reaction.
- Polar Covalent Bonds: TYPES OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS
form when there is an
unequal sharing of 1. Synthesis reaction: build a
electrons. new molecule. Energy
- Polar molecules: have requiring.
an asymmetrical 2. Decomposition reaction:
electrical charge. break down molecule. Energy
- Nonpolar molecules: releasing.
of have a symmetrical 3. Exchange reaction:
electrical charge. combination of synthesis and
3. Hydrogen Bonding decomposition reactions.
- Forms when the positive
Reversible reaction: occurs when the
end of one polar
reaction can run in the opposite
molecule is weakly
direction, so that the products are
attracted to the negative
converted back to the original
end of another polar
reactants.
molecule. It is a weaker
Equilibrium: when the rate of product
formation equals the rate of reactant
formation.
ENERGY – the capacity to do work.
WORK – the moving matter.
KINETIC ENERGY – energy in motion.
POTENTIAL ENERGY – stored
energy.
CHEMICAL ENERGY – a form of
potential energy stored in chemical
bonds.
RATE OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS –
the rate at which a chemical reactions
proceed is influenced by several
factors:
 Concentration of the reactants:
within limits the higher
concentration or reactant the
faster the rate.
 Temperature: the higher the
temperature, the faster the rate.
 Catalyst: increases the rate of a
reactions without itself being
permanently changed or
depleted.
ACID – a proton H+ donor. pH below 7.
Changes blue litmus paper to red.
BASE – a proton H+ acceptor. pH - Monosaccharides are
above 7. Red litmus paper turns blue. the building blocks. it is
simple sugar. Examples:
glucose, galactose and
fructose.
- Disaccharides contains
two sugars. Examples:
sucrose, maltose and
lactose.
- Polysaccharides
contains many sugars.
- Function: short term
energy storage,
converted to glucose
quickly, glucose used to
make ATP, brain cells
require glucose.
2. Lipids
- Contain C, H, O.
- Contain lower proportion
of oxygen to carbon
than do carbohydrates,
- Insoluble in water,
- Functions: long term
INORGANIC CHEMISTRY – deals with
energy storage,
those substances that do not contain
insulates against heat
carbon.
loss, protective cushion
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY – the study of for organs, cholesterol is
carbon-containing substances. part of the cell
membrane.
FOUR ORGANIC MOLECULES - Saturated Lipid: single
covalent bonds between
1. Carbohydrates
- Contains C, H, O. carbon atoms.
 - Unsaturated Lipid: one -Enzymes: are organic
or more double covalent catalysts that increase
bonds between carbons. the rate at which
- Building blocks: fatty biochemical reactions
acid and glycerol. proceed without the
3. Proteins enzyme being
- Contains C, H, O, N. permanently changed. It
- Amino acids are the worked by lowering the
building blocks. energy of activation.
- Amino acids contain an 4. Nucleic Acid
amine group and - Contains C, H, O, N, P
carboxyl group. - Nucleotides are the
- Amino acids are not building blocks. it is
stored, so a daily supply composed of a nitrogen
is required. base, phosphate, and 5-
- Functions: used to carbon sugar.
make skin, hair, nails
ADENOSINE TRIPHOSPHATE (ATP)
and muscles, part of the
– an especially important organic
hemoglobin molecule,
molecule found in all living organisms.
act as enzymes,
It consist of adenosine and three
immune system
phosphate groups. ATP is often called
functions, muscles
the energy currency of cell because it
contractions, part of the
is capable of both storing and providing
cell membrane.
energy.
- Protein denaturation:
occurs when the
hydrogen bonds that
maintain shape of a
protein are broken and
the protein becomes
nonfunctional. Factors
are high temperature or
improper pH.