Anatomy and Physiology

Chapter 1

The Human Organism (Lecture)

Anatomy: Structural and Functional Organization

• investigates body structure Six levels from chemical to organism:

• the term means to dissect 1. Chemical:

Physiology: • smallest level

• investigates processes and functions • atoms, chemical bonds, molecules

• Human Physiology:

• studies the human organism

Systemic Physiology:

• studies body organ-systems

Cellular Physiology:
2. Cellular:
• studies body cells
• cells: basic units of life
Importance of Anatomy and Physiology • compartments and organelles
Understand how the body: • examples are mitochondria, nucleus
• responds to stimuli

• environmental changes

• environmental cues

• diseases

• injury

3. Tissues:
Types of Anatomy:
• group of cells with similar structure and
Systemic:
function plus extracellular substances they
• studies body organ-systems release

Regional: • four broad types:

• studies body regions (medical schools) Epithelial

Surface: Connective

• studies external features, for example, bone Muscular

projections Nervous

Anatomical imaging:

• using technologies (x-rays, ultrasound, MRI)

4. Organs:

• two or more tissue types acting together to

perform function(s)

• Examples: stomach, heart, liver, ovary,

bladder, kidney

5. Organ-System:

• group of organs contributing to some function

• for example, digestive system, reproductive

system

6. Organism:

• all organ systems working together

• includes associated microorganisms such as

intestinal bacteria
 Homeostasis

• maintenance of constant internal

environment despite

fluctuations in the external or internal

environment

Variables:

• measures of body properties that may change

in value

Examples of variables:

body temperature

heart rate
Characteristics of Life blood pressure
Organization: blood glucose levels
• functional interrelationships between parts Normal range: normal extent of increase or
Metabolism: decrease around a set point

• sum of all chemical and physical changes Set point: normal, or average value of a variable
Over time, body temperature fluctuates around
sustaining an organism
a set point
• ability to acquire and use energy in support of
these changes

Responsiveness:

• ability to sense and respond to environmental

changes

• includes both internal and external

environments

Growth:
Set points for some variables can be temporarily
• can increase in size adjusted depending on body activities, as
needed:
• size of cells, groups of cells, extracellular
materials

Development:

• changes in form and size

• changes in cell structure and function from

generalized to specialized—differentiation Negative feedback is the main mechanism used

homeostatic regulation.
Reproduction:
• A negative feedback response involves:
• formation of new cells or new organisms
detection: of deviation away from set point
• generation of new individuals and
correction: reversal of deviation toward set
• tissue repair point and normal range
The components of feedback: Comparison of negative feedback and positive

1. Receptor: Feedback

• detects changes in variable

2. Control center:

• receives receptor signal

• establishes set point

• sends signal to effector

3. Effector:

• directly causes change in variable

Terminology and the Body Plan

Anatomical position:

• person standing erect with face and palms

forward

• all relational descriptions based on the

anatomical position, regardless of body
orientation

Positive feedback mechanisms occur when the

initial stimulus further stimulates the response

• system response causes progressive deviation

away from

• set point, outside of normal range

• not directly used for homeostasis

• some positive feedback occurs under normal

conditions Directional Terms

Example: childbirth Superior: above

• generally associated with injury, disease Inferior: below

• negative feedback mechanisms unable to Anterior: front (also: ventral)

maintain homeostasis Posterior: back (also: dorsal)
Note: In four-legged animals, the terms ventral Median plane: a sagittal plane along the
(belly) and dorsal (back) correspond to anterior midline that divides body into equal left and
and posterior in humans right halves

Transverse plane: a horizontal plane that

separates the body into superior and inferior
parts.

Frontal plane: a vertical plane that separates

the body into anterior and posterior parts.

Medial: close to midline

Lateral: away from midline

Proximal: close to point of attachment

Distal: far from point of attachment

Superficial: structure close to the surface

Deep: structure toward the interior of the body

Body Regions

Upper limbs:

• upper arm, forearm, wrist, hand

Lower limbs:

• thigh, lower leg, ankle, foot

Central region:

• head, neck, trunk

Body Planes

Sagittal plane: separates the body into right

and left parts
 Abdominal cavity:

• space between diaphragm and pelvis

• contains stomach, intestines, liver, spleen,

pancreas, kidneys

Pelvic cavity:

• space within pelvis

• contains urinary bladder, reproductive organs,

part of large intestine

Serous Membranes

Line trunk cavities, cover organs

Structure:

• visceral serous membrane covers organs

• parietal serous membrane is the outer

membrane

• cavity - a fluid-filled space between the

membranes

Pericardium and Pericardial Cavity

Pericardium

• visceral pericardium covers heart

• parietal pericardium thick, fibrous

• pericardial cavity reduces friction

Body Cavities

Thoracic cavity:

• space within chest wall and diaphragm

• contains heart, lungs, thymus gland,

esophagus, trachea

Mediastinum:

• space between lungs

• contains heart, thymus gland, esophagus,

trachea
Pleura and Pleural Cavity Chapter 2

Pleura The Chemical Basis of Life (Lecture)

• visceral pleura covers lungs

• parietal pleura lines inner wall Basic Chemistry

of thorax Matter: anything that occupies space and has

mass (solid, liquid, or gas)
• pleural cavity
Mass: amount of matter in an object
• reduces friction
Weight: gravitational force acting on object
• adheres lungs to thoracic wall

Elements and Atoms

Element:

• simplest form of matter

• Example: C, H, O, N, Ca, K, Na, Cl

Atom:

• smallest particle of an element

• contains protons, electrons, and neutrons

Peritoneum and Peritoneal Cavity

Peritoneum

• visceral peritoneum

• covers, anchors organs

• double layers called mesenteries

• parietal peritoneum lines inner wall of

Abdominopelvic cavity

• peritoneal cavity reduces friction

Subatomic Particles

Proton: positive charged particle located inside

the nucleus

Neutron: neutral charged particle located inside

the nucleus

Electron: negative charged particle located

outside the nucleus

Atomic Number and Atomic Mass

Atomic number: the number of protons in each

Covalent Bonding
atom
Covalent bonding occurs when atoms share one
Mass number: the number of protons and or more pairs of electrons

neutrons in each atom • Example: hydrogen molecule

Polar covalent bonds form when there is an

unequal sharing of electrons

• Example: water (H2 O)

Polar molecules have an asymmetrical electrical

Chemical Bonds charge
Chemical bonds occur when outermost Nonpolar molecules have a symmetrical
electrons (valence shell electrons) are electrical charge
transferred or shared between atoms

Types of chemical bonds

• Ionic

• Covalent

• Hydrogen

Ion and Ionic Bonding

Ion: a charged atom formed because of a

donation or gain of an electron(s)

• Example: Na+

Ionic bonding occurs when there is an

attraction between two oppositely charged ions

• Example: NaCl
Hydrogen Bonding

Polar molecules, like water, have a positive end

and a negative end

A hydrogen bond forms when the positive end

of one polar molecule is weakly attracted to the

negative end of another polar molecule

The hydrogen bond is a weaker bond than the

ionic or covalent bonds

Types of Chemical Reactions

Synthesis reaction:

• build a new molecule

• energy-requiring

• Example: ADP + P → ATP

Decomposition reaction:

• break down molecule

• energy-releasing

• Example: ATP → ADP + P

Polar Covalent Bonds

Polar covalent bonded molecules, like water,

have a positive end and a negative end

Molecules and Compounds

Molecule: Energy and Chemical Reactions

• 2 or more atoms chemically combine Exchange reaction:
• Example: water (H2 O) • combination of synthesis and decomposition
Compound: reactions
• chemical combination of 2 or more different • Example: AB + CD → AC + BD
types of atoms
• Example: HCl + NaOH → NaCl + H2 O
• Example: NaCl
Reversible reactions occur when the reaction

can run in the opposite direction, so that the

Chemical Reactions
products are converted back to the original
Chemical reactions occur when there is a
formation or breaking of chemical bonds reactants.
between atoms, ions, molecules, or
CO2 + H2 O ⇄ H + + HCO3
compounds.
Equilibrium: when the rate of product
Reactants: substances that enter into the
formation equals the rate of reactant formation
reaction

Products: substances that result from the

reaction Energy

Energy is the capacity to do work.

Work is the moving of matter. • Example: HCl (hydrochloric acid)

Kinetic energy is energy in motion Base: a proton H+ acceptor

Potential energy is stored energy • pH above 7

• Example: NaOH (sodium hydroxide)

Chemical Energy

Chemical energy is a form of potential energy

stored in chemical bonds

Food molecules such as glucose contain

potential energy

An example of a reaction that releases energy is

the breakdown of ATP (adenosine triphosphate)

to ADP (adenosine diphosphate) and a

phosphate group

ATP → ADP + P

Rate of Chemical Reactions

The rate at which a chemical reaction proceeds

is influenced by several factors:

Inorganic Chemistry versus Organic Chemistry

• concentration of the reactants Inorganic chemistry deals with those

substances that do not contain carbon
• temperature
Organic chemistry is the study of carbon-
• catalyst
containing substances

Exception: some carbon containing compounds

Concentration of the reactants: within limits
the higher the concentration of reactants the are not organic in that they do not also contain
faster the rate
hydrogen, such as CO2 (carbon dioxide)
Temperature: within limits, the higher the

temperature the faster the rate

Catalyst: increases the rate of a reaction
without itself being permanently changed or
depleted.
Organic Molecules
Carbon’s ability to form covalent bonds with
other atoms makes it possible the formation of

large, diverse, complicated molecules for life.

Acids and Bases
The four major groups of organic molecules
Acid: a proton H + donor
essential to living organisms are carbohydrates,
• pH below 7
lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids.
 Examples: fats, oils, cholesterol, triglycerides,

Carbohydrates Phospholipids

Characteristics of Carbohydrates

• Contain C, H, O Functions of Lipids

• H:O is a 2:1 ratio Long term energy storage

• Example: C6 H12 O6 Insulates against heat loss

Protective cushion for organs

• Monosaccharides are the building blocks.
Cholesterol is part of the cell membrane
• Monosaccharide:
structure
• simple sugar (1 sugar)

• Examples: glucose and fructose

Types of Lipids

Disaccharide: Saturated:

• 2 sugars • single covalent bonds between carbon atoms

• Example: glucose + fructose = sucrose • Examples: beef, pork, whole milk, cheese,
eggs
• Example: glucose + galactose = lactose
Unsaturated:

Polysaccharide: • one or more double covalent bonds between

carbons
• many sugars
• Examples: olive oil, fish oil, sunflower oil
• Example: starch, grain, vegetables, glycogen

Functions of Carbohydrates

Short-term energy storage

Converted to glucose quickly

Glucose is used to make ATP (energy)

Brain cells require glucose

Characteristics of Lipids

Contain C, H, O

Contain a lower proportion of oxygen to carbon

than do carbohydrates

Insoluble in water
 Functions of Proteins
Characteristics of Proteins
Used to make skin, hair, nails, muscles
Contains C, H, O, N
Part of the hemoglobin molecule
Amino acids are the building blocks
Act as enzymes
20 different naturally occurring amino acids
Immune system function
Amino acids contain an amine (NH2 ) group and
Muscle contractions (actin and myosin)
carboxyl group
Part of the cell membrane
Amino acids are not stored, so a daily supply is

required
Protein Denaturation

Protein denaturation occurs when the

hydrogen bonds that maintain shape of a
protein are broken and the protein becomes
nonfunctional.

Factors that can cause denaturation are: high

temperatures and/or improper pH

Enzymes

Enzymes are organic catalysts that increase the

rate at which biochemical reactions proceed

without the enzyme being permanently

changed.

Enzymes work by lowering the energy of

activation.
 Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)

ATP is an especially important organic molecule

found in all living organisms.

It consists of adenosine (the sugar ribose with

the organic base adenine) and three phosphate

groups.

ATP is often called the energy currency of cells

because it is capable of both storing and

providing energy.

Nucleic Acids

Composed of C, H, O, N, P

Examples: DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and RNA Chapter 3

(ribonucleic acid) Cell Structures and Their Functions (Lecture)

Nucleotides are the building blocks

Nucleotides are composed of a nitrogen base, Cell Structure

phosphate, and 5-carbon sugar Organelles:

• specialized structures in cells that perform

• specific functions

• Example: nucleus, mitochondria, ribosomes

Cytoplasm:

• jelly-like substance that holds organelles

Cell membrane:

• also termed the plasma membrane

• a structure that encloses the cytoplasm


Functions of the Cell
 Smallest units of life
 Cell metabolism and energy use
 Synthesis of molecules
 Communication
 Reproduction and inheritance
Cell Membrane
The cell membrane, or plasma membrane, is
the outermost component of a cell.
It forms a boundary between material in inside
the cell and the outside.
Materials inside the cell are intracellular and
those outside are extracellular.
It acts as a selective barrier.
Cell Membrane Structure
The fluid-mosaic model is the model used to
describe the cell membrane structure.
The membrane contains phospholipids,
cholesterol, proteins, and carbohydrates.
Phospholipids form a bilayer.
Phospholipids contain 2 regions: polar and
nonpolar.
Phospholipid Structure
A phospholipid molecule has a polar head
region that is hydrophilic and a nonpolar tail
region that is hydrophobic.
The polar region is exposed to water around
the membrane.
The nonpolar region is facing the interior of the
membrane.
Movement through the Cell Membrane
The cell membrane has selective permeability,
which allows only certain substances to pass in
and out of the cell.
Substances such as enzymes, glycogen, and
potassium are found in higher concentrations
inside the cell.
Substances such as sodium, calcium, and
chloride are found in higher concentrations
outside the cell.
Cell Membrane Passage
Some substances, like O2 and CO2 can pass
directly through the cell membrane’s
phospholipid bilayer.
Some substances must pass through
transmembrane protein channels, such as Na+
through its channels.
The route of transport through the membrane
depends on the size, shape, and charge of the
substance.
Some substances require carrier molecules to
transport them across the cell membrane, such
as glucose.
Some substances require a vesicular transport
across the membrane.
The vesicle must fuse with the cell membrane
for transport.
Active Transport and Passive Transport
Passive membrane transport does not require
the cell to expend energy.
Active membrane transport does require the
cell to expend energy, usually in the form of
ATP.
Passive membrane transport mechanisms
include diffusion, osmosis, and facilitated
diffusion.
Active membrane transport mechanisms
include active transport, secondary active
transport, endocytosis, and exocytosis.
Diffusion
Diffusion generally involves movement of
substances in a solution down a concentration
gradient.
A solution is generally composed of two major
parts, solutes and the solvent.
Solutes are substances dissolved in a
predominant liquid or gas, which is called the
solvent.
Solutes, such as ions or molecules, tend to
move from an area of higher concentration of a
solute to an area of lower concentration of that
same solute in solution.
This movement from high concentration to a
low concentration is diffusion.
Concentration Gradient
A concentration gradient is the difference in the
concentration of a solute in a solvent between
two points divided by the distance between the
two points.
The concentration gradient is said to be steeper
when the concentration difference is large
and/or the distance is small.
Leak and Gated Channels
Lipid soluble substances can diffuse directly
through the phospholipid bilayer.
Water-soluble substances, such as ions, can
diffuse across the cell membrane only by
passing through cell membrane channels.
Two classes of cell membrane channels include
leak channels and gated channels.
 Leak channels constantly allow ions to
pass through.
 Gated channels limit the movement of
ions across the membrane by opening
and closing.

Osmosis
Osmosis is the diffusion of water (a solvent)
across a selectively permeable membrane from
a region of higher water concentration to one of
lower water concentration.
Osmosis exerts a pressure, termed osmotic
pressure, which is the force required to prevent
movement of water across cell membrane
Osmotic Pressure and the Cell
Osmotic pressure depends on the difference of
solution concentrations inside a cell relative to
outside the cell.
A cell may be placed in solutions that are either
hypotonic, isotonic, or hypertonic compared to
the cell cytoplasm.
Hypotonic
A hypotonic solution has a lower concentration
of solutes and a higher concentration of water
relative to the cytoplasm of the cell.
The solution has less tone, or osmotic pressure,
than the cell.
Water moves by osmosis into the cell, causing it
to swell.
If the cell swells enough, it can rupture, a
process called lysis.
Isotonic
A cell immersed in an isotonic solution has the
same solute concentrations inside and outside
the cell.
The cell will neither shrink nor swell.
Hypertonic
The cytoplasm of a cell in a hypertonic solution
has a lower solute concentration and higher
water concentration than the surrounding
solution.
Water moves by osmosis from the cell into the
hypertonic solution, resulting in cell shrinkage,
or crenation.
Carrier-Mediated Transport
Some water-soluble, electrically charged or
large sized particles cannot enter or leave
through the cell membrane by diffusion.
Active Transport
These substances include amino acids, glucose,
Active transport is a carrier-mediated process,
and some polar molecules produced by the cell.
requiring ATP, that moves substances across the
Carrier molecules are proteins within the cell
cell membrane from regions of lower
membrane involved in carrier-mediated
concentration to those of higher concentration
transport.
against a concentration gradient.
Carrier-mediated transport mechanisms include
Active transport processes accumulate
facilitated diffusion and Active transport.
necessary substances on one side of the cell
Facilitated diffusion does not require ATP for membrane at concentrations many times
energy. greater than those on the other side.

Active transport does require ATP for transport.

Sodium-Potassium Pump

Facilitated Diffusion A major example of active transport is the

Facilitated diffusion is a carrier-mediated
transport process that moves substances across
the cell membrane from an area of higher
concentration to an area of lower concentration
of that substance.
Because movement is with the concentration
gradient, metabolic energy in the form of ATP is
not required.
action of the sodium-potassium pump present
in cell membranes.
The sodium-potassium pump moves Na+ out of
cells and K+ into cells.
The result is a higher concentration of Na+
outside cells and a higher concentration of K+
inside cells.
 Receptor-mediated endocytosis occurs when a

specific substance binds to the receptor

molecule and is transported into the cell.

Phagocytosis is often used for endocytosis

when solid particles are ingested.

Pinocytosis has much smaller vesicles formed,

and they contain liquid rather than solid

particles.

Secondary Active Transport

Secondary active transport uses the energy
provided by a concentration gradient
established by the active transport of one
substance, such as Na+ to transport other
substances.
No additional energy is required above the
energy provided by the initial active transport
pump.
In cotransport, the diffusing substance moves in
the same direction as the initial active Exocytosis
transported substance.
Exocytosis involves the use of membrane-bound
In counter transport, the diffusing substance
moves in a direction opposite to that of the sacs called secretory vesicles that accumulate
initial active transported substance.
materials for release from the cell.

The vesicles move to the cell membrane and

fuse, ultimately releasing the material by

exocytosis.

Examples of exocytosis are the secretion of

digestive enzymes.

Endocytosis

Endocytosis is a process that brings materials

into cell using vesicles.
General Cell Structure The subunits of ribosomes, a type of

The interior of a cell is composed of the cytoplasmic organelle, are formed within a

cytoplasm, which a jelly-like fluid that surrounds nucleolus.

the organelles.
These ribosomal components exit the nucleus

Organelles are specialized structures that through nuclear pores.

perform certain functions.

Organelles include the nucleus, ribosomes,

endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus,
lysosomes, peroxisomes, mitochondria,
cytoskeleton, centrioles, cilia, flagella, and
microvilli.

Cell Nucleus
The nucleus is a large organelle usually located
near the center of the cell.

The nucleus is bounded by a nuclear envelope,

which consists of outer and inner membranes
with a narrow space between them.

The nuclear membrane contains nuclear pores,

through which materials can pass into or out of
the nucleus.

The nuclei of human cells contain 23 pairs of

chromosomes which consist of DNA and
proteins.
Ribosomes
During most of a cell’s life, the chromosomes
Ribosome components are produced in the
are loosely coiled and collectively called
chromatin. nucleolus.
Ribosomes are the organelles where proteins
When a cell prepares to divide, the
are produced.
chromosomes become tightly coiled and are
Ribosomes may be attached to other
visible when viewed with a microscope. organelles, such as the endoplasmic reticulum.

Within the nucleus are Nucleoli, which are Ribosomes that are not attached to any other

diffuse bodies with no surrounding membrane. organelle are called free ribosomes.

that are found within the nucleus

There are usually one to several nucleoli within

the nucleus.
 The Golgi apparatus forms vesicles, some of
which are secretory vesicles, lysosomes, and
other vesicles.

Endoplasmic Reticulum
The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a series of
membranes forming sacs and tubules that
extends from the outer nuclear membrane into Lysosomes

the cytoplasm. Lysosomes are membrane-bound vesicles

The rough ER is involved in protein synthesis
and is rough due to attached ribosomes.
The smooth ER has no attached ribosomes and
is a site for lipid synthesis, cellular
detoxification, and it stores calcium ions in
skeletal muscle cells.
formed from the Golgi apparatus.
They contain a variety of enzymes that function
as intracellular digestive systems.
Vesicles formed by endocytosis may fuse with
lysosomes in order to breakdown materials in
the endocytotic vesicles.

One example is white blood cells phagocytizing

bacteria.

Golgi Apparatus
The Golgi apparatus, also called the Golgi
Peroxisomes
complex, consists of closely packed stacks of
Peroxisomes are small, membrane-bound
curved, membrane-bound sacs.
vesicles containing enzymes that break down
It collects, modifies, packages, and distributes
fatty acids, amino acids, and hydrogen peroxide
proteins and lipids manufactured by the ER.
(H2 O2 ).
Hydrogen peroxide is a by-product of fatty acid
and amino acid breakdown and can be toxic to a
cell.
The enzymes in peroxisomes break down
hydrogen.
Mitochondria
Mitochondria (singular mitochondrion) are
small organelles responsible for producing
considerable amounts of ATP by aerobic (with
O2 ) metabolism.
They have inner and outer membranes
separated by a space.
The outer membranes have a smooth contour,
but the inner membranes have numerous folds,
called cristae, which project into the interior of
the mitochondria.
The material within the inner membrane is the
mitochondrial matrix and contains enzymes and
mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA).
Cells with a large energy requirement have
more mitochondria than cells that require less
energy.
The Cytoskeleton
The cytoskeleton gives internal framework to
the cell.
It consists of protein structures that support the
cell, hold organelles in place, and enable the cell
to change shape.
These protein structures are microtubules,
microfilaments, and intermediate filaments.
Microtubules
Microtubules are hollow structures formed
from protein subunits.
The microtubules perform a variety of roles,
including helping to support the cytoplasm of
cells, assisting in cell division, and forming
essential components of certain organelles,
such as cilia and flagella.
Microfilaments
Microfilaments are small fibrils formed from
protein subunits that structurally support the
cytoplasm, determining cell shape.
Some microfilaments are involved with cell
movement.
Microfilaments in muscle cells enable the cells
to shorten, or contract.
Intermediate Filaments
Intermediate filaments are fibrils formed from
protein subunits that are smaller in diameter
than microtubules but larger in diameter than
microfilaments.
They provide mechanical support to the cell.
A specific type of intermediate filament is
keratin, a protein associated with skin cells.
Centrioles They do not actively move as cilia and flagella
The centrosome is a specialized area of do.

cytoplasm close to the nucleus where Microvilli are numerous on cells that have them
microtubule formation occurs. and they increase the surface area of those

It contains two centrioles, which are normally cells.

oriented perpendicular to each other. They are abundant on the surface of cells that

Each centriole is a small, cylindrical organelle line the intestine, kidney, and other areas in
which absorption is an important function.
composed of microtubules.

The centriole is involved in the process of

Whole Cell Activity
mitosis.
A cell’s characteristics are determine by the
type of proteins produced.

The proteins produced are in turn determined

by the genetic information in the nucleus.

Information in DNA provides the cell with a

code for its cellular processes.

Cilia
DNA
Cilia project from the surface of certain cells.
DNA contains the information that directs
They are responsible for the movement of
materials over the top of cells, such as mucus. protein synthesis; a process called gene

Cilia are cylindrical structures that extend from expression.

the cell and are composed of microtubules.
A DNA molecule consists of nucleotides joined

together to form two nucleotide strands.

Flagella
Flagella have a structure similar to that of cilia The two strands are connected and resemble a

but are much longer, and they usually occur ladder that is twisted around its long axis.
only one per cell.
Each nucleotide consists of a 5-carbon sugar, a
Sperm cells each have one flagellum, which
phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base.
propels the sperm cell.
Each nucleotide on one DNA strand has a

Microvilli specific bonding pattern to another nucleotide

Microvilli are specialized extensions of the cell on the opposite strand.

membrane that are supported by

microfilaments.
A gene is a sequence of nucleotides that DNA’s cytosine pairs with RNA’s guanine
provides a chemical set of instructions for
DNA’s guanine pairs with RNA’s cytosine.
making a specific protein.

Gene Expression

Gene expression, which is protein synthesis,

involves transcription and translation.

Transcription involves copying DNA into

messenger RNA.

Translation involves messenger RNA being used

to produce a protein.
Translation

Translation occurs in the cell cytoplasm after

Transcription
mRNA has exited the nucleus through the
Transcription takes place in the nucleus of the
nuclear pores.
cell.
The mRNA attaches to a ribosome.
DNA determines the structure of mRNA through
Codons (3 nucleotide bases) on the mRNA are
transcription
read by anticodons (3 nucleotide bases) on
During transcription, the double strands of a
transfer RNA (tRNA).
DNA segment separate, and DNA nucleotides of
Transfer RNA transports specific amino acids
the gene pair with RNA nucleotides that form
the mRNA. from the cytoplasm to the ribosome-mRNA

DNA contains one of the following organic complex and initiates formation of the
bases: thymine, adenine, cytosine, or guanine.
polypeptide chain.
Messenger RNA (mRNA) contains uracil,
The process continues until the entire
adenine, cytosine, or guanine.
polypeptide is completely formed.
DNA nucleotides pair only with specific RNA

nucleotides.

DNA’s thymine pairs with RNA’s adenine.

DNA’s adenine pairs with RNA’s uracil.

 The two strands of DNA separate from each

other, and each strand serves as a template for

the production of a new strand of DNA.

Nucleotides in the DNA of each template strand

pair with new nucleotides that are subsequently

joined by enzymes to form a new strand of

DNA.

The sequence of nucleotides in the DNA

template determines the sequence of

nucleotides in the new strand of DNA.

Replication of DNA gives two identical

chromatids joined at a centromere; both form

one chromosome.

The Cell Cycle

During growth and development, cell division

occurs to increase the number of cells or

replace damaged or dying ones.

This cell division involves a cell cycle.

The cell cycle includes two major phases: a

nondividing phase, called interphase, and a cell

dividing phase, termed mitosis.

A cell spends most of its life cycle in interphase

Cell Genetic Content
performing its normal functions.
Each human cell (except sperm and egg)
During interphase, the DNA (located in
contains 23 pairs of chromosomes, a total of 46.
chromosomes in the cell’s nucleus) is replicated.
The sperm and egg contain 23 chromosomes

total.

One pair of chromosomes are the sex
chromosomes, which consist of two X
chromosomes if the person is a female or an X
and Y chromosome if the person is a male.
Mitosis
Mitosis involves formation of 2 daughter cells
from a single parent cell.
moved by the spindle fibers toward the
centriole at one of the poles of the cell.
At the end of anaphase, each set of
chromosomes has reached an opposite pole of
the cell, and the cytoplasm begins to divide.
Telophase
During telophase, the chromosomes in each of
the daughter cells become organized to form
two separate nuclei, one in each newly formed

Mitosis is divided into four phases: prophase, daughter cell.

metaphase, anaphase, and telophase. The chromosomes begin to unravel and

resemble the genetic material during
Prophase
interphase.
During prophase the chromatin condenses to
Following telophase, cytoplasm division is
form visible chromosomes.
completed, and two separate daughter cells are
Microtubules, termed spindle fibers, form to
produced.
assist in breaking the centromere between the

chromatids and move the chromosomes to

opposite sides of the cell.

The nuclear membrane dissolves.

Metaphase

During metaphase, the chromosomes align near

the center of the cell

The movement of the chromosomes is

regulated by the attached spindle fibers.

Anaphase
Differentiation
At the beginning of anaphase, the chromatids
A sperm cell and an oocyte unite to form a
separate and each chromatid is called a
single cell, then a great number of mitotic
chromosome.
divisions occur to give the trillions of cells of the
Each of the two sets of 46 chromosomes is
body.
The process by which cells develop with • Mitochondrial damage

specialized structures and functions is called

differentiation. Tumors

During differentiation of a cell, some portions of Tumors are abnormal proliferations of cells.

DNA are active, but others are inactive. They are due to problems occurring in the cell

cycle.

Some tumors are benign and some are

malignant (cancer).

Malignant tumors can spread by a process,

termed metastasis.

Chapter 4

Tissues (Lecture)
Apoptosis

Apoptosis, termed programmed cell death, is a

Tissue
normal process by which cell numbers within
A tissue is a group of cells with similar structure
various tissues are adjusted and controlled.
and function, plus the extracellular substance
In the developing fetus, apoptosis removes
extra tissue, such as cells between the surrounding them.
developing fingers and toes.
Histology is the study of tissues.
In some adult tissues, apoptosis eliminates

excess cells to maintain a constant number of

Types of Tissues
cells within the tissue.
There are four tissue types in the human body:

1. Epithelial – a covering or lining tissue

Cellular Aspects of Aging
2. Connective – a diverse primary tissue type
There are various causes for cellular aging.
that makes up part of every organ in the body
• Existence of a cellular clock
3. Muscle – a tissue that contracts or shortens,
• Presence of death genes
making movement possible
• DNA damage
4. Nervous – responsible for coordinating and
• Formation of free radicals
controlling many bodies activities Classification of Epithelia

Epithelial tissues are classified primarily

Epithelial Tissues according to the number of cell layers and the

Epithelium, or epithelial tissue, covers and shape of the superficial cells.

protects surfaces, both outside and inside the The cell layers can be simple, stratified, or

body. pseudostratified.

Included under the classification of epithelial The cell shapes can be squamous, cuboidal,

tissue are the exocrine and endocrine glands. columnar, or a special transitional shape, that

Epithelial Tissue Characteristics varies with the degree of stretch.

1. Mostly composed of cells Simple epithelium consists of a single layer of

2. Covers body surfaces cells, with each cell extending from the

3. Distinct cell surfaces basement membrane to the free surface.

4. Cell and matrix connections Stratified epithelium consists of more than one

5. Nonvascular layer of cells, but only the basal layer attaches

6. Capable of regeneration the deepest layer to the basement membrane.

Pseudostratified columnar epithelium is a

special type of simple epithelium, that appears

to be falsely stratified.

It consists of one layer of cells, with all the cells

attached to the basement membrane.

Due to variations in the shape of the cells, the

epithelia appears stratified.

Functions of Epithelial Tissues There are three types of epithelium based on

1. Protects underlying structures idealized shapes of the epithelial cells:

2. Acts as a barrier 1. Squamous cells are flat or scalelike.

3. Permits passage of substances 2. Cuboidal cells are cube-shaped—about as

4. Secretes substances wide as they are tall.

5. Absorption of substances 3. Columnar cells tend to be taller than they are

wide.

Simple Squamous Epithelium

Simple squamous epithelium is a single layer of

thin, flat cells.

Some substances easily pass through this thin

layer of cells, but other substances do not.

The lungs, simple squamous epithelium, allows

for gas exchange.

Simple Columnar Epithelium
The kidneys, simple squamous epithelium, helps
Simple columnar epithelium is a single layer of
filter wastes from the blood while keeping
tall, thin cells.
blood
The large size of these cells enables them to
cells inside the blood vessels.
perform complex functions, such as secretion.

The simple columnar epithelium of the small

intestine produces and secretes mucus and

digestive enzymes.

Simple Cuboidal Epithelium

Simple cuboidal epithelium is a single layer of

cube-like cells that carry out active transport,

facilitated diffusion, or secretion.

Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelium
They have a greater secretory capacity than
Pseudostratified columnar epithelium secretes
simple squamous epithelial cells.
mucus, which covers its free surface.

Cilia in the airways move the mucus and

accumulated debris toward the throat, where it

is swallowed.

Stratified Squamous Epithelium
Stratified squamous epithelium forms a thick
epithelium because it consists of several layers
of cells.
Though the deepest cells are cuboidal or
columnar and are capable of dividing and
producing new cells, the naming is based on the
shape of the surface cells.
There are two types of stratified squamous
epithelia: keratinized stratified squamous and
nonkeratinized stratified squamous epithelia.
Keratinized Stratified Squamous Epithelium
The outer layer of the skin is comprised of a
keratinized squamous epithelium.
The keratin reduces the loss of water from the
body.
Nonkeratinized Stratified Squamous
Epithelium
Stratified squamous epithelium of the mouth is
a moist nonkeratinized stratified squamous
epithelium.
This nonkeratinized stratified squamous
epithelium provides protection against abrasion
and acts as a mechanical barrier.
Water, however, can move across it more
readily than across the skin (keratinized
stratified squamous).
Stratified Cuboidal Epithelium
Stratified cuboidal epithelium consists of more
than one layer of cuboidal epithelial cells.
This epithelial type is relatively rare and is found
in sweat gland ducts, ovarian follicular cells, and
the salivary glands.
It functions in absorption, secretion, and
protection.
Stratified columnar epithelium consists of more
than one layer of epithelial cells; the surface
cells are columnar but the deeper cells are
irregular or cuboidal in shape.
Like stratified cuboidal epithelium, stratified
columnar epithelium is relatively rare, found in
the mammary gland ducts, the larynx, and a
portion of the male urethra.
This epithelium carries out secretion,
protection, and some absorption.
Transitional Epithelium
Transitional epithelium is a special type of
stratified epithelium that can be greatly
stretched.
The shape of the cells change as the epithelium
is stretched.
Transitional epithelium lines cavities that can
expand greatly, such as the urinary bladder.
It also protects underlying structures, like the
urinary bladder, from the caustic effects of
urine.
Free Cell Surfaces
Most epithelia have a free surface that is not in
contact with other cells and faces away from
underlying tissues.
The characteristics of the free surface reflect its
functions.
The free surface can be smooth or lined with
microvilli or cilia.
Cilia move materials over the top of the cell.
Microvilli increase surface area.
Cell Connections
Cells have several structures that hold one cell
to one another or to the basement membrane.
These structures do three things: mechanically
bind the cells together, help form a
permeability barrier, and provide a mechanism
for intercellular communication.
Desmosomes are mechanical links that bind
cells together.
Hemidesmosomes are half desmosomes that
anchor cells to the basement membrane.
Tight junctions prevent the passage of
materials between epithelial cells because they
completely surround each cell, similar to the
way a belt surrounds the waist.
Materials that pass through the epithelial layer
must pass through the cells, so those cells
regulate what materials can cross.
Tight junctions are found in the lining of the
intestines.
Gap junctions are small channels that allow
small molecules and ions to pass from one
epithelial cell to an adjacent one.
Most epithelial cells are connected to one
another by gap junctions, and researchers
believe that molecules or ions moving through
the gap junctions act as communication signals
to coordinate the activities of the cells.
 Glands with secretory regions shaped as tubules

(small tubes) are called tubular, whereas those

shaped in saclike structures are called acinar or

alveolar.

Tubular glands can be straight or coiled.

Glands with a combination of the two are called

tubuloacinar or tubuloalveolar.

Glands

Glands are secretory organs that secrete

substances onto a surface, into a cavity, or into
the bloodstream.

Glands are composed primarily of epithelium,

with a supporting network of connective tissue.
Exocrine glands can also be classified according
Glands with ducts are called exocrine glands.
to how products leave the cell.
Both the gland and its ducts is lined with
epithelium. Merocrine secretion involves the release of

Endocrine glands are ductless glands; they secretory products by exocytosis.

secrete their products (termed hormones) into Apocrine secretion involves the release of
the bloodstream.
secretory products as pinched-off fragments of
Most exocrine glands are multicellular,
the gland cells.
comprised of many cells.
Holocrine secretion involves the shedding of
Some exocrine glands are composed of a single
entire cells.
cell, like goblet cells, that secrete mucus.

Multicellular exocrine glands can be classified

according to the structure of their ducts and

secretory regions.

Compound exocrine glands have multiple,

branched ducts.
Connective Tissue maintain it.

Connective tissue is a diverse primary tissue Found in connective tissue are cells associated
type that makes up part of every organ in the
with the immune system, such as white blood
body.
cells.
Connective tissue differs from the other three
Macrophages are large cells that are capable of
tissue types in that it consists of cells separated
from each other by abundant extracellular moving about and ingesting foreign substances,

matrix. including microorganisms in the connective

Connective tissue is diverse in both structure tissue.

and function.
Mast cells are nonmotile cells that release
Connective tissue is comprised of cells, protein
chemicals, such as histamine, that promote
fibers, and an extracellular matrix.
inflammation.
Functions of Connective Tissue
Extracellular Matrix
1. Enclose and separate other tissues
The extracellular matrix of connective tissue has
2. Connecting tissues to one another
three major components: protein fibers, ground
3. Supporting and moving parts of the body
substance, and fluid.
4. Storing compounds
Ground substance consists of non-fibrous
5. Cushioning and insulating
protein and other molecules.
6. Transporting
The structure of the matrix is responsible for
7. Protecting the functional characteristics of connective

Connective Tissue Cells tissues— for example, they enable bones and
cartilage to bear weight.
The specialized cells of the various connective
Matrix Protein Fibers
tissues produce the extracellular matrix.
Three types of protein fibers—collagen,
The name of the cell identifies the cell
reticular, and elastic—help form most
functions.
connective tissues.
Osteoblasts form bone, osteocytes maintain it,
Collagen fibers, which resemble microscopic
and osteoclasts break it down.
ropes, are very flexible but resist stretching.
Fibroblasts are cells that form fibrous
Reticular fibers are very fine, short collagen
connective tissue, and fibrocytes maintain it. fibers that branch to form a supporting
network.
Chondroblasts form cartilage and chondrocytes
Elastic fibers have the ability to return to their Adipose tissue consists of adipocytes, or fat

original shape after being stretched or cells, which contain large amounts of lipid for
compressed, giving tissue an elastic quality.
energy storage.
Matrix Ground Substance
Adipose tissue pads and protects parts of the
The ground substance consists of non-fibrous
body and acts as a thermal insulator.
molecules and is shapeless.
Reticular tissue forms the framework of
It consists of proteoglycans, which are large
lymphatic tissue, such as in the spleen and
molecules that consist of a protein core
lymph nodes, as well as in bone marrow and the
attached to many long polysaccharides.
liver.
Proteoglycans trap large quantities of water

between the polysaccharides, which allows

them to return to their original shape when

compressed or deformed.

Types of Connective Tissues

The two main types of connective tissue are

embryonic and adult connective tissue.

By eight weeks of development, most of the

embryonic connective tissue has become

specialized to form the types of connective

tissue seen in adults.

Loose connective tissue consists of relatively

few protein fibers that form a lacy network,
with numerous spaces filled with ground
substance and fluid.

Dense connective tissue has a relatively large

Three subdivisions of loose connective tissue
are areolar, adipose, and reticular. number of protein fibers that form thick
bundles and fill nearly all of the extracellular
Areolar connective tissue primarily consists of
space.
collagen fibers and a few elastic fibers. The
There are two major subcategories of dense
most common cells in loose connective

connective tissue: collagenous and elastic.

tissue are the fibroblasts.
Dense collagenous connective tissue has an results from, in part the inability to properly

extracellular matrix consisting mostly of maintain and form elastic fibers.

collagen fibers.

Dense collagenous connective tissue having the

collagen fibers oriented in the same direction is

termed dense regular.

Examples of dense regular are tendons and

ligaments.

Dense collagenous connective tissue having the

collagen fibers oriented in the multiple

directions is termed dense irregular.

Cartilage
Examples of dense irregular are in the dermis of
Cartilage is composed of chondrocytes, located
the skin and in organ capsules.
in spaces called lacunae within an extensive

matrix.

Collagen in the matrix gives cartilage flexibility

and strength.

Cartilage is resilient because the proteoglycans

of the matrix trap water.

Cartilage provides support, but if bent or slightly

compressed, it resumes its original shape.

There are three types of cartilage: hyaline,

Dense elastic connective tissue has abundant
elastic fibers among its collagen fibers.
The elastic fibers allow the tissue to stretch and
recoil.
Examples include the dense elastic connective
tissue in the vocal cords.
A genetic condition called Marfan syndrome
fibrocartilage, and elastic cartilage.
Hyaline cartilage is the most abundant type of
cartilage and has many functions, such as
covering the ends of bones, where they form
joints.
Fibrocartilage has more collagen than does
hyaline cartilage and is able to withstand
compression and resist tearing or pulling.
Fibrocartilage is found in the intervertebral
disks.

Bone

Bone is a hard connective tissue that consists of

Fibrocartilage has more collagen than does
living cells and a mineralized matrix. Osteocytes
hyaline cartilage and is able to withstand
are located within lacunae.
compression and resist tearing or pulling.
The strength and rigidity of the mineralized
Fibrocartilage is found in the disks between the
matrix enables bones to support and protect
vertebrae (bones of the back) and in some
other tissues and organs.
joints, such as the knee and
temporomandibular (jaw) joints. Two types of bone tissue exist: spongy bone
and compact bone.
Elastic cartilage contains elastic fibers in
addition to collagen and proteoglycans. Spongy bone has spaces between trabeculae or

The elastic fibers appear as coiled fibers among plates, of bone and therefore resembles a

bundles of collagen fibers. sponge.

Elastic cartilage is able to recoil to its original Compact bone is more solid, with almost no

shape when bent. space between many thin layers of mineralized

The external ear, epiglottis, and auditory tube matrix.

contain elastic cartilage.

Blood

Blood is a liquid connective tissue

It contains a liquid matrix, termed the plasma,

along with formed elements.

The formed elements are erythrocytes,

leukocytes, and platelets.

It functions in transport of food, oxygen, waste,

hormones, and other substances.

Cardiac muscle is the muscle of the heart; it is

responsible for pumping blood.

Cardiac muscle cells are cylindrical but much

shorter than skeletal muscle cells.

Cardiac muscle cells are striated and usually

have one nucleus per cell.

They are often branched and connected to one

Muscle
another by intercalated disks.
The main function of muscle tissue is to

contract, or shorten, making movement

possible.

Muscle contraction results from contractile

proteins located within the muscle cells.

The three types of muscle tissue are skeletal,

cardiac, and smooth.

Skeletal muscle attaches to the skeleton and

enables the body to move.

Smooth muscle forms the walls of hollow
Skeletal muscle cells are striated, or banded,
organs; it is also found in the skin and the eyes.
because of the arrangement of contractile
Smooth muscle is responsible for a number of
proteins within the cells.
functions, such as moving food through the
digestive tract and emptying the urinary Tissue Membranes

bladder. A tissue membrane is a thin sheet or layer of

Smooth muscle cells are tapered at each end, tissue that covers a structure or lines a cavity.

have a single nucleus, and are not striated.

Most membranes consist of epithelium and the

connective tissue on which the epithelium rests.

There are four tissue membranes in the body:

cutaneous, mucous, serous, and synovial.

The skin, termed the cutaneous membrane, is

an external body surface membrane.

The mucous membranes line cavities that open

to the outside of the body, such as the
Nervous Tissue
digestive, respiratory, and reproductive tracts.
Nervous tissue forms the brain, spinal cord, and
Mucous membranes consist of epithelial cells,
nerves. their basement membrane, and a thick layer of
loose connective tissue.
It is responsible for coordinating and controlling
Many, but not all, mucous membranes secrete
many body activities.
mucus.
Nervous tissue consists of neurons and support
The functions of mucous membranes include
cells, termed glial cells.
protection, absorption, and secretion.
The neuron is responsible for conducting action
Serous membranes line cavities that do not
potentials.
open to the exterior of the body, such as the
It is composed of three parts: a cell body,
pericardial, pleural, and peritoneal cavities.
dendrites, and an axon.
Serous membranes consist of three
components: a layer of simple squamous
epithelium, its basement membrane, and a
delicate layer of loose connective

tissue.

Serous membranes do not contain glands, but

they secrete a small amount of fluid called
serous fluid, which lubricates the surface of the
membranes.
Synovial membranes line the cavities of freely
movable joints.
They are made up of only connective tissue and
consist of modified connective tissue cells.
Synovial membranes produce synovial fluid,
which makes the joint very slippery, thereby
reducing friction and allowing smooth
movement within the joint.
Tissue Inflammation1
Inflammation is usually a beneficial process
occurring when tissues are damaged.
When viruses infect epithelial cells of the upper
respiratory tract, inflammation and the
symptoms of the common cold are produced.
The inflammatory process occurs in stages.
Inflammation mobilizes the body’s defenses and
isolates and destroys microorganisms, foreign
materials, and damaged cells so that tissue
repair can proceed.
Inflammation produces five major symptoms:
redness, heat, swelling, pain, and disturbance
of function.
Tissue Repair
Tissue repair involves substitution of dead cells
for viable cells.
Tissue repair can occur by regeneration or by
fibrosis.
In regeneration, the new cells are the same type
as those that were destroyed, and normal
function is usually restored.
In fibrosis, or replacement, a new type of tissue
develops that eventually causes scar production
and the loss of some tissue function.
Regeneration can completely repair some
tissues such as the skin and the mucous
membrane of the intestine. In these cases,
regeneration is accomplished primarily by stem
cells.
Stem cells are self-renewing, undifferentiated

cells that continue to divide throughout life.

Tissue repair occurs in sequential steps.

Chapter 5

Integumentary System (Lecture)