Chapter 1: The Human Body

Anatomy
• Study of the structure and shape of the
body and its parts
Physiology
• Study of how the body and its parts work
or function

Anatomy—Levels of Study
•Gross anatomy
• Large structures
• Easily observable

Microscopic anatomy
• Structures cannot be seen with the
naked eye
• Structures can only be viewed with a
microscope

Gross anatomy

Microscopic anatomy

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 pumped by heart
• Oxygen
• Carbon dioxide
• Nutrients
• Wastes

Lymphatic system
• Returns fluids to blood vessels
• Cleanses the blood
• Involved in immunity
Organ System Overview
•Integumentary system Respiratory system
• Forms the external body covering • Keeps blood supplied with oxygen
• Protects deeper tissue from injury • Removes carbon dioxide
• Helps regulate body temperature
• Location of cutaneous nerve receptors Digestive system
• Breaks down food
Skeletal system • Allows for nutrient absorption into blood
• Protects and supports body organs • Eliminates indigestible material as feces
• Provides muscle attachment for
movement Urinary system
• Site of blood cell formation • Eliminates nitrogenous wastes
• Stores mineral • Maintains acid-base balance
• Regulates water and electrolytes
Muscular system
• Produces movement Reproductive system
• Maintains posture • Produces offspring
• Produces heat • Testes produce sperm and male
hormone
Nervous system • Ovaries produce eggs and female
• Fast-acting control system hormones.
• Responds to internal and external
change Necessary Life Functions
• Activates muscles and glands  Maintain boundaries
Endocrine system  Movement
• Secretes regulatory hormones  Locomotion
• Growth  Movement of substances
• Reproduction  Responsiveness
• Metabolism  Ability to sense changes and react
 Digestion
Cardiovascular system  Breakdown and absorption of
• Transports materials in body via blood nutrients

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 Metabolism—chemical reactions
within the
 body
 Break down complex molecules
into smaller ones
 Build larger molecules from smaller
ones
 Produces energy
 Regulated by hormones
 Excretion
 Eliminates waste from metabolic
reactions
 Wastes may be removed in urine
or feces Homeostasis
 Reproduction  Homeostasis—maintenance of a
 Occurs on cellular level or stable internal environment
organismal level • A dynamic state of equilibrium
 Produces future generation • Necessary for normal body
 Growth functioning and to sustain life
 Increases cell size and number of  Homeostatic imbalance
cell • A disturbance in homeostasis
resulting in disease
Survival Needs
 Nutrients
 Chemicals for energy and cell
building
 Includes carbohydrates,
proteins, lipids, vitamins, and
minerals
 Oxygen
 Required for chemical reactions
 Water
Maintaining Homeostasis
 60 to 80 percent of body weight
 The body communicates through
 Most abundant chemical in the
neural and
human body
 hormonal control systems
 Provides for metabolic reaction
• Receptor
 Stable body temperature
• Responds to changes in the
 37°C (98°F)
environment (stimuli)
 Atmospheric pressure
• Sends information to control center
 Must be appropriate for gas
• Control center
exchange
• Determines set point
• Analyzes information
• Determines appropriate response
• Effector

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 • Provides a means for response to Posterior Body Landmarks
the stimulus.

Feedback Mechanisms
 Negative feedback
o Includes most homeostatic control
mechanisms
o Shuts off the original stimulus, or
reduces its intensity
o Works like a household
thermostat
 Positive feedback
o Increases the original stimulus to
push the variable farther
o In the body this only occurs in
blood clotting and during the birth
of a baby
 The Language of Anatomy
 Special terminology is used to prevent
Directional Terms
 misunderstanding
1. Superior (cranial or cephalad):
 Exact terms are used for
toward the head end or upper part of a
o Position
structure or the body; above
o Direction 2. Inferior (caudal): away from the head
o Regions
end or toward the lower part of a
o Structures
structure or the body; below
3. Ventral (anterior): toward or at the
Regional landmarks front of the body; in front of
Anterior body Landmarks 4. Dorsal (posterior): toward or at the
backside of the body; behind
5. Medial: toward or at the midline of the
body; on the inner side of
6. Lateral: away from the midline of the
body; on the outer side of
7. Intermediate: between a more medial
and a more lateral structure.
8. Proximal: close to the origin of the
body part or point of attachment to a
limb to the body trunk
9. Distal: farther from the origin of a
body part or the point of attachment of
a limb to the body trunk
10. Superficial: toward or at the body
surface

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11. Deep: away from the body surface;
more internal

Body Planes and Sections

•A sagittal section divides the body (or
organ) into left and right parts.
•A median, or midsagittal, section divides
the body (or organ) into equal left and
right parts.
•A frontal, or coronal, section divides the
body (or organ) into anterior and posterior
parts.
•A transverse, or cross, section divides
the body (or organ) into superior and
inferior parts.

Body Cavities
 Dorsal body cavity
 Cranial cavity houses the brain
 Spinal cavity houses the spinal
cord
 Ventral body cavity
 Thoracic cavity houses heart,
lungs, and others
 Abdominopelvic cavity houses
digestive system and most urinary
system organs.

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ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

The Endocrine System is the collection of

glands that produce hormones that regulate
metabolism, growth and development, tissue
function, sexual function, reproduction, sleep,
and mood, among other things. It is the
Second controlling system of the body. It is
also a Wfast-control system that uses
chemical messengers (hormones) that are
released into the blood.
The 3 Main Functions of the Endocrine
System are:

1. Makes hormones that control your

moods, growthand
development, metabolism, organs, and
reproduction.
2. Controls how your hormones are There are two types of glands; Endocrine and
released. Exocrine. Some glands have purely endocrine
3. Sends t hose hormones into your functions. Some have pure exocrine
bloodstream so they can travel to other functions. Other glands are mixed glands,
body parts. with both endocrine and exocrine functions
(pancreas, gonads).
Glands are organs which produces and
releases substances that perform a A. Endocrine Glands
specific function in the body. There are 8
major organs in our body. They are ductless glands and release the
substances that they make (hormones)
directly into the bloodstream.
Major Glands in Our Body
Examples:
1. Hypothalamus
1. Hypothalamus
2. Pituitary gland But not limited to osmoregulation and
3. Pineal gland thermoregulation but also works with the
pituitary gland in modulating the body’s
4. Thyroid gland
hormones depending on the body’s
5. Parathyroid glands physiological demands.
6. Adrenal glands
2. Pituitary gland
7. Testes
Basically the boss of the endocrine system.
8. Ovaries Takes immense responsibility of regulating
the activity of the other six major endocrine
glands that release hormones.

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3. Pineal gland 2. Sweat Gland
Also called the epiphysis cerebri. Responsible Used as a cooling system of the body.
for altering your state of wakefulness and Releasing stress to regulate
sleep by releasing hormones such as temperature.
melatonin.
3. Prostate Gland
4. Thyroid gland and Parathyroid glands In males they are a group of accessory
Function is for growth development, increase reproductive organs that facilitates
muscle gain, increase metabolism to name a the process of reproduction.
few.
5. Adrenal glands
Located at the retroperitoneal space.
Responsible for secreting stress hormones
that stimulate the physiological adaptations
to mitigate the change in external
environment.

6. Testes
Site of sperm production. Assymetrical.

7. Ovaries Hormones are chemical substances secreted

For the production of gametes and their by endocrine cells into the extracellular fluids
expulsion for fertilization. that regulate the metabolic activity of other
cells in the body.
8. Thymus
Helping develop an important white blood
cell called the T-cell.

9. Pancreas
Release various substances that helps
regulate the blood constant levels as well as
digestion.

B. Exocrine Glands
They are glands with ducts. The secretions are
delivered into ducts and end up on the
epithelial surface.
Examples:
1. Salivary Gland
Secrete their salivary contents to help
keep the oral mucosa protected and
lubricated as well as to help in the
initial stages of digestion (chewing).

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The Chemistry of Hormones
Hormones are produced by specialized cells.
These Cells secrete hormones into
extracellular fluids. Blood transfers
hormones to target sites. In target sites,
hormones regulate the activity of other cells.
Endocrinology is the scientific study of
hormones and endocrine organs
Hormones are classified chemically as:
1. Amino acid–based, which includes:
a. Proteins
b. Peptides
c. Amines
2. Steroids that are made from cholesterol
3. Prostaglandins which are made from
highly active lipids that act as local
hormones.
Major Processes that Hormones Control
1. Reproduction
2. Growth and development
3. Mobilization of body defenses
4. Maintenance of much of homeostasis
5. Regulation of metabolism
Hormone Action
Hormones affect only certain tissues or
organs (target cells or target organs). For a
target cell to respond, specific protein
receptors in which a hormone can attach
must be present. It then alters arouse cells or
alter cellular activity.
Typically, one or more of the following
occurs:
1. Change plasma membrane permeability
or membrane potential by opening or
closing ion channels
2. Activate or inactivate enzymes
3. Stimulate or inhibit cell division
4. Promote or inhibit secretion of a product
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5. Turn on or turn off transcription of
certain genes
Hormones Act by Two Mechanisms
A. Direct Gene Activation - used by steroid
hormones and thyroid hormone
1. Steroid hormones diffuse through the
plasma membrane of target cells
2. Once inside the cell, the hormone enters
the nucleus
3. Then, the hormone binds to a specific
protein within the nucleus
4. Hormone-receptor complex binds to
specific sites on the cell’s DNA
5. Certain genes are activated to transcribe
messenger RNA
6. New proteins are synthesized
B. Second-Messenger System - used by
protein and peptide hormones
1. Hormone (first messenger) binds to a
membrane receptor
2. Activated receptor sets off a series of
reactions that activates an enzyme
3. Enzyme catalyzes a reaction that
produces a second-messenger molecule
(such as cyclic AMP, known as cAMP)
4. Oversees additional intracellular changes
to promote a specific response in the
target cell
Stimuli for Control of Hormone Release
Hormone levels in the blood are maintained
mostly by negative feedback. In this feedback
system, a stimulus or low hormone levels in
the blood will trigger the release of more
hormone. The release of hormones stops
once an appropriate level in the blood is
reached. The stimuli that activate endocrine
glands fall into three major categories;
hormonal, humoral or neural.
1. Hormonal Stimuli

This is the most common category of

stimulus. Endocrine organs are activated by
other hormones.
Example:
Hormones of the hypothalamus stimulate the
anterior pituitary gland to secrete its
hormones. Many anterior pituitary hormones
stimulate other endocrine organs to release
their hormones in the blood.

2. Humoral indicates various body fluids,

such as blood and bile
Examples: 1. Anterior Pituitary Gland

Parathyroid hormone and calcitonin are
produced in response to changing levels of
blood calcium levels. Insulin is produced in
response to changing levels of blood glucose
levels
3. Neural stimuli
Nerve fibers stimulate hormone release. Most
are under the control of the sympathetic
nervous system.
Examples:
Sympathetic stimulation of the adrenal
medulla to release epinephrine and
norepinephrine
This gland is small, controls the
activity of so many other endocrine glands.
They are often called the “Master Endocrine
Gland”. The adrenal, thyroid and the gonad
atrophies if there is an hyposecretion of these
hormones.
Hypothalamus produces Releasing Hormones
and Inhibiting Hormones to regulate the
function of the anterior Pituitary Gland. These
hormones are released into portal circulation,
which connects hypothalamus to anterior
pituitary gland.

Pituitary Gland
The pituitary gland is a pea-sized gland
that hangs by a stalk from the hypothalamus
in the brain. It is protected by the sella turcica
of the sphenoid bone. It has two functional
lobes; anterior pituitary and the posterior
pituitary gland.

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B. Posterior Pituitary Gland
It is not an endocrine gland as it does not
make the hormones it releases but instead it
stands as storage for hormones made by the
hypothalamus. Stores 2 types of hormones
from the hypothalamus; oxytocin and anti-
diuretic hormone.
1. Oxytocin
This hormone is released only during
childbirth. It stimulates contractions of the
uterus during labor, sexual relations, and
breastfeeding. It also causes milk ejection
(let-down reflex) in a breastfeeding woman.
2. Anti-Diuretic Hormone (ADH)
It is a chemical that inhibits urine
production (diuresis) by promoting water
reabsorption by the kidneys. As a result, urine
volume decreases and blood pressure
increases.
In large amounts, causes constriction of
arterioles, leading toincreased blood
pressure (the reason why ADH is known as
vasopressin).Alcohol drinking inhibits ADH
secretion.
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Six Anterior Pituitary Hormones Affecting
our Body
Two Hormones affect Non-endocrine targets
1. Growth hormone
2. Prolactin
Four are Tropic Hormones
1. Follicle-stimulating hormone
2. Luteinizing hormone
3. Thyrotropic hormone
4. Adrenocorticotropic hormone
All anterior pituitary hormones are proteins
(or peptides). They act through second-
messenger systems. Generally, they Are
regulated by hormonal stimuli and negative
feedback.
1. Growth hormone (GH)
GH is a general metabolic hormone. Its
major effects are directed to growth of
skeletal muscles and long bones. The GH
Plays a role in determining final body size. It is
protein-sparing and anabolic hormone that
causes amino acids to be built into proteins. It
also causes fats to be broken down for a
source of energy.
2. Prolactin (PRL).
Prolactin stimulates and maintains milk
production following childbirth. Function in
males is unknown.
Gonadotropic Hormones - they are hormones
that regulate hormonal activity of the gonads.
There are 2 gonadotropic hormones in the
body: FSH and LH.
a. The Follicle-stimulating Hormone (FSH)
Stimulates follicle development in ovaries in PTH is a hypercalcemic hormone meaning it
women and stimulates sperm increases blood calcium levels and it
development in testes in men. stimulates the kidneys and intestine to absorb
more calcium.
b. The Luteinizing Hormone (LH)
Triggers ovulation of an egg from the ovary II. Thymus
and causes the ruptured follicle to
produce progesterone and some estrogen.
Stimulates testosterone production in males.

3. Thyrotropic hormone (TH), also called

thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)
This hormone Influences growth and
activity of the thyroid gland.
Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH). It also
regulates endocrine activity of the adrenal
This hormone is located in the upper thorax,
cortex.
posterior to the sternum. It is largest in
4. Adrenocorticotropic Hormone infants and children and decreases in size
Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) throughout adulthood. Thymus produces a
hormone called Thymosin which appears to
plays a large role in how your body responds
be essential for a special group of white blood
to stress. ACTH is produced in the pituitary
cells and the immune system.
gland, its production stimulates the
production and release of cortisol from the Learning Task # 8 Adrenal Glands
adrenal gland.
Adrenal Glands
I. Parathyroid Glands

They are tiny masses on the posterior of This gland sits on top of the kidneys like
the thyroid. It secreteS parathyroid hormone triangular hats. It has 2 regions; adrenal
(PTH). They are most important regulator of cortex and adrenal medulla.
calcium ion (Ca2+) homeostasis of the blood. It
also stimulates osteoclasts to remove calcium
from bone.

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Two Regions Composing the Adrenal Gland
A. Adrenal Cortex
Produces 3 major groups of steroid
hormones which are collectively known as
corticosteroids. They are the
mineralocorticoids, glucocorticoids, sex
hormones.
1. Mineralocorticoids (mainly aldosterone)
They are produced in outer adrenal cortex.
They are important in regulating mineral (salt)
content in blood, particularly sodium and
potassium ions. They also regulate water and
electrolyte balance. The target organ is the
kidney.
Release of aldosterone is stimulated by:
a. Humoral factors (fewer sodium ions or
too many potassium ions in the blood)
b. Hormonal stimulation (ACTH)
c. Renin and angiotensin II in response to a
drop in blood pressure
Aldosterone production is inhibited by
atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP), a hormone
produced by the heart when blood pressure is
too high.
2. Glucocorticoids (including cortisone and
cortisol)
They are produced by middle layer of
adrenal cortex. It promotes normal cell
metabolism and help resist long-term
stressors by increasing blood glucose levels
(hyperglycemic hormone). It also Anti-
inflammatory properties and are Released in
response to increased blood levels of ACTH.
Most of the hormones produced are
androgens (male sex hormones), but some
estrogens (female sex hormones) are also
formed
B. Adrenal Medulla
It is a knot of nervous tissue. Produces
two similar hormones or catecholamines;
epinephrine or norepinephrine.
1. Epinephrine or Adrenaline
It is is a hormone and medication.
Adrenaline is normally produced by both the
adrenal glands and a small number of
neurons in the medulla oblongata, where it
acts as a neurotransmitter involved in
regulating visceral functions (e.g.,
respiration).
2. Norepinephrine (Noradrenaline)
It is a naturally occurring chemical in the
body that acts as both a stress hormone
and neurotransmitter (a substance that sends
signals between nerve cells). It's released into
the blood as a stress hormone when the brain
perceives that a stressful event has occurred.
These hormones prepare the body to
deal with short-term stress (“fight or flight”)
by increasing heart rate, blood pressure,
blood glucose levels and dilating small
passageways of lungs.
Learning Task # 9 Pancreas

3. Sex hormones
It is produced in the inner layer of the
adrenal cortex and in small amounts are
made throughout life.

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It is located close to the stomach in the
abdominal cavity. It is a mixed gland, with
both endocrine and exocrine functions. The
Pancreatic Islets or the Islets of Langerhans
produce 2 hormones; Insulin and Glucagon.
These hormones are antagonists that
maintain blood sugar homeostasis
1. Insulin
These are produced by beta cells and
released when blood glucose levels are
high. This hormone increases the rate of
glucose uptake and metabolism by body
cells. Insulin removes sugar out of the
blood so its effect is Hypoglycemic.
2. Glucagon
Glucagon is produced by alpha cells and
released when blood glucose levels are
low. It stimulates the liver to release
glucose to blood, thus increasing blood
glucose levels.
Learning Task # 10 Gonads
Gonads
The female and male gonads produce sex
cells. They also produce sex hormones
identical to those of adrenal cortex
production.
Ovaries
The female gonads or ovaries are paired,
slightly larger that almond-sized organs are
located in the pelvic cavity. They produce
eggs or ova and 2 groups of hormones
namely: estrogen and progesterone.
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1. Estrogens
Stimulate the development of secondary
female characteristics and maturation of the
female reproductive organs. With
progesterone, it also promote breast
development.
2. Progesterone
It acts with estrogen to bring about the
menstrual cycle. It also helps in the
implantation of an embryo in the uterus and
helps prepare breasts for lactation.
Testes
The paired, oval male gonads or testes are
suspended in a sac called Scrotum outside the
pelvic cavity. It produces sperm and male sex
hormones or androgens, such as
testosterone.
Testosterone is the most important androgen
because it is responsible for adult male
secondary sex characteristics. It promotes
growth and maturation of male reproductive
system and is required for sperm cell
production
Learning Task # 11
Other Hormone-Producing Tissues and
Organs
There are pockets of hormone-producing cells
that are found in the stomach, walls of the
small intestine, kidneys and heart. Some
hormones are also produced in the placenta.
Placenta
 It is a remarkable organ formed temporarily
in the uterus. It produces hormones that
maintain pregnancy. It produces human
chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) in addition to
estrogen, progesterone, and other hormones.
The Human placental lactogen (hPL) prepares
the breasts for lactation. Relaxin relaxes
pelvic ligaments and pubic symphysis for
childbirth.
Other Sources of Hormones are Identified in
this Chart
Learning Task # 12 Developmental Aspects of
the Endocrine System
In the absence of disease, efficiency of
the endocrine system remains high until old
age. Decreasing function of female ovaries at
menopause leads to such symptoms as
osteoporosis, increased chance of heart
disease, and possible mood changes.
Developmental Aspects of the Endocrine
System

Source Hormone Stimulus for Efficiency of all endocrine glands gradually

secretion decreases with aging, which leads to a
generalized increase in incidence of:

Plasma Prostaglandins Local irritation, 1. Diabetes mellitus

membrane of hormones, etc. 2. Immune system depression
all body cells
3. Lower metabolic rate
4. Cancer rates in some areas
Stomach Gastrin Food

Duodenum Intestinal Food

Gastrin
“Successful and unsuccessful people do not
Duodenum Secretin Food vary greatly in their abilities. They vary in
their desires to reach their potential.”– John
Maxwell
Duodenum Cholecystokinin Food

Kidney Erythropoetin Hypoxia

Kidney Active Vit D3 PTH

Heart Atrial Stretching of

natriuretic Atria
Peptide(ANP)

Adipose Leptin Fatty Foods

Tissue

Adipose Resistin Unknown

Tissue

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 Digestive System I. Mouth
It is the system by which ingested food is
acted upon by physical and chemical means
to provide the body with absorbable nutrients
and to excrete waste products.
Also known as the Gastrointestinal Tract or
the Alimentary Canal, it is a series of
hollow organs joined in a long, twisting tube
from the mouth to the anus. The
hollow organs that make up the GI tract are
the mouth, esophagus, stomach, small Parts of the Mouth:
intestine, large intestine, and anus.
1. Mouth (oral cavity)—mucous membrane–
Functions: lined cavity
1. Ingestion—taking in food
2. Digestion—breaking food into nutrient 2. Lips (labia)—protect the anterior opening
molecules 3. Cheeks—form the lateral walls
3. Absorption—movement of nutrients into
the bloodstream 4. Hard palate—forms the anterior roof
4. Defecation—excretes to rid the body of
indigestible waste 5. Soft palate—forms the posterior roof
6. Uvula—fleshy projection of the soft palate
Two Main Groups of Organs
7. Palatine—located at posterior end of oral
I. Alimentary Canal (Gastrointestinal or GI cavity
Tract)—continuous, coiled, hollow tube.
These organs ingest, digest, absorb, 8. Lingual—located at the base of the tongue
defecate.
9. Vestibule—space between lips externally
II. Accessory digestive organs - includes the
and teeth and gums internally
teeth, tounge, and several large
digestive organs. Assist digestion in 10. Oral cavity proper—area contained by the
various ways. teeth
LEARNING TASK # 2 ORGANS OF THE 11. Tongue—attached at hyoid bone and
ALIMENTARY CANAL styloid processes of the skull, and by the
lingual frenulum to the floor of the mouth
The alimentary canal is a continuous, coiled,
hollow tube that runs through the ventral 12. Tonsils
cavity from stomach to anus
1. Mouth
2. Pharynx Functions of the Mouth
3. Esophagus Mastication (chewing) of food. Tongue
4. Stomach mixes masticated food with saliva. Tongue
5. Small intestine initiates swallowing. Taste buds on the
6. Large intestine tongue allow for taste
7. Anus

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II. Pharynx
Serves as a passageway for foods, fluids, and
air. Food passes from the mouth posteriorly
into the:
a. Oropharynx—posterior to oral cavity
b. Laryngopharynx—below the oropharynx
and continuous with the esophagus
Food is propelled to the esophagus by two
skeletal muscle layers in the pharynx:
a. Longitudinal outer layer
b. b. Circular inner layer
Alternating contractions of the muscle layers
(peristalsis) propel the food.
Anatomy:
About 10 inches long. Runs from pharynx
to stomach through the diaphragm.
Physiology:
Conducts food by peristalsis (slow rhythmic
squeezing) to the stomach. Acts as
a passageway for food only (respiratory
system branches off after the pharynx)
Layers of Tissue in the Alimentary Canal
Organs
Summary of the four layers from innermost to
outermost, from esophagus to the large
intestine (detailed next)
a. Mucosa
b. Submucosa
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c. Muscularis externa
d. Serosa
A. Mucosa
Innermost, moist membrane consisting of:
1. Surface epithelium that is mostly simple
columnar epithelium (except for
esophagus— stratified squamous
epithelium)
2. Small amount of connective tissue (lamina
propria)
3. Scanty smooth muscle layer lines the
cavity (known as the lumen)
4. Submucosa - Just beneath the mucosa
5. Soft connective tissue with blood vessels,
nerve endings, mucosa-associated
lymphoid tissue, and lymphatic vessels
6. Muscularis externa—smooth
muscle, Inner circular layer
Outer longitudinal layer
1. Serosa—outermost layer of the wall;
contains fluid-producing cells
2. Visceral peritoneum—innermost layer
that is continuous with the outermost
layer
3. Parietal peritoneum—outermost layer
that lines the abdominopelvic cavity by
way of the mesentery
Alimentary Canal Nerve Plexuses
Alimentary canal wall contains two
intrinsic nerve plexuses that are part of the
autonomic nervous system.
1. Submucosal nerve plexus
2. Myenteric nerve plexus
Regulate mobility and secretory activity of
the GI tract organs
III. Stomach
The C-shaped organ located on the left
side of the abdominal cavity. Food enters at
the cardioesophageal sphincter from the
esophagus. Food empties into the small
intestine at the pyloric sphincter (valve).
Stomach can stretch and hold 4 L (1 gallon) of
food when full.
Regions
1. Greater curvature is the convex lateral
surface
2. Lesser curvature is the concave medial
surface
3. Cardial (cardia)—near the heart and
surrounds the cardioesophageal sphincter
4. Fundus—expanded portion lateral to the
cardiac region
5. Body—midportion
6. Pylorus—funnel-shaped terminal end
7. Rugae—internal folds of the mucosa
present when the stomach is empty
8. Lesser omentum - double layer of the
peritoneum. Extends from liver to the
lesser curvature of stomach
9. Greater omentum - Another extension of
the peritoneum, covers the abdominal
organs. Fat insulates, cushions, and
protects abdominal organs
Structure of the Stomach Mucosa
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1. Intrinsic factor, which is needed for
vitamin B12 absorption in the small
intestine
2. Simple columnar epithelium composed
almost entirely of mucous cells. Mucous
cells produce bicarbonate-rich alkaline
mucus. Dotted by gastric pits leading to
gastric glands that secrete gastric juice,
including:
3. Chief cells—produce protein-digesting
enzymes (pepsinogens)
4. Parietal cells—produce hydrochloric acid
that activates enzymes
5. Mucous neck cells—produce thin acidic
mucus (different from the mucus
produced by mucous cells of the mucosa)
6. Enteroendocrine cells—produce local
hormones such as gastrin
Functions
 Temporary storage tank for food
 Site of food breakdown
 Chemical breakdown of protein begins
 Delivers chyme (processed food) to the
small intestine
IV. Small Intestine
The body’s major digestive organ. The
longest portion of the alimentary tube (2–4
m, or 7–13 feet, in a living person). Site of
nutrient absorption into the blood. It is a
muscular tube extending from the pyloric
sphincter to the ileocecal valve. Suspended
from the posterior abdominal wall by the
mesentery.
Subdivisions
1. Duodenum
2. Jejunum
3. Ileum
Chemical digestion begins in the small
intestine. Enzymes produced by intestinal
cells and pancreas are carried to the
duodenum by pancreatic ducts. Bile, formed 4. Peyer’s patches - collections of lymphatic
by the liver, enters the duodenum via the bile tissue. Located in submucosa. Increases in
duct. Hepatopancreatic ampulla is the number toward the end of the small intestine.
location where the main pancreatic duct and More are needed there because remaining
bile ducts join. food residue contains much bacteria.
Structural modifications
1. Villi—fingerlike projections formed by the
mucosa. House a capillary bed and lacteal

2. Microvilli—tiny projections of the plasma

membrane (brush border enzymes)

V. Large Intestine

3. Circular folds (plicae circulares)—deep

folds of mucosa and submucosa. Increase
surface area for food absorption. Decrease in
number toward the end of the small intestine.

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Larger in diameter, but shorter in length at 1. Ascending—travels up right side of
1.5 m, than the small intestine. Extends from abdomen and makes a turn at the right colic
the ileocecal valve to the anus (hepatic) flexure

Subdivisions: 2. Transverse—travels across the abdominal

cavity and turns at the left colic (splenic)
1. Cecum flexure
2. Appendix
3. Colon 3. Descending—travels down the left side
4. Rectum
5. Anal canal 4. Sigmoid—S-shaped region; enters the
pelvis. Sigmoid colon, rectum, and anal canal
A. Cecum—saclike first part of the large are located in the pelvis
intestine.

D. Anal canal ends at the anus

B. Appendix - Hangs from the

cecum. Accumulation of lymphoid tissue that
sometimes becomes inflamed (appendicitis).
 Anus—opening of the large intestine
 External anal sphincter—formed by
skeletal muscle and is voluntary
 Internal anal sphincter—formed by
smooth muscle and is involuntary
These sphincters are normally closed except
during defecation. The large intestine delivers
C. Colon
indigestible food residues to the body’s
exterior. Goblet cells produce alkaline mucus
to lubricate the passage of feces. Muscularis
externa layer is reduced to three bands of
muscle, called teniae coli. These bands of
muscle cause the wall to pucker into haustra
(pocketlike sacs)

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LEARNING TASK # 3 ACCESSORY DIGESTIVE membrane (ligament). Periodontal
ORGANS membrane holds tooth in place in the bony
jaw.
A. Teeth
Note: The neck is a connector between the
crown and root

B. Salivary Glands

Teeth masticate (chew) food into smaller

fragments. Humans have two sets of teeth
during a lifetime:
1. Deciduous (baby or milk) teeth - A baby
has 20 teeth by age 2. First teeth to appear
are the lower central incisors.
2. Permanent teeth - replace deciduous
teeth between ages 6 and 12. A full set is 32
Three pairs of salivary glands empty
teeth (with the wisdom teeth). Teeth are
secretions into the mouth
classified according to shape and function:
1. Parotid glands - Found anterior to the
a. Incisors—cutting
ears. Mumps affect these salivary glands
b. Canines (eyeteeth)—tearing or piercing
2. Submandibular glands
c. Premolars (bicuspids)—grinding
3. Sublingual glands
d. Molars—grinding

Two Major Regions of a Tooth Both submandibular and sublingual glands

1. Crown
2. Root
1. Crown—exposed part of tooth above the
gingiva (gum). Enamel covers the crown.
Dentin found deep to the enamel and forms
the bulk of the tooth, surrounds the
pulp cavity. Pulp cavity contains connective
tissue, blood vessels, and nerve fibers (pulp).
Root canal where the pulp cavity extends into
the root.
2. Root - Cement—covers outer surface and
attaches the tooth to the periodontal
empty saliva into the floor of the mouth
through small ducts.
Saliva is a mixture of mucus and serous
fluids. Helps to moisten and bind food
together into a mass called a bolus.
Contains:
a. Salivary amylase—begins starch digestion
b. Lysozymes and antibodies—inhibit
bacteria
c. Dissolves chemicals so they can be tasted

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C. Pancreas
It is a soft, pink triangular gland. Found
posterior to the parietal peritoneum. Mostly
retroperitoneal. Extends across the abdomen
from spleen to duodenum. Produces a wide
spectrum of digestive enzymes that break
down all categories of food. Secretes enzymes
into the duodenum. Alkaline fluid introduced
with enzymes neutralizes acidic chyme
coming from stomach
Hormones Produced by the Pancreas
1. Insulin
2. Glucagon
D. Liver
Digestive role is to produce bile. Bile leaves
the liver through the common hepatic duct
and enters duodenum through the bile duct.
Bile is yellow-green, watery solution
containing:
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1. Bile salts and bile pigments (mostly
bilirubin from the breakdown of
hemoglobin),
2. cholesterol,
3. phospholipids, and
4. electrolytes.
Bile emulsifies (breaks down) fats.
E. Gallbladder
Green sac found in a shallow fossa in the
inferior surface of the liver
When no digestion is occurring, bile backs up
the cystic duct for storage in the gallbladder
While in the gallbladder, bile is concentrated
by the removal of water
When fatty food enters the duodenum, the
gallbladder spurts out stored bile
LEARNING TASK # 4 ESSENTIAL PROCESSSES
OF THE GI TRACT
Essential Processes of the GI Tract
1. Ingestion—placing of food into the mouth
2. Propulsion—movement of foods from
one region of the digestive system to
another
Peristalsis—alternating waves of contraction
and relaxation that squeeze food along the GI
tract
 Segmentation—movement of materials
back and forth to foster mixing in the
small intestine
3. Food Breakdown: Mechanical breakdown
Example:
a. Mixing of food in the mouth by the
tongue
b. Churning of food in the stomach
c. Segmentation in the small intestine
Mechanical digestion prepares food for
further degradation by enzymes
4. Food Breakdown: Digestion
Digestion occurs when enzymes chemically
break down large molecules into their
building blocks. Each major food group uses
different enzymes
a. Carbohydrates are broken down to
monosaccharides (simple sugars)
b. Proteins are broken down to amino acids
c. Fats are broken down to fatty acids and
glycerol
5. Absorption
End products of digestion are absorbed in
the blood or lymph. Food must enter mucosal
cells and then move into blood or lymph
capillaries
6. Defecation
Elimination of indigestible substances from
the GI tract in the form of feces
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LEARNING TASK # 5 ACTIVITIES OCCURING in
the MOUTH, PHARYNX, and ESOPHAGUS
A. Food ingestion and Breakdown
Food is placed in the mouth. Physically it
is broken down by chewing. Mixed with
saliva, which is released in response to
mechanical pressure and psychic stimuli.
Salivary amylase begins starch digestion. Food
is placed into the mouth. Essentially, no food
absorption occurs in the mouth
B. Food propulsion—swallowing and
peristalsis
Two phases of swallowing :
1. Buccal phase - It is voluntary and occurs in
the mouth. Food is formed into a
bolus. The bolus is then forced into the
pharynx by the tongue.
2. Pharyngeal-esophageal phase -
Involuntary transport of the bolus by
peristalsis. Nasal and respiratory
passageways are blocked. Peristalsis
moves the bolus toward the stomach. The
cardioesophageal sphincter is opened
when food presses against it
LEARNING TASK # 6 ACTIVITIES in the
STOMACH
A. Food breakdown
Gastric juice is regulated by neural and
hormonal factors. Presence of food or rising
pH causes the release of the hormone gastrin.
Gastrin causes stomach glands to produce:
1. Protein-digesting enzymes
2. Mucus
3. Hydrochloric acid
Hydrochloric acid makes the stomach
contents very acidic
Acidic pH activates pepsinogen to pepsin for
protein digestion. Provides a hostile
environment for microorganisms
1. Protein-digesting enzymes
a. Pepsin—an active protein-digesting
enzyme
b. Rennin—works on digesting milk protein
in infants; not produced in adults
Hormones (secretin and CCK) also target
the liver and gallbladder to release bile
Bile acts as a fat emulsifier. It is needed for
fat absorption and absorption of fat-soluble
vitamins (K, D, E, and A).
A Summary of Hormones Associated with
Digestion

B. Food Propulsion
1. Peristalsis: waves of peristalsis occur from
the fundus to the pylorus, forcing food
past the pyloric sphincter
2. Grinding: the pylorus meters out chyme
into the small intestine (3 ml at a time)
3. Retropulsion: peristaltic waves close the
pyloric sphincter, forcing contents back
into the stomach; the stomach empties in
4–6 hours

LEARNING TASK # 7 ACTIVITIES of the SMALL
INTESTINE
Chyme Breakdown and Absorption
1. Intestinal enzymes from the brush border
function to:
a. Break double sugars into simple sugars.
b. Complete some protein digestion
Release of pancreatic juice from the pancreas
into the duodenum is stimulated by:
1. Vagus Nerves
2. Local hormones that travel via the blood to
influence the release of pancreatic juice (and
bile)
a. Secretin
b. Cholecystokinin (CCK)
Water is absorbed along the length of the
small intestine.
In the end products of digestion, most
substances are absorbed by active transport
through cell membranes. lipids are absorbed
by diffusion.
Substances are transported to the liver by the
hepatic portal vein or lymph.
In chyme propulsion, Peristalsis is the major
means of moving food. Segmental
movements include mixing chyme with
digestive juices which aid in propelling food.

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LEARNING TASK # 8 ACTIVITIES of the LARGE Nutrition
INTESTINE
Nutrient are substance used by the body for
I. Nutrient breakdown and absorption growth, maintenance, and repair

No digestive enzymes are produced. But Major Nutrients

they Produce some vitamin K and some B 1. Carbohydrates
vitamins and Release gases. Resident bacteria 2. Lipids
digest remaining nutrients. Water, vitamins, 3. Proteins
ions, and remaining water are 4. Water
absorbed. Remaining materials are eliminated
via feces. Minor nutrients
1. Vitamins
Feces contains: 2. Minerals
1. Undigested food residues
2. Mucus A diet consisting of foods from the five food
3. Bacteria groups normally guarantees adequate
4. Water amounts of all the needed nutrients
II. Propulsion of Food Residue and The five food groups are summarized next in
Defecation Table 14.2
Sluggish peristalsis begins when food
residue arrives. Haustral contractions are the
movements occurring most frequently in the
large intestine. Mass movements are slow,
powerful movements that occur three to four
times per day.
Presence of feces in the rectum causes a
defecation reflex. Internal anal sphincter is
relaxed. Defecation occurs with relaxation of
the voluntary (external) anal sphincter.

LEARNING TASK # 9 NUTRITION AND

METABOLISM
Most foods are used as metabolic fuel. Foods
are oxidized and transformed into adenosine
triphosphate (ATP). ATP is chemical energy
that drives cellular activities
Energy value of food is measured in
kilocalories (kcal) or Calories (C)

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Dietary Recommendations
Healthy Eating Pyramid was issued in 1992. It
involves Six major food groups arranged
horizontally
MyPlate was issued in 2011 by the USDA.
Involves five food groups are arranged by a
round plate.
LEARNING TASK # 10 DIETARY SOURCES of
the MAJOR NUTRIENTS
I. Carbohydrates
 Dietary carbohydrates are sugars and
starches. Most are derived from plants
such as fruits and vegetables. Exceptions:
lactose from milk and small amounts of
glycogens from meats
II. Lipids
 Saturated fats from animal products
(meats). Unsaturated fats from nuts,
seeds, and vegetable oils. Cholesterol
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from egg yolk, meats, and milk products
(dairy products).
III. Proteins
 Most are from animal products (eggs,
milk, meat, poultry, and fish). Essential
amino acids: those that the body cannot
make and must be obtained through
diet. Complete proteins contain all
essential amino acids. Legumes and beans
also have proteins, but the proteins are
incomplete
IV. Vitamins
 Most vitamins function as
coenzymes. Found mainly in fruits and
vegetables
V. Minerals
 Mainly important for enzyme
activity. Foods richest in minerals:
vegetables, legumes, milk, and some
meats.
LEARNING TASK # 11 METABOLISM
Metabolism is all of the chemical reactions
necessary to maintain life. There are 2 types:
1. Catabolism—substances are broken down
to simpler substances; energy is released and
captured to make adenosine triphosphate
(ATP)
2. Anabolism—larger molecules are built from
smaller ones
I. Carbohydrate Metabolism
Carbohydrates are the body’s preferred
source to produce cellular energy (ATP).
Glucose (blood sugar) is the major breakdown
product of carbohydrate digestion. The Fuel
used to make ATP
 Cellular respiration as glucose is oxidized,
carbon dioxide, water, and ATP are formed.
Events of Three Main Metabolic Pathways of
Cellular Respiration
1. Glycolysis
 Occurs in the cytosol. Energizes a glucose
molecule so it can be split into two
pyruvic acid molecules and yield ATP
2. Citric Acid Cycle ( Krebs Cycle)
 Occurs in the mitochondrion. Produces
virtually all the carbon dioxide and water
resulting from cellular respiration. Yields a
small amount of ATP.
3. Electron Transport Chain
 Hydrogen atoms removed during
glycolysis and the citric acid cycle
are delivered to protein carriers.
Hydrogen atoms are split into hydrogen
ions and electrons in the mitochondria.
Electrons give off energy in a series
of steps to enable the production of ATP.
Hyperglycemia—excessively high levels of
glucose in the blood. Excess glucose is stored
in body cells as glycogen or converted to fat
Hypoglycemia—low levels of glucose in the
blood. Glycogenolysis, gluconeogenesis, and
fat breakdown occur to restore normal blood
glucose levels
II. Fat Metabolism
 Fats insulate the body. Protect organs. It
also Build some cell structures
(membranes and myelin sheaths). Provide
reserve energy.
Excess dietary fat is stored in subcutaneous
tissue and other fat depots. When
carbohydrates are in limited supply, more fats
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are oxidized to produce ATP. Excessive fat
breakdown causes blood to become acidic
(acidosis or ketoacidosis). Then breath has a
fruity odor
Common with:
1. “No carbohydrate” diets
2. Uncontrolled diabetes mellitus
3. Starvation
III. Protein Metabolism
 Proteins form the bulk of cell structure
and most functional molecules. Proteins
are carefully conserved by body
cells. Amino acids are actively taken up
from blood by body cells. Amino acids are
oxidized to form ATP mainly when other
fuel sources are not available. Ammonia,
released as amino acids are catabolized, is
detoxified by liver cells that combine it
with carbon dioxide to form urea.
The Central Role of the Liver in Metabolism
Liver is the body’s key metabolic organ.
Roles in Digestion
1. Manufactures bile
2. Detoxifies drugs and alcohol
3. Degrades hormones
4. Produces cholesterol, blood proteins
(albumin and clotting proteins)
5. Plays a central role in metabolism
Liver can regenerate if part of it is damaged
or removed
To maintain homeostasis of blood glucose
levels, the liver performs:
1. Glycogenesis—“glycogen formation”
 Glucose molecules are converted to
glycogen and stored in the liver
2. Glycogenolysis—“glycogen splitting”
 Glucose is released from the liver after
conversion from glycogen
3. Gluconeogenesis—“formation of new
sugar”
 Glucose is produced from fats and
proteins
Fats and fatty acids are picked up by the
liver. Some are oxidized to provide energy for
liver cells. The rest are either stored or
broken down into simpler compounds and
released into the blood.
Blood proteins made by the liver are
assembled from amino acids. Albumin is the
most abundant protein in blood.
Contains clotting proteins.
Liver cells detoxify ammonia. Ammonia is
combined with carbon dioxide to form urea,
which is flushed from the body in urine.
Cholesterol Metabolism and Transport
Cholesterol is not used to make ATP. Most
cholesterol (85%) is produced in the liver;
only 15% is from the diet.
Functions of Cholesterol:
1. Structural basis of steroid hormones and
vitamin D
2. Building block of plasma membranes
Cholesterol and fatty acids cannot freely
circulate in the bloodstream. They are
transported by lipoproteins (lipid-protein
complexes) known as LDLs and HDLs.
1. Low-density lipoproteins (LDLs) transport
cholesterol to body cells. Rated
“bad lipoproteins” since they can lead to
atherosclerosis.
2. 2. High-density lipoproteins (HDLs)
transport cholesterol from body cells to
the live. Rated “good lipoproteins” since
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cholesterol is destined for breakdown and
elimination.
LEARNING TASK # 12 BODY ENERGY
BALANCE
Energy intake = Total energy output (heat +
work + energy storage).
Energy intake is the energy liberated during
food oxidation. Energy produced during
glycolysis, citric acid cycle, and the electron
transport chain
Energy output
a. Energy we lose as heat (60%)
b. Energy stored as fat or glycogen
Interference with the body’s energy balance
leads to:
a. Obesity
b. Malnutrition (leading to body wasting)
Regulation of Food Intake
Body weight is usually relatively
stable. Energy intake and output remain
about equal.
Mechanisms that may Regulate Food Intake
1. Levels of nutrients in the blood
2. Hormones
3. Body temperature
4. Psychological factors
Metabolic Rate and Body Heat Production
Nutrients yield different amounts of energy.
Energy value is measured in kilocalories (kcal).
a. Carbohydrates and proteins yield 4
kcal/gram
b. Fats yield 9 kcal/gram
Basic metabolic rate (BMR) is the amount of
heat produced by the body per unit of time at
rest. Average BMR is about 60 to 72 kcal/hour
for an average 70-kg (154-lb) adult.
Factors that Influence BMR
1. Surface area—a small body usually
has a higher BMR
2. Gender—males tend to have higher
BMRs
3. Age—children and adolescents have
higher BMRs
The amount of thyroxine produced is the
most important control factor. More
thyroxine means a higher metabolic rate.
Total metabolic rate (TMR) is the total
amount of kilocalories the body must
consume to fuel ongoing activities. TMR
increases dramatically with an increase in
muscle activity. TMR must equal calories
consumed to maintain homeostasis and
maintain a constant weight.
Body Temperature Regulation
When foods are oxidized, more than 60% of
energy escapes as heat, warming the
body. The body has a narrow range of
homeostatic temperature. It must remain
between 35.6ºC and 37.8ºC or (96ºF and
100ºF).
The body’s thermostat is in the
hypothalamus. Hypothalamus initiates
mechanisms to maintain body
temperature. Heat loss mechanisms involve
radiation of heat from skin and evaporation
of sweat. Heat-promoting mechanisms
involve vasoconstriction of skin blood vessels
and shivering.
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Fever is a controlled hyperthermia. Results
from infection, cancer, allergic reactions, CNS
injuries. If the body thermostat is set too
high, body proteins may be denatured, and
permanent brain damage may occur.
LEARNING TASK # 13 DEVELOPMENTAL
ASPECTS of the DIGESTIVE SYSTEM and
METABOLISM
The alimentary canal is a continuous, hollow
tube present by the fifth week of
development. Digestive glands bud from the
mucosa of the alimentary tube. The
developing fetus receives all nutrients
through the placenta. In newborns, feeding
must be frequent, peristalsis is inefficient,
and vomiting is common. Teething begins
around age 6 months.
Newborn Reflexes
1. Rooting reflex helps the infant find the
nipple
2. Sucking reflex helps the infant hold on to
the nipple and swallow
Problems of the Digestive System
1. 1. Gastroenteritis—inflammation of the
gastrointestinal tract; can occur at
any time
2. Appendicitis—inflammation of the
appendix; common in adolescents
Metabolism decreases with old age
Middle-age Digestive Problems
1. Ulcers
2. Gallbladder problems
Later middle-age problems
1. Obesity
2. Diabetes mellitus
Activity of the Digestive Tract in Old Age
1. Fewer digestive juices
2. Peristalsis slows
3. Diverticulosis and gastrointestinal
cancers are more common
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Learning Task #1 The Cardiovascular System
Introduction to the Cardiovascular System:
The Cardiovascular System is an organ system
that conveys blood through vessels to and
from all parts of the body, carrying nutrients
and oxygen to tissues and removing carbon
dioxide and other wastes. It is a closed
tubular system in which the blood is
propelled by a muscular heart. Two circuits,
the pulmonary and the systemic, consist of
arterial, capillary, and venous components. It
is composed of your HEART and BLOOD
VESSELS.
Learning Task #3 Blood Vessels
Learning Task #2 Heart
The heart is a muscular organ about the size
of a fist, located just behind and slightly left
of the breastbone. The heart pumps blood
through the network of arteries and veins
called the cardiovascular system
Located in the thoracic cavity, between the
lungs in the inferior mediastinum.

Apex is directed toward left hip and rests on
the diaphragm
Base points toward right shoulder
Blood Vessels are tubular structures carrying
blood to the tissues and organs. There are are
3 major Types of Blood Vessels:
a. Arteries transport blood and other
substances away from the heart.
b. Veins return blood back toward the
heart.
c. Capillaries surround body cells and
tissues to deliver and absorb oxygen,
nutrients and other substances.

Learning Task #4 Chambers of the Heart

1. Atria (right and left)
- Receiving chambers
Walls of the Heart
- Assist with filling the ventricles
1.Epicardium
- Blood enters under low pressure
2.Myocardium
- Middle layer
2. Ventricles (right and left)
- Mostly cardiac muscles
- Discharging chambers
3. Endocardium
- Thick-walled pumps of the heart
- Inner layer known as Endothelium
- outside layer; Visceral pericardium

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 - During contraction, blood is propelled Heart Valves
into circulation - Allow blood to flow in only one direction,
to prevent backflow
3. Interatrial septum
-Separates the two atria longitudinally

4. Interventricular Septum
-Separates the two ventricles longitudinally

1. Atrioventricular (AV) valves—between

atria and ventricles
a. Left AV valve: bicuspid (mitral) valve
b. Right AV valve: tricuspid valve

- Anchored the cusps in place by chordae

 Blood flows from the right side of the
heart to the lungs and back to the left
side of the heart.
 Blood is pumped out of right side through
the pulmonary trunk, which splits into
pulmonary arteries and takes oxygen-
poor blood to lungs
 Oxygen-rich blood returns to the heart
from the lungs via pulmonary veins
tendineae to the walls of the ventricles
- Open during heart relaxation, when blood
passively fills the chambers
- Closed during ventricular contraction
2. Semilunar valves—between ventricle and
artery
a. Pulmonary semilunar valve
b. Aortic semilunar valve

Systemic circulation - Closed during heart relaxation

 Oxygen-rich blood returned to the left - Open during ventricular contraction
side of the heart is pumped out into the - Valves open and close in response to
aorta pressure changes in the heart
 Blood circulates to systemic arteries and
to all body tissues Learning Task # 5 Cardiac Circulation
 Left ventricle has thicker walls because it
pumps blood to the body through the
systemic circuit
 Oxygen-poor blood returns to the right
atrium via systemic veins, which empty
blood into the superior or inferior vena
cava

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Blood in the heart chambers does not nourish
the myocardium. The heart has its own
nourishing circulatory system consisting of:
a. Coronary arteries—branch from the aorta
to supply the heart muscle with oxygenated
blood.
b. Cardiac veins—drain the myocardium of
blood.
c. Coronary sinus—a large vein on the
posterior of the heart; receives blood from
cardiac veins.
- Blood empties into the right atrium via
the coronary sinus.
Learning Task #6 Physiology of the Heart
1. Heart functions as a double pump.
2. Arteries carry blood away from the
heart.
3. Veins carry blood toward the heart.
Double pump
Right side works as the pulmonary circuit
pump
Left side works as the systemic circuit pump
Intrinsic conduction system of the heart
- Cardiac muscle contracts spontaneously
and independently of nerve
impulses. Spontaneous contractions occur
in a regular and continuous way. Atrial
cells beat 60 times per
minute. Ventricular cells beat 20−40 times
per minute. It needs a unifying control
system—the intrinsic conduction system
(nodal system)
Two systems regulate heart activity
1. Autonomic nervous system
2. Intrinsic conduction system, or the nodal
system
- Sets the heart rhythm
- Composed of special nervous tissue
- Ensures heart muscle depolarization in
one direction only (atria to ventricles)
- Enforces a heart rate of 75 beats per
minute
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Components include:
1. Sinoatrial (SA) node
- Located in the right atrium
- Serves as the heart’s pacemaker
2. Atrioventricular (AV) node
- is at the junction of the atria and
ventricle. Atrioventricular (AV) bundle
(bundle of His) and bundle branches are
in the interventricular septum. Purkinje
fibers spread within the ventricle wall
muscles.
- The sinoatrial node (SA node) starts each
heartbeat. Impulse spreads through the
atria to the AV node. Atria contract. At
the AV node, the impulse is delayed
briefly. Impulse travels through the AV
bundle, bundle branches, and Purkinje
fibers. Ventricles contract; blood is
ejected from the heart.
 Tachycardia—rapid heart rate, over 100
beats per minute
 Bradycardia—slow heart rate, less than
60 beats per minutes
Learning Task # 7 Cardiac Cycle and Heart
Sounds
The cardiac cycle refers to one complete
heartbeat, in which both atria and ventricles
contract and then relax
Systole = contraction
Diastole = relaxation
Average heart rate is approximately 75 beats
per minute. On which the Cardiac cycle length
is normally 0.8 second
Atrial diastole (ventricular filling)
 Heart is relaxed and pressure in heart is
low. At this point, Atrioventricular valves
are open and blood flows passively into
the atria and into ventricles. Semilunar
valves are closed.
Atrial systole
 Ventricles remain in diastole. Atria
contract. Blood is forced into the
ventricles to complete ventricular filling.
Isovolumetric contraction
 Atrial systole ends; ventricular systole
begins. Intraventricular pressure rises. AV
valves close. For a moment, the ventricles
are completely closed chambers.
Ventricular systole (ejection phase)
 Ventricles continue to contract.
Intraventricular pressure now surpasses
the pressure in the major arteries leaving
the heart. Semilunar valves open. Blood is
ejected from the ventricles. Atria are
relaxed and filling with blood.
Isovolumetric relaxation
 Ventricular diastole begins. Pressure falls
below that in the major
arteries. Semilunar valves close. For
another moment, the ventricles are
completely closed chambers. When atrial
pressure increases above intraventricular
pressure, the AV valves open.
Heart sounds
1. Lub—longer, louder heart sound caused
by the closing of the AV valves
2. Dub—short, sharp heart sound caused
by the closing of the semilunar valves at
the end of ventricular systole
Cardiac output (CO)
 Amount of blood pumped by each side
(ventricle) of the heart in 1 minute.
Stroke volume (SV)
 Volume of blood pumped by each
ventricle in one contraction (each
heartbeat). About 70 ml of blood is
pumped out of the left ventricle with each
heartbeat.
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Heart rate (HR)
 Typically 75 beats per minute.
Cardiac output is the product of the heart
rate (HR) and the stroke volume (SV)
CO = HR × SV
CO = HR (75 beats/min) × SV (70 ml/beat)
CO = 5250 ml/min = 5.25 L/min
Regulation of Stroke Volume 60 percent of
blood in ventricles (about 70 ml) is pumped
with each heartbeat.
Starling’s law of the heart
The critical factor controlling SV is how
much cardiac muscle is stretched. The more
the cardiac muscle is stretched, the stronger
the contraction. Venous return is the
important factor influencing the stretch of
heart muscle
Factors modifying basic heart rate
1. Neural (ANS) controls
 Sympathetic nervous system speeds heart
rate
 Parasympathetic nervous system,
primarily vagus nerve fibers, slow and
steady the heart rate
2. Hormones and ions
 Epinephrine and thyroxine speed heart
rate
 Excess or lack of calcium, sodium, and
potassium ions also modify heart activity
3. Physical factors
 Age, gender, exercise, body temperature
influence heart rate.
Learning Task # 8 Blood Vessels Learning Task # 9 Microscopic Anatomy of
Blood Vessels
Three layers (tunics) in blood vessels (except
the capillaries)

Blood vessels form a closed vascular system

that transports blood to the tissues and back
to the heart.
1. Tunica intima forms a friction-reducing
Vessels that carry blood away from the lining.
heart: - Endothelium

2. Tunica Media
- Smooth muscle and elastic tissue
- Controlled by sympathetic nervous
system.

Tunica externa forms protective outermost

Arteries and arterioles. covering
 Vessels that play a role in exchanges - Mostly fibrous connective tissue
between tissues and blood. - Supports and protects the vessel.

Capillary beds Learning Task # 10 Structural differences in

 Vessels that return blood toward the Arteries, Veins, and Capillaries
heart

Venules and veins

1. Arteries have a heavier, stronger,

stretchier tunica media than veins to
withstand changes in pressure.

2. Veins have a thinner tunica media than

arteries and operate under low
pressure. Veins also have valves to

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 prevent backflow of blood. Lumen of
veins is larger than that of
arteries. Skeletal muscle “milks” blood
in veins toward the heart.
3. Capillaries have only one cell layer thick
(tunica intima). Allow for exchanges
between blood and tissue. Blood flow
through a capillary bed is known
as microcirculation. Form networks
called capillary beds that consist of:
a. A vascular shunt
b. True capillaries
4. True capillaries is a branch off a
terminal arteriole. Empty directly into a
postcapillary venule. Its Entrances to
capillary beds are guarded by
precapillary sphincters.
Learning Task #11 Gross Anatomy of Blood
Vessels
A. Major arteries of systemic circulation
1. Aorta - largest artery in the body. Leaves
from the left ventricle of the heart
Regions
a. Ascending aorta—leaves the left
ventricle
b. Aortic arch—arches to the left
c. Thoracic aorta—travels downward
through the thorax
d. Abdominal aorta passes through the
diaphragm into the abdominopelvic
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cavity. Arterial branches of the
abdominal aorta. Celiac trunk is the
first branch of the abdominal aorta.
Three branches are:
1. Left gastric artery (stomach)
2. Splenic artery (spleen)
3. Common hepatic artery (liver)
Superior mesenteric artery supplies most of
the:
- small intestine and first half of the large
intestine.
- Left and right renal arteries (kidney).
- Left and right gonadal arteries
*Ovarian arteries in females serve the ovaries
*Testicular arteries in males serve the testes
* Lumbar arteries serve muscles of the
abdomen and trunk
e. Arterial branches of the ascending aorta
Right and left coronary arteries serve the
heart. Intercostal arteries supply the muscles
of the thorax wall. Other branches of the
thoracic aorta (not illustrated) supply the:
- Lungs (bronchial arteries)
- Esophagus (esophageal arteries)
- Diaphragm (phrenic arteries)
f. Arterial branches of the aortic arch
Brachiocephalic trunk splits into the:
- Right common carotid artery
- Right subclavian artery
Left common carotid artery splits into the:
- Left internal and external carotid
arteries
Left subclavian artery branches into the:
- Vertebral artery
- In the axilla, the subclavian artery
becomes the axillary artery → brachial
artery → radial and ulnar arteries
Inferior mesenteric artery serves the second
half of the large intestine. Left and right
common iliac arteries are the final branches
of the aorta. Internal iliac arteries serve the
pelvic organs.
External iliac arteries enter the thigh →
femoral artery→ popliteal artery → anterior
and posterior tibial arteries.
Learning Task #12 Major Veins of Systemic
Circulation
Superior vena cava and inferior vena cava
enter the right atrium of the heart. Superior
vena cava drains the head and arms. Inferior
vena cava drains the lower body
Veins draining into the superior vena
cava. Radial and ulnar veins → brachial vein
→ axillary vein. Cephalic vein drains the
lateral aspect of the arm and empties into the
axillary vein. Basilic vein drains the medial
aspect of the arm and empties into the
brachial vein. Basilic and cephalic veins are
joined at the median cubital vein (elbow
area).
Subclavian vein receives:
 Venous blood from the arm via the
axillary vein
 Venous blood from skin and muscles via
external jugular vein.
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Vertebral vein drains the posterior part of the
head. Internal jugular vein drains the dural
sinuses of the brain. Left and right
brachiocephalic veins receive venous blood
from the:
 Subclavian veins
 Vertebral veins
 Internal jugular veins
Brachiocephalic veins join to form the
superior vena cava → right atrium of heart
Azygos vein drains the thorax.
Veins draining into the inferior vena cava
 Anterior and posterior tibial veins and
fibial veins drain the legs. Posterior tibial
vein → popliteal vein → femoral vein →
external iliac vein. Great saphenous veins
(longest veins of the body) receive
superficial drainage of the legs. Each
common iliac vein (left and right) is
formed by the union of the internal and
external iliac vein on its own side.
Right gonadal vein drains the right ovary in
females and right testicle in males. Left
gonadal vein empties into the left renal vein.
Left and right renal veins drain the kidneys.
Hepatic portal vein drains the digestive
organs and travels through the liver before it
enters systemic circulation. Left and right
hepatic veins drain the liver.
Arterial supply of the brain and the circle of
Willis. Internal carotid arteries divide into
Anterior and Middle cerebral arteries. These
arteries supply most of the cerebrum.
Vertebral arteries join once within the skull to
form the basilar artery. Basilar artery serves
the brain stem and cerebellum. Posterior
cerebral arteries form from the division of the
basilar artery. These arteries supply the
posterior cerebrum.
Anterior and posterior blood supplies are
united by small communicating arterial
branches. Result—complete circle of
connecting blood vessels called cerebral
arterial circle, or circle of Willis.
Hepatic portal circulation is formed by veins
draining the digestive organs, which empty
into the hepatic portal vein:
1. Digestive organs
2. Spleen
3. Pancreas
Hepatic portal vein carries this blood to the
liver, where it is processed before returning
to systemic circulation
Learning Task # 13 Physiology of Circulation
A. Vital signs
 Measurements of arterial pulse, blood
pressure, respiratory rate, and body
temperature
B. Arterial pulse
 Alternate expansion and recoil of a blood
vessel wall (the pressure wave) that
occurs as the heart beats. Monitored
at pressure points in superficial arteries,
where pulse is easily palpated. Pulse
averages 70 to 76 beats per minute at
rest, in a healthy person.
C. Blood Pressure
 The pressure the blood exerts against the
inner walls of the blood vessels. The force
that causes blood to continue to flow in
the blood vessels.
When the ventricles contract:
 Blood is forced into elastic arteries close
to the heart and blood flows along a
descending pressure gradient. Pressure
decreases in blood vessels as distance
from the heart increases. Pressure is high
in the arteries, lower in the capillaries,
and lowest in the veins.
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Measuring Blood Pressure
Two arterial blood pressures are measured:
1. Systolic—pressure in the arteries at the
peak of ventricular contraction
2. Diastolic—pressure when ventricles relax
Expressed as systolic pressure over diastolic
pressure in millimeters of mercury (mm
Hg) For example, 120/80 mm Hg.
Auscultatory method is an indirect method of
measuring systemic arterial blood pressure,
most often in the brachial artery.
Effects of Various Factors on Blood Pressure
Arterial blood pressure (BP) is directly related
to cardiac output and peripheral
resistance. Cardiac output (CO; the amount of
blood pumped out of the left ventricle per
minute). Peripheral resistance (PR; the
amount of friction blood encounters as it
flows through vessels):
BP = CO × PR
A. Neural factors: the autonomic nervous
system
 Parasympathetic nervous system has little
to no effect on blood
pressure. Sympathetic nervous system
promotes vasoconstriction (narrowing of
vessels), which increases blood pressure.
B. Renal factors: the kidneys
 Kidneys regulate blood pressure by
altering blood volume. If blood pressure is
too high, the kidneys release water in the
urine. If blood pressure is too low, the
kidneys release renin to trigger formation
of angiotensin II, a
vasoconstrictor. Angiotensin II stimulates
release of aldosterone, which enhances
sodium (and water) reabsorption by
kidneys.
C. Temperature
 Heat has a vasodilating effect. Cold has a
vasoconstricting effect
D. Chemicals
 Various substances can cause increases or
decreases in blood pressure. Epinephrine
increases heart rate and blood pressure.
E. Diet
 Commonly believed that a diet low in salt,
saturated fats, and cholesterol prevents
hypertension (high blood pressure).
Variations in blood pressure
Normal human range is variable.
Systolic pressure ranges from 110 to
140 mm Hg
Diastolic pressure ranges from 70 to
80 mm Hg
Hypotension (low blood pressure). Low
systolic (below 100 mm Hg). Often associated
with illness. Acute hypotension is a warning
sign for circulatory shock
Hypertension (high blood
pressure). Sustained elevated arterial
pressure of 140/90 mm Hg. Warns of
increased peripheral resistance.
Capillary exchange of gases and nutrients
Interstitial fluid (tissue fluid) is found between
cells. Substances move to and from the blood
and tissue cells through capillary
walls. Exchange is due to concentration
gradients. Oxygen and nutrients leave the
blood and move into tissue cells. Carbon
dioxide and other wastes exit tissue cells and
enter the blood.
Substances take various routes entering or
leaving the blood
1. Direct diffusion through membranes
2. Diffusion through intercellular clefts
(gaps between cells in the capillary wall)
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3. Diffusion through pores of fenestrated
capillaries
4. Transport via vesicles
Fluid movements at capillary beds. Fluid
movement out of or into a capillary depends
on the difference between the two pressures:
1. Blood pressure forces fluid and solutes
out of capillaries
2. Osmotic pressure draws fluid into
capillaries
Blood pressure is higher than osmotic
pressure at the arterial end of the capillary
bed. Blood pressure is lower than osmotic
pressure at the venous end of the capillary
bed. Thus, fluid moves out of the capillary at
the beginning of the bed and is reclaimed at
the opposite (venule) end.
Learning Task # 14 Developmental Aspects of
the Cardiovascular System
In an embryo
The heart develops as a simple tube and
pumps blood by week 4 of pregnancy. The
heart becomes a four-chambered organ
capable of acting as a double pump over the
next 3 weeks.
Umbilical cord
 Carries nutrients and oxygen from
maternal blood to fetal blood. Fetal
wastes move from fetal blood to maternal
blood.
Houses:
 One umbilical vein, which carries nutrient-
and oxygen-rich blood to the fetus. Two
umbilical arteries, which carry wastes and
carbon dioxide–rich blood from the fetus
to placenta.
 Shunts by passing the lungs and liver are
present in a fetus.
 Blood flow bypasses the liver through the
ductus venosus and enters the inferior
 vena cava → right atrium of heart. Blood
flow bypasses the lungs. Blood entering
right atrium is shunted directly into left
atrium through foramen ovale (becomes
fossa ovalis at or after birth). Ductus
arteriosus connects aorta and pulmonary
trunk (becomes ligamentum arteriosum
at birth).
Age-related problems associated with the
cardiovascular system include:
1. Weakening of venous valves
2. Varicose veins
3. Progressive arteriosclerosis
4. Hypertension resulting from loss of
elasticity of vessels
5. Coronary artery disease resulting from
fatty, calcified deposits in the vessels
Learning Task # 15 Blood
The blood is the fluid that carries oxygen and
other elements to the tissues and carbon
dioxide away from the tissues through the
heart and vascular system of humans and
other animals.
Blood characteristics
1. Sticky, opaque fluid
2. Heavier and thicker than water
3. Color range
a) Oxygen-rich blood is scarlet red
b) Oxygen-poor blood is dull red or
purple
4. Metallic, salty taste
5. Blood pH is slightly alkaline, between
7.35 and 7.45
6. Blood temperature is slightly higher
than body temperature, at 38ºC or
100.4ºF
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7. Blood transports everything that must
be carried from one place to another,
such as:
a) Nutrients
b) Wastes
c) Hormones
d) Body heat
Blood volume
 About 5–6 liters, or about 6 quarts, of
blood are found in a healthy adult. Blood
makes up 8 percent of body weight.
Learning Task # 16 Components of Blood
Blood is the only fluid tissue, a type of
connective tissue, in the human body.
a. Formed elements (living cells)
b. Plasma (nonliving fluid matrix)
When blood is separated:
 Erythrocytes sink to the bottom (45
percent of blood, a percentage known as
the hematocrit). Buffy coat contains
leukocytes and platelets (less than 1
percent of blood). Buffy coat is a thin,
whitish layer between the erythrocytes
and plasma. Plasma rises to the top (55
percent of blood)
Plasma
 It is 90 percent water, straw-colored
fluid.
 Includes many dissolved substances
 Nutrients
 Salts (electrolytes)
 Respiratory gases
  Hormones
 Plasma proteins
 Waste products
Plasma proteins the most abundant solutes
in plasma. Most are made by the liver
Include:
1. Albumin—an important blood buffer and
contributes to osmotic pressure
2. Clotting proteins—help to stem blood loss
when a blood vessel is injured
3. Antibodies—help protect the body from
pathogens
Blood composition varies as cells exchange
substances with the blood. Liver makes more
proteins when levels drop. Respiratory and
urinary systems restore blood pH to normal
when blood becomes too acidic or
alkaline. Plasma helps distribute body heat.
Learning Task # 17 Formed Elements
1. Erythrocytes
2. Leukocytes
3. Platelets
I. Erythrocytes (red blood cells, or RBCs)
 Main function is to carry oxygen. Normal
count is 5 million RBCs per cubic
millimeter (mm3) of blood.
RBCs differ from other blood cells because:
1. Anucleate (no nucleus)
2. Contain few organelles; lack mitochondria
3. Essentially bags of hemoglobin (Hb)
4. Shaped like biconcave discs
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Hemoglobin is an iron-bearing protein. Binds
oxygen. Each hemoglobin molecule can bind 4
oxygen molecules. Each erythrocyte has 250
million hemoglobin molecules. Normal blood
contains 12–18 g of hemoglobin per 100
milliliters (ml) of blood.
Homeostatic imbalance of RBCs
Anemia is a decrease in the oxygen-carrying
ability of the blood due to:
 Lower-than-normal number of RBCs
 Abnormal or deficient hemoglobin
content in the RBCs.
 Sickle cell Anemia (SCA) results from
abnormally shaped hemoglobin
II. White Blood Cells
WBCs, also called leukocytes, are an
important part of the immune
system. These cells help fight infections by
attacking bacteria, viruses, and germs that
invade the body. White blood cells originate
in the bone marrow but circulate throughout
the bloodstream.
Crucial in body’s defense against disease.
They are complete cells, with nucleus and
organelles. Able to move into and out of
blood vessels (diapedesis). Respond to
chemicals released by damaged tissues
(known as positive chemotaxis). Move by
amoeboid motion. Our body has 4,800 to
10,800 WBCs per mm3 of blood
Disorders A. Granulocytes
 Leukocytosis a. Neutrophils
 WBC count above 11,000 cells per  Most numerous WBC. Multilobed
mm3 of blood. Generally indicates an nucleus. Cytoplasm stains pink and
infection. contains fine granules. Function as
phagocytes at active sites of
 Leukopenia infection. Numbers increase during
 Abnormally low WBC count infection. 3,000–7,000 neutrophils per
 Commonly caused by certain drugs, mm3 of blood (40–70 percent of WBCs).
such as corticosteroids and anticancer
agents. b. Eosinophils
 Nucleus stains blue-red. Brick-red
 Leukemia cytoplasmic granules. Function is to kill
 Bone marrow becomes cancerous parasitic worms and play a role in allergy
 Numerous immature WBC are attacks. 100–400 eosinophils per mm3 of
produced blood (1–4 percent of WBCs).

Types of leukocytes c. Basophils

1. Granulocytes  Rarest of the WBCs. Large histamine-
- Granules in their cytoplasm can be containing granules that stain dark
stained blue. Contain heparin (anticoagulant). 20–
- -Possess lobed nuclei 50 basophils per mm3 of blood (0–1
- Include neutrophils, eosinophils, and percent of WBCs)
basophils
B. Agranulocytes
2. Agranulocytes a. Lymphocytes
- Lack visible cytoplasmic granules  Large, dark purple nucleus. Slightly larger
- Nuclei are spherical, oval, or kidney- than RBCs. Reside in lymphatic
shaped tissues. Play a role in immune
- Include lymphocytes and monocytes response. 1,500–3,000 lymphocytes per
mm3 of blood (20–45 percent of WBCs)
List of the WBCs, from most to least
abundant b. Monocytes
1. Neutrophils  Largest of the white blood
2. Lymphocytes cells. Distinctive U- or kidney-shaped
3. Monocytes nucleus. Function as macrophages when
4. Eosinophils they migrate into tissues. Important in
5. Basophils fighting chronic infection. 100–700
monocytes per mm3 of blood (4–8
Easy way to remember this list percent of WBCs)
Never
Let III. Platelets
Monkeys  Fragments of megakaryocytes
Eat (multinucleate cells). Needed for the
Bananas clotting process. Normal platelet count is
300,000 platelets per mm3 of blood.

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Learning Task # 18 Hematopoiesis (Blood Cell
Formation)
 Hematopoiesis is the process of blood cell
formation. Occurs in red bone marrow
(myeloid tissue). All blood cells are
derived from a common stem cell
(hemocytoblast). Hemocytoblasts form
two types of descendants
a) Lymphoid stem cell, which
produces lymphocytes
b) Myeloid stem cell, which can
produce all other formed
elements
Formation of Red Blood Cells
Since RBCs are anucleate, they are unable to
divide, grow, or synthesize proteins. RBCs
wear out in 100 to 120 days. When worn out,
RBCs are eliminated by phagocytes in the
spleen or liver. Lost cells are replaced by
division of hemocytoblasts in the red bone
marrow.
Rate of RBC production is controlled by a
hormone called erythropoietin. Kidneys
produce most erythropoietin as a response to
reduced oxygen levels in the
blood. Homeostasis is maintained by negative
feedback from blood oxygen levels.
Formation of White Blood Cells and Platelets
WBC and platelet production is controlled by
hormones. Colony stimulating factors (CSFs)
and interleukins prompt bone marrow to
generate leukocytes. Thrombopoietin
stimulates production of platelets from
megakaryocytes.
Learning Task # 19 Hemostasis
Hemostasis is the process of stopping the
bleeding that results from a break in a blood
vessel .Hemostasis involves three phases or
steps:
1. Vascular spasms
2. Platelet plug formation
3. Coagulation (blood clotting)
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Step 1: Vascular Spasms
A. Immediate response to blood vessel
injury.
B. Vasoconstriction causes blood vessel
to spasm
C. Spasms narrow the blood vessel,
decreasing blood loss
Step 2: Platelet Plug Formation
D. Collagen fibers are exposed by a break
in a blood vessel. Platelets become
“sticky” and cling to fibers. Anchored
platelets release chemicals to attract
more platelets. Platelets pile up to
form a platelet plug (white thrombus)
Step 3: Coagulation
E. Injured tissues release tissue factor
(TF). PF3 (a phospholipid) interacts
with TF, blood protein clotting factors,
and calcium ions to trigger a clotting
cascade. Prothrombin activator
converts prothrombin to thrombin (an
enzyme).
F. Thrombin joins fibrinogen proteins
into hairlike molecules of insoluble
fibrin. Fibrin forms a meshwork (the
basis for a clot). Within the hour,
serum is squeezed from the clot as it
retracts. Serum is plasma minus
clotting proteins.
G. Blood usually clots within 3 to 6
minutes. The clot remains as
endothelium regenerates. The clot is
broken down after tissue repair.
Learning Task # 20 Disorders of Hemostasis
I. Undesirable clotting
A. Thrombus
 A clot in an unbroken blood vessel. It Can
be deadly in areas such as the lungs
B. Embolus
 A thrombus that breaks away and floats
freely in the bloodstream. Can later clog
vessels in critical areas such as the brain.
II. Bleeding disorders
A. Thrombocytopenia
 Insufficient number of circulating
platelets. Arises from any condition that
suppresses the bone marrow. Even
normal movements can cause bleeding
from small blood vessels that require
platelets for clotting. Evidenced by
petechiae (small purplish blotches on the
skin).
B. Hemophilia
 Hereditary bleeding disorder. Normal
clotting factors are missing. Minor tissue
damage can cause life-threatening
prolonged bleeding.
Learning Task # 21 Blood Groups and
Transfusions
 Large losses of blood have serious
consequences. Loss of 15 to 30 percent
causes weakness. Loss of over 30 percent
causes shock, which can be fatal
 Blood transfusions are given for
substantial blood loss, to treat severe
anemia, or for thrombocytopenia.
 Blood contains genetically determined
proteins known as antigens. Antigens are
substances that the body recognizes as
foreign and that the immune system may
attack. Most antigens are foreign
proteins. We tolerate our own “self”
antigens. Antibodies are the “recognizers”
that bind foreign antigens. Blood is
“typed” by using antibodies that will
cause blood with certain proteins to
clump (agglutination) and lyse.
 There are over 30 common red blood cell
antigens. The most vigorous transfusion
reactions are caused by ABO and Rh blood
group antigens.
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Learning Task # 22 Human Blood Groups
I. ABO Blood Group
Blood types are based on the presence or
absence of two antigens:
 Type A
 Type B
1. Presence of both antigens A and B is
called type AB
2. Presence of antigen A is called type A
3. Presence of antigen B is called type B
4. Lack of both antigens A and B is
called type O
 Type AB can receive A, B, AB, and O blood
 Type AB is the “universal recipient”
 Type B can receive B and O blood
 Type A can receive A and O blood- Type O
can receive O blood
 Type O is the “universal donor”
II. Rh blood group
 Named for the eight Rh antigens
(agglutinogen D). Most Americans are Rh+
(Rh-positive), meaning they carry the Rh
antigen
If an Rh–(Rh-negative) person receives Rh+
blood:
a) The immune system becomes sensitized
and begins producing antibodies;
hemolysis does not occur, because as it
takes time to produce antibodies
b) Second, and subsequent, transfusions
involve antibodies attacking donor’s Rh+
RBCs, and hemolysis occurs (rupture of
RBCs).
c) Rh-related problem during pregnancy
d) Danger occurs only when the mother is
Rh–, the father is Rh+, and the child
inherits the Rh+ factor
e) RhoGAM shot can prevent buildup of anti-
Rh+ antibodies in mother’s blood
f) The mismatch of an Rh-mother carrying
an Rh+ baby can cause problems for the
unborn child
g) The first pregnancy usually proceeds
without problems; the immune system is
sensitized after the first pregnancy. In a
second pregnancy, the mother’s immune
system produces antibodies to attack the
Rh+ blood (hemolytic disease of the
newborn)
Learning Task# 25 Blood Circulation
 The cardiovascular system is composed of
2 circulatory paths: pulmonary circulation,
the circuit through the lungs where the
body is oxygenated; the systemic
circulation, the circuit through the rest of
the body to provide oxygenated blood.

Learning Task # 23 Blood Typing Reflect on these question:

 Blood samples are mixed with anti-A and
anti-B serum. Agglutination or the lack of
agglutination leads to identification of
blood type. Typing for ABO and Rh factors
is done in the same manner. Cross
matching—testing for agglutination of
donor RBCs by the recipient’s serum, and
vice versa
Which heart chamber has the thickest walls?
What is the functional significance of this
structural difference?
What are the parts involved in the pulmonary
and systemic circulation
Learning Task# 26 The Lymphatic System

Think about this:

What happens during bleeding?
What is leukemia and how would it affect the
patient’s daily living?

Learning Task #24 Developmental Aspects of

Blood
Sites of blood cell formation
 The fetal liver and spleen are early sites of
blood cell formation. Bone marrow takes
over hematopoiesis by the seventh
month. Congenital blood defects include
various types of hemolytic anemias and
hemophilia. Incompatibility between
maternal and fetal blood can result in
fetal cyanosis, resulting from destruction
of fetal blood cells. Fetal hemoglobin The lymphatic system is a network of tissues
differs from hemoglobin produced after and organs that help rid the body of toxins,
birth. Physiologic jaundice occurs in waste and other unwanted materials. The
infants when the liver cannot rid the body primary function of the lymphatic system is to
of hemoglobin breakdown products fast transport lymph, a fluid containing infection-
enough. fighting white blood cells, throughout the
 Leukemias are most common in the very body.
young and very old. Older adults are also
at risk for anemia and clotting disorders. Consists of two semi-independent parts:
1. Lymphatic vessels
2. Lymphoid tissues and organs

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Lymphatic System Functions
1. Transports escaped fluids from the
cardiovascular system back to the
blood
2. Plays essential roles in body defense
and resistance to disease
Learning Task # 27 Lymphatic Vessels
walled. Larger vessels have valves. Low-
pressure, pumpless system.
Lymph transport is aided by:
a. Milking action of skeletal muscles
b. Pressure changes in thorax during
breathing
c. Smooth muscle in walls of lymphatics

Lymph nodes are small glands that

filter lymph, the clear fluid that circulates
through the lymphatic system. They become
swollen in response to infection and
tumors. Lymphatic fluid circulates through
the lymphatic system, which is made of
channels throughout your body that are
 Lymph consists of excess tissue fluid and similar to blood vessels.
plasma proteins carried by lymphatic
vessels. If fluids are not picked up, edema
occurs as fluid accumulates in
tissues. Lymphatic vessels (lymphatics)
pick up excess fluid (lymph) and return it
to the blood
 Lymphatic vessels (lymphatics) form a
one-way system. Lymph flows only
toward the heart
 Lymph capillaries weave between tissue
cells and blood capillaries. Walls overlap
to form flaplike minivalves. Fluid leaks
into lymph capillaries. Capillaries are
anchored to connective tissue by
filaments. Higher pressure on the inside
closes minivalves. Fluid is forced along the
vessel.
 Lymphatic collecting vessels Lymph nodes filter lymph before it is returned
 Collect lymph from lymph to the blood.
capillaries. Carry lymph to and away from
lymph nodes. Return fluid to circulatory Harmful materials that are filtered :
veins near the heart. Right lymphatic duct  Bacteria
drains the lymph from the right arm and  Viruses
the right side of the head and  Cancer cells
thorax. Thoracic duct drains lymph from  Cell debris
rest of body.
 Lymphatic vessels are similar to veins of
the cardiovascular system. They are thin-

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Defense cells within lymph nodes
1. Macrophages—engulf and destroy
bacteria, viruses, and other foreign
substances in lymph
2. Lymphocytes—respond to foreign
substances in lymph
3. Most lymph nodes are kidney-shaped,
less than 1 inch long, and buried in
connective tissue. Surrounded by a
capsule. Divided into compartments by
trabeculae:
a. Cortex (outer part) contains
follicles—collections of
lymphocytes. Germinal centers
enlarge when antibodies are
released by plasma cells
b. Medulla (inner part) contains
phagocytic macrophages.
Flow of lymph through nodes
 Lymph enters the convex side through
afferent lymphatic vessels. Lymph flows
through a number of sinuses inside the
node. Lymph exits through efferent
lymphatic vessels. Because there are
fewer efferent than afferent vessels, flow
is slowed.
Several other lymphoid organs contribute to
lymphatic function (in addition to the lymph
nodes)
 Spleen
 Thymus
 Tonsils
 Peyer’s patches
 Appendix
Spleen
 Located on the left side of the
abdomen. Filters and cleans blood of
bacteria, viruses, debris. Provides a site
for lymphocyte proliferation and immune
surveillance. Destroys worn-out blood
cells. Forms blood cells in the fetus. Acts
as a blood reservoir.
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Thymus
 Found overlying the heart. Functions at
peak levels only during youth.
Tonsils
 Small masses of lymphoid tissue deep to
the mucosa surrounding the pharynx
(throat). Trap and remove bacteria and
other foreign pathogens. Tonsillitis results
when the tonsils become congested with
bacteria.
Peyer’s patches
 Found in the wall of the small
intestine. Similar lymphoid follicles are
found in the appendix. Macrophages
capture and destroy bacteria in the
intestine
Mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue (MALT)
Acts as a sentinel to protect respiratory and
digestive tracts
Includes:
 Peyer’s patches
 Tonsils
 Appendix
Learning Task# 28 Body Defenses
Two mechanisms that make up the immune
system defend us from foreign materials
1. Innate ( nonspecific ) defense system
 Mechanisms protect against a variety of
invaders. Responds immediately to
protect body from foreign materials.
2. Adaptive (specific) defense system
 Fights invaders that get past the innate
system. Specific defense is required for
each type of invader. The highly specific
resistance to disease is immunity.
Immunity—specific resistance to disease
Immune system is a functional system rather
than an organ system in an anatomical sense
Innate body defenses are mechanical barriers
to pathogens (harmful or disease-causing
microorganisms) and include:
1. Body surface coverings
a. Intact skin
b. Mucous membranes
2. Specialized human cells
3. Chemicals produced by the body
Surface Membrane Barriers
 Surface membrane barriers, such as the
skin and mucous membranes, provide
the first line of defense against the
invasion of microorganism
Protective secretions produced by these
membranes. Acidic skin secretions inhibit
bacterial growth. Sebum is toxic to bacteria
Mucus traps microorganisms. Gastric juices
are acidic and kill pathogens. Saliva and tears
contain lysozyme (enzyme that destroys
bacteria.
Learning Task# 29 Internal Defenses: Cells
and Chemicals
Cells and chemicals provide a second line of
defense. They are natural killer cells and
phagocytes. It is an inflammatory response. It
uses chemicals that kill pathogens. It also
induces fever.
A. Natural killer (NK) cells
 Lyse (burst) and kill cancer cells, virus-
infected cells
 Release chemicals
called perforin and granzymes to degrade
target cell content
B. Inflammatory Response
 Triggered when body tissues are injured
 Four most common indicators (cardinal
signs) of acute inflammation
1. Redness
2. Heat
3. Pain
4. Swelling (edema)
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Damaged cells release inflammatory
chemicals such as:
a. Histamine
b. Kinin
These chemicals causes blood vessels to
dilate, capillaries to become leaky and
Phagocytes and white blood cells to move
into the area (called positive chemotaxis)
Functions of the Inflammatory Response
1. Prevents spread of damaging agents
2. Disposes of cell debris and pathogens
through phagocytosis
3. Sets the stage for repair
Process of the Inflammatory Response
1. Neutrophils migrate to the area of
inflammation by rolling along the vessel
wall (following the scent of chemicals
from inflammation)
2. Neutrophils squeeze through the capillary
walls by diapedesis to sites of
inflammation
3. Neutrophils gather in the precise site of
tissue injury (positive chemotaxis)
and consume any foreign material
present.
Phagocytes
 Cells such as neutrophils and
macrophages engulf foreign material by
phagocytosis. The phagocytic vesicle is
fused with a lysosome, and enzymes
digest the cell’s contents.
Antimicrobial proteins enhance innate
defenses by:
1. Attacking microorganisms directly
2. Hindering reproduction of
microorganisms
Most important types
1. Complement proteins
2. Interferon
I. Antimicrobial Proteins: Complement
Proteins
 Complement refers to a group of at least
20 plasma proteins that circulate in the
plasma. Complement is activated when
these plasma proteins encounter and
attach to cells (known
as complement fixation). Membrane
attack complexes (MACs) as a result
of complement fixation. It will then
produce holes or pores in cells. Pores
allow water to rush into the cell then the
cell bursts (lyses).
II. Antimicrobial Proteins: Interferons
 Interferons are small proteins secreted by
virus-infected cells. Interferons bind to
membrane receptors on healthy cell
surfaces to interfere with the ability of
viruses to multiply
Fever
 Abnormally high body temperature is a
systemic response to invasion by
microorganisms
 Hypothalamus regulates body
temperature at 37ºC (98.6ºF)
 The hypothalamus thermostat can be
reset higher by pyrogens (secreted by
white blood cells)
 High temperatures inhibit the release of
iron and zinc (needed by bacteria) from
the liver and spleen
 Fever also increases the speed of repair
processes
Learning Task# 30 Adaptive Body Defenses
Adaptive body defenses are the body’s
specific defense system, or the third line of
defense.
Immune response is the immune system’s
response to a threat. Antigens are targeted
and destroyed by antibodies.
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Three aspects of adaptive defense
1. Antigen specific—the adaptive defense
system recognizes and
acts against particular foreign
substances.
2. Systemic—immunity is not restricted
to the initial infection site.
3. Memory—the adaptive defense
system recognizes and mounts a
stronger attack on previously
encountered pathogens
Two Arms of the Adaptive Defense System
1. Humoral Immunity = antibody-mediated
immunity
 Provided by antibodies present in
body fluids.
2. Cellular Immunity = cell-mediated
immunity
 Targets virus-infected cells, cancer
cells, and cells of foreign grafts
Antigens
Antigens are any substance capable of
exciting the immune system and provoking an
immune response. Two types; self and non
self.
The antigens that do not originate in your
body are called non self antigens. Immune
cells called lymphocytes recognize non self
antigens and produce antibodies that bind
specifically to each antigen.
Examples of common non self antigens
a) Foreign proteins provoke the strongest
response
b) Nucleic acids
c) Large carbohydrates
d) Some lipids
e) Pollen grains
f) Microorganisms (bacteria, fungi, viruses
Self-antigen
 The antigens on your own cells are
known as self-antigens,
Human cells have many protein and
carbohydrate molecules. Self-antigens do not
trigger an immune response in us. The
presence of our cells in another person’s body
can trigger an immune response because they
are foreign. Restricts donors for transplants.
Haptens, or incomplete antigens, are not
antigenic by themselves. When they link up
with our own proteins, the immune system
may recognize the combination as foreign
and respond with an attack. Found in poison
ivy, animal dander, detergents, hair dyes,
cosmetics
Learning Task # 31 Cells of the Adaptive
Defense System: An Overview
Crucial cells of the adaptive system
A. Lymphocytes—respond to specific
antigens
a. B lymphocytes (B cells) produce
antibodies and oversee humoral
immunity
b. T lymphocytes (T cells) constitute the
cell-mediated arm of the adaptive
defenses; do not make antibodies
B. Antigen-presenting cells (APCs)—help the
lymphocytes but do not respond to
specific antigens
1. Lymphocytes
 Arise from hemocytoblasts of bone
marrow. Whether a lymphocyte
matures into a B cell or T cell depends
on where it becomes
immunocompetent.
2. Immunocompetence
 The capability to respond to a specific
antigen by binding to it with antigen-
specific receptors that appear on the
lymphocyte’s surface. T cells develop
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immunocompetence in the thymus
and oversee cell-mediated
immunity. Identify foreign
antigens. Those that bind self-
antigens are destroyed. Self-tolerance
is important part of lymphocyte
“education”.
 B cells develop immunocompetence
in bone marrow and provide humoral
immunity. Immunocompetent T and
B lymphocytes migrate to the lymph
nodes and spleen, where encounters
with antigens occur. Differentiation
from naïve cells into mature
lymphocytes is complete when they
bind with recognized
antigens. Mature lymphocytes
(especially T cells) circulate
continuously throughout the body
Antigen-presenting cells (APCs)
 Engulf antigens and then present
fragments of them on their own surfaces,
where they can be recognized by T cells.
Major types of cells behaving as APC's
1. Dendritic cells
2. Macrophages
3. B lymphocytes
When they present antigens, dendritic cells
and macrophages activate T cells, which
release chemicals.
Learning Task # 32 Humoral (Antibody-
Mediated) Immune Response
 B lymphocytes with specific receptors
bind to a specific antigen. The binding
event sensitizes, or activates, the
lymphocyte to undergo clonal selection. A
large number of clones is produced
(primary humoral response)
 Most of the B cell clone members
(descendants) become plasma cells
 Produce antibodies to destroy antigens
 Activity lasts for 4 or 5 days
 Plasma cells begin to die
 Some B cells become long-lived memory
cells capable of mounting a rapid attack
against the same antigen in subsequent
meetings
(secondary humoral response). These
cells provide immunological memory.
Active Immunity
 Occurs when B cells encounter antigens
and produce antibodies. Active immunity
can be:
a. Naturally acquired during bacterial
and viral infections
b. Artificially acquired from vaccines
Passive immunity
 Occurs when antibodies are obtained
from someone else. Naturally acquired
from a mother to her fetus or in the
breast milk. Artificially acquired from
immune serum or gamma globulin
(donated antibodies). Immunological
memory does not occur. Protection is
short-lived (2–3 weeks)
Monoclonal Antibodies
 Antibodies prepared for clinical testing for
diagnostic services. Produced from
descendants of a single cell line. Exhibit
specificity for only one antigen.
Examples of Uses for Monoclonal Antibodies
a. Cancer treatment
b. Diagnosis of pregnancy
c. Treatment after exposure to hepatitis
and rabies
Antibodies (immunoglobulins, Igs)
 Constitute gamma globulin part of blood
proteins. Soluble proteins secreted by
activated B cells (plasma cells). Formed in
response to a huge number of antigens
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Antibody structure
 Four polypeptide chains, two heavy and
two light, linked by disulfide bonds to
form a T- or Y-shaped molecule. Each
polypeptide chain has a variable (V)
region and a constant (C) region. Variable
regions form antigen-binding sites, one on
each arm of the T or Y. Constant regions
determine the type of antibody formed
(antibody class)
Antibody classes
 Antibodies of each class have slightly
different roles and differ structurally and
functionally.
Five major immunoglobulin classes (MADGE)
1. IgM—can fix complement
2. IgA—found mainly in secretions, such
as mucus or tears
3. IgD—important in activation of B cell
4. IgG—can cross the placental barrier
and fix complement; most abundant
antibody in plasma
5. IgE—involved in allergies
Antibody Function
 Antibodies inactivate antigens in a
number of ways. Complement fixation:
chief antibody ammunition used against
cellular antigens.
1. Neutralization: antibodies bind to
specific sites on bacterial exotoxins or
on viruses that can cause cell injury.
2. Agglutination: antibody-antigen
reaction that causes clumping of cells.
3. Precipitation: cross-linking reaction in
which antigen-antibody complex
settles out of solution.
Learning Task # 33 Cellular (Cell-Mediated)
Immune Response
 Main difference between two arms of the
adaptive response
 B cells secrete antibodies
 T cells fight antigens directly
 Like B cells, immunocompetent T cells are
activated to form a clone
 Like B cells, immunocompetent T cells are
activated to form a clone by binding a
recognized antigen. Unlike B cells, T cells
are unable to bind to free
antigens. Antigens must be presented by
a macrophage, and double recognition
must occur. APC engulfs and presents the
processed antigen in combination with a
protein from the APC
Different Classes of Effector T Cells
A. Helper T cells
B. Cytotoxic T cells
 T cells must recognize non self and
self through the process of antigen
presentation
a. Non self—the antigen fragment
presented by APC
b. Self—coupling with a specific
glycoprotein on the APC’s surface at
the same time
C. Cytotoxic (killer) T cells
 Specialize in killing infected
cells. Insert a toxic chemical (perforin
or granzyme). The perforin enters the
foreign cell’s plasma
membrane. Pores now appear in the
target cell’s membrane. Granzymes
(protein-digesting enzymes) enter and
kill the foreign cell.
D. Helper T cells
 Recruit other cells to fight
invaders. Interact directly with B cells
bound to an antigen, prodding the B
cells into clone production. Release
cytokines, chemicals that act
directly to rid the body of antigens.
Regulatory T cells
 Release chemicals to suppress the activity
of T and B cells. Stop the immune
response to prevent uncontrolled
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activity. A few members of each clone are
memory cells
Learning Task # 34 Organ Transplants and
Rejection
Major Types of Transplants, or Grafts
1. Autografts—tissue transplanted from one
site to another on the same person
2. Isografts—tissue grafts from a genetically
identical person (identical twin)
3. Allografts—tissue taken from a person
other than an identical twin (most
common type of graft)
4. Xenografts—tissue taken from a different
animal species (never successful)
Blood group and tissue matching is done to
ensure the best match possible. 75% match is
needed to attempt a graft. Organ transplant is
followed by immunosuppressive therapy to
prevent rejection
Learning Task # 35 Disorders of Immunity
The Most Important Disorders of the Immune
System
1. Allergies
2. Autoimmune diseases
3. Immunodeficiencies
1. Allergies
 Allergies, or hypersensitives, are
abnormal, vigorous immune
responses. The immune system
overreacts to an otherwise harmless
antigen, and tissue damage occurs.
Types of Allergies
a. Immediate (acute) Hypersensitivity
 Seen in hives and anaphylaxis. Due to IgE
antibodies and histamine. Anaphylactic
shock is systemic, acute allergic response
and is rare
b. Delayed hypersensitivity
 Reflects activity of T cells, macrophages,
and cytokines. Symptoms usually appear
1–3 days after contact with antigen.
 Allergic contact dermatitis (poison ivy, Learning Task # 36 Developmental Aspects of
cosmetics) the Lymphatic System and Body Defenses
 Lymphatic vessels form by budding off
Autoimmune Diseases from veins. Lymph nodes present by fifth
 Occurs when the body’s self-tolerance week of development. The thymus and
breaks down. The body produces auto- the spleen are the first lymphoid organs
antibodies and sensitized T lymphocytes to appear in the embryo. Other lymphoid
that attack its own tissues. Most forms of organs are poorly developed before
autoimmune disease result from the birth. The immune response develops
appearance of formerly hidden self- around the time of birth
antigens or changes in the structure of
self-antigens, and antibodies formed  The ability of immunocompetent cells to
against foreign antigens that resemble recognize foreign antigens is genetically
self-antigens determined. Stress appears to interfere
with normal immune response. Efficiency
Examples of Autoimmune Diseases of immune response wanes in old age,
1. Rheumatoid arthritis—destroys joints and infections, cancer,
2. Myasthenia gravis—impairs immunodeficiencies, and autoimmune
communication between nerves and diseases become more prevalent
skeletal muscles
3. Multiple sclerosis—white matter of brain
and spinal cord is destroyed
4. Graves’ disease—thyroid gland produces
excess thyroxine
5. Type I diabetes mellitus—destroys
pancreatic beta cells, resulting
in deficient insulin production
6. Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE)—
affects kidney, heart, lung, and skin
7. Glomerulonephritis—severe impairment
of kidney function due to acute
inflammation

Immunodeficiencies
 May be congenital or acquired. Severe
combined immunodeficiency disease
(SCID) is a congenital disease. AIDS
(acquired immune deficiency syndrome)
is caused by a virus that attacks and
cripples the helper T cells. Result from
abnormalities in any immune
element.Production or function of
immune cells or complement is abnormal.

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Cute si Sachiko
Nervous System
 It has the ability to let humans know
oneself: consciousness or intelligence is
what sets us apart from other species.
 Sytem of nerves (tissue), neurons (cells),
and dendrites.
Purpose
 Coordinates all activities of the body.
 Enables the body to respond and adapt to
changes both inside and out.
Split into 2 parts:
Central Nervous System (CNS)
 is made up of the brain and the spinal
cord.
Brain
 is found within the cranium of skull.
 It has 6 main sections
1. Cerebrum
- the largest section
- divided by the left and right
hemisphere
- further divided into 4 lobes
1. Frontal – reasoning and thought.
2. Parietal – integrates sensory
information.
3. Temporal – processes auditory
information from the ears.
4. Occipital – processing visual information
from the eyes.
2. Cerebellum
- located below the cerebrum and
above the 1st cervical of the neck.
- muscle coordination, balance, posture
and muscle tone.
3. Diencephalon
- found between the cerebrum and
midbrain.
- It has two main structures:
 Thalamus
- Directs sensory impulses to the
cerebrum.
- behaves much like a relay station.
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 Hypothalamus
- controls and regulates temperature,
appetite, water, balance, sleep, and
blood vessel constriction and dilation.
- plays a role in emotions such as anger,
happiness and pain.
4. Midbrain
- located below the cerebrum.
- responsible for eye and auditory
reflexes.
5. Pons
- located below the midbrain (in the
brainstem).
- responsible for certain reflex actions
such as chewing, tasting and saliva
production.
6. Medulla Oblongata
- located at the bottom of the
brainstem.
- connects to the spinal cord.
- regulating heart and blood vessel
function, digestion, respiration,
coughing, blood pressure and
swallowing.
- also known as the center for
respiration.
Spinal Cord
 Is the link between the brain and the
nerves and the rest of the body.
 It has 4 regions:
a) Cervical
b) Thoracic
c) Lumbar
d) Spinal nerves (afferent and efferent
spinal nerves which merge to form
the peripheral spinal nerves)
 Afferent Spinal nerves
o carries information from the
body to the brain.
o INPUT
  Efferent Spinal nerves
o carries information from the
brain to the body.
o OUTPUT
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
 A system that regulates the functions of
the central nervous system which lie
outside its major components which are
the brain and spinal cord.
Subdivided into 2 smaller systems
1. Somatic Nervous System
 Responsible for carrying motor and
sensory information.
 It is made up of nerves that connect
to skin, sensory organs, and all
skeletal muscles.
 Responsible for nearly all voluntary
muscle movements.
 Processes sensory information from
external stimuli includes hearing,
touch, and sight.
 The structures that allows this
communication to happen between
the nerves throughout the body are
the:
 Afferent Sensory Neurons
- Conducting inward
- Takes information from the
nerves to the CNS.
 Efferent Motor Neurons
- Conducting outward
- Takes information from the CNS
to the muscle fibers throughout
the body.
 Autonomous/Autonomic Nervous
System
Further divided into two:
 Sympathetic Nervous System
- Is vital to our survival
- Fight or flight response of the
body. It revs up the body to
either defend yourself or escape
the threat.
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 Parasymphathetic Nervous System
- Is the counterbalance to the
symphathetic response to danger
whether real of imagined.
- Brings all the systems of the
body back to normal.
- Rest and digest response
The Nervous system is a complex network of
nerves and cells that carry messages to and
from the brain and spinal cord to various
parts of the body. The nervous system
includes both the Central nervous system and
Peripheral nervous system. The Central
nervous system is made up of the Brain and
Spinal Cord and The Peripheral nervous
system is made up of the Somatic and the
Autonomic nervous systems.
 Brain
 Spinal Cord
 Nerves
The central nervous system consists of the
brain and spinal cord. The brain plays
a central role in the control of most bodily
functions, including awareness, movements,
sensations, thoughts, speech, and memory.
Some reflex movements can occur via spinal
cord pathways without the participation of
brain structures.
The brain is an organ that serves as the
center of the nervous system in all vertebrate
and most invertebrate animals. It is located in
the head, usually close to the sensory organs
for senses such as vision. It is the most
complex organ in a vertebrate's body.
The brain has 6 important parts:
A. Cerebrum or the cerebral hemispheres are
the most superior part of the brain.

The Cerebral cortex or the outermost layer of
the brain is divided into 4 regions or lobes:
1. Frontal Lobe - is the part of the brain that
controls important cognitive skills in
humans, such as emotional expression,
problem solving, memory, language,
judgment, and sexual behaviors. It is, in
essence, the “control panel” of our
personality and our ability to
communicate.
2. Parietal Lobe - The parietal lobes are
divided into two functional regions. One
involves sensationand perception and the
other is concerned with
integrating sensory input, primarily with
the visual system. The first function
integrates sensory information to form a
single perception (cognition).
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3. Occipital lobe - is the
visual processing area of the brain. It is
associated with visuospatial processing,
distance and depth perception, color
determination, object and face
recognition, and memory.
4. Temporal lobe - is involved in primary
auditory perception, such as hearing, and
holds the primary auditory cortex. The
primary auditory cortex
receives sensory information from the
ears and secondary areas process the
information into meaningful units such as
speech and words.
B. Cerebellum - is a major structure of the
hindbrain that is located near the brainstem.
This part of the brain is responsible for
coordinating voluntary movements. It is also
responsible for a number of functions
including motor skills such as balance,
coordination, and posture.
C. Diencephalon- is a division of the forebrain
(embryonic prosencephalon), and is situated
between the telencephalon and the midbrain
(embryonic mesencephalon). It consists of
structures that are on either side of the third
ventricle, including the thalamus, the
hypothalamus, the epithalamus and the
subthalamus.
D. Midbrain - The midbrainor mesencephalon
is the forward-most portion of the brainstem
and is associated with vision, hearing, motor
control, sleep and wakefulness, arousal
(alertness), and temperature regulation.
E. Pons- The ponsis a portion of the brain
stem, located above the medulla oblongata
and below the midbrain. It is a bridge
between various parts of the nervous system,
including the cerebellum and cerebrum,
which are both parts of the brain
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F. Medulla Oblungata - the continuation of
the spinal cord within the skull, forming the
lowest part of the brainstem and containing
control centers for the heart and lungs.
1. Which part of the brain is affected during
hypertension and cough.
2. Which part of the brain is affected in
cases of vertigo?
Summary:
12 pairs of cranial nerves carry info to and
from our brain and body.
Cerebrum- outer layer (cortex. Latin. Bark).
The surface is only 1/8 inch thick but contains
hundreds of neurons. More than 2/3 of the
surface of the cortex heights in hundreds of
little folds that make up the lines of the brain.
Animals that are less intellegent has a
smoother brain surface.
The Limbic System under our cortex
processes the emotions that drives. Contains
the brain reward circuit releasing dopamine.
Drugs signal the brain to release high
amounts of dopamine which results to being
high and having difficulty in enjoying small
things. Repeated activation of this reward
pathway leads to addiction.
Amygdala which processes emotions and the
Hippocampus in the temporal lobe which
acts as a memory indexer.
Hypothalamus - wakes you up in the morning
and gets the adrenaline flowing (e.g. in a test)
Pituitary gland- also known as master gland
which helps control growth, pregnancy and
body temperature. 2. Arachnoid Mater-middle, meningeal layer
Pineal gland – which helps you control sleep
and circadian rhythms.

3. Pia Mater-outermost layer, clings tightly to

the surface of the brain.

Nervous Tissues are soft and delicate, even

slight pressure can injure the irreplaceable
neurons. Nature tries to protect the brain and
spinal cord by enclosing them within the bone
(the skull and the vertebral column). There
are also 3 additional protection for the CNS: B. Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF)-is a watery
“broth” with components similar to blood
A. Meninges plasma. It is a clear, colorless body fluid found
There are 3 connective tissue membranes in the brain and spinal It is produced by
covering the CNS: specialized ependymal cells in the choroid
plexuses of the ventricles of the brain, and
1. Dura Mater-the outermost layer, absorbed in the arachnoid granulations.
leathery, and double layered.

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 the sensory cortex. It is also a center for
coordinating many reflexes and contains
reflex arcs that can independently control
reflexes.

C. Blood-brain Barrier- (BBB) is a highly

selective semipermeable border of
endothelial cells that prevents solutes in the
circulating blood from non-selectively
crossing into the extracellular fluid of the
central nervous system where neurons reside.
The Peripheral Nervous System refers to
parts of the nervous system outside the
brain and spinal cord. It includes the
cranial nerves, spinal nerves and their roots
and branches, peripheral nerves, and
neuromuscular junctions.

The spinal cord is a long, thin, tubular

structure made up of nervous tissue, which
extends from the medulla oblongata in the
brainstem to the lumbar region of the
vertebral column. It encloses the central
canal of the spinal cord, which contains
cerebrospinal fluid. There are 31 pairs of
nerves in the Spinal Cord; 8 cervical, 12
thoracic, 5 lumbar, 5 sacral, and 1 coccygeal.
Each pair connects the spinal cord with a A nerve is an enclosed, cable-like bundle of
specific region of the body. axons (the projections of neurons) in the
peripheral nervous system (PNS). A nerve
The spinal cord functions primarily in the
provides a structured pathway that supports
transmission of nerve signals from the motor
the electrochemical nerve impulses
cortex to the body, and from the afferent
transmitted along each of the axons. The
fibers of the sensory neurons to

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nerve works through its nerve cell called the
Neuron.
The neuron is the basic working unit of the
brain, a specialized cell designed to transmit
information to other nerve cells, muscle, or
gland cells. Neurons are cells within the
nervous system that transmit information to
other nerve cells, muscle, or gland cells.
Most neurons have a cell body, an axon, and
dendrites
The parts of a Neuron are the following:
1. Soma or cell body- contains the nucleus
and other structures common to living
cells. These structures support the
chemical processing of the neuron; the
most important of which is the
production of neurotransmitters.
2. Dendrite- Dendrites are appendages that
are designed to receive communications
from other cells. They resemble a tree-like
structure, forming projections that
become stimulated by other neurons and
conduct the electrochemical charge to
the cell body (or, more rarely, directly to
the axons).
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3. Axon- An axon, or nerve fiber, is a long
slender projection of a nerve cell, or
neuron, that conducts electrical impulses
away from the neuron's cell body
or soma. Axons are in effect the primary
transmission lines of the nervous system
and as bundles they help make up nerves.
4. Myelin Sheath- Myelin is an insulating
layer, or sheath that forms around nerves,
including those in the brain and spinal
cord. It is made up of protein and fatty
substances. This myelin sheath allows
electrical impulses to transmit quickly and
5. Schwann Cell- Schwann cells are the main
glial cell in the PNS and play an essential
role in the survival and functions of
neurons. In response to nerve injury,
Schwann cells undergo rapid changes in
phenotype [199] and their basal lamina
provides a conduit for axon regrowth, a
critical process for nerve regeneration.
The 12 pairs of the Cranial Nerves and the 31
pairs of the Spinal Nerves make up the
Peripheral Nervous System.
autonomic nervous system. Sometimes
called the rest and digest system,
the parasympathetic system conserves
energy as it slows the heart rate,
increases intestinal and gland activity,
and relaxes sphincter muscles in the
gastrointestinal tract.

The Peripheral Nervous System is divided

into the Autonomic Nervous System and the
Somatic Nervous System.
The Autonomic Nervous System is the motor
subdivision of the PNS. It is a The somatic nervous system is the part of the
control system that acts largely unconsciously peripheral nervous system associated with
and regulates bodily functions, such as the the voluntary control of body movements via
heart rate, digestion, respiratory rate, skeletal muscles. The somatic nervous system
pupillary response, urination, and sexual consists of afferent nerves or sensory nerves,
arousal. This system is the primary and efferent nerves or motor nerve.
mechanism in control of the fight-or-flight
response. This system is divided into 2; the
Sympathetic and the Parasympathetic.

1. The sympathetic nervous system directs

the body's rapid involuntary response to
dangerous or stressful situations. A flash
flood of hormones boosts the body's
alertness and heart rate, sending extra
blood to the muscles.
2. The parasympathetic nervous system is
one of three divisions of the

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1. Afferent or Sensory Nerves-These
are sensory neurons
carrying nerve impulses
from sensory stimuli toward the
central nervous system and
brain. Afferent neurons carry signals to
the brain and spinal cord as sensory
Transmits sensory gathered from the skin,
muscles and joints to the CNS.

2. Efferent or Motor Nerves-Efferent, or

motor, nerve fibers carry impulses away
from the central nervous Carries
information from the CNS to the muscles
and glands.

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THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM LT#2 ANATOMY OF THE MALE REPRODUCTIVE
SYSTEM
An organ system that functions primarily for
the purpose of reproduction, and is
comprised of sex organs or Gonads.

1. Testes
2. Duct system
a. Epididymis
b. Ductus (vas) deferens
c. Urethra
Accessory organs
Gonads: a. Seminal glands (vesicles)
1. Testes in males b. Prostate
2. Ovaries in females c. Bulbourethral glands
External genitalia
a. Penis
b. Scrotum

Testes
Each testis is connected to the trunk via the
spermatic cord, which houses:
a. Blood vessels
b. Nerves
c. Ductus deferens
Gonads produce gametes (sex cells) and
secrete hormones: Coverings of the testes
1. Sperm—male gametes a) Tunica albuginea—capsule that
2. Ova (eggs)—female gametes surrounds each testis
b) Septa—extensions of the capsule that
extend into the testis and divide it
into lobules.

Each lobule contains one to four seminiferous

tubules
a. Tightly coiled structures
b. Function as sperm-forming factories

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 d. Empty sperm into the rete testis
e. Sperm travels from the rete testis to
the epididymis. Interstitial cells in the
seminiferous tubules produce
androgens such as testosterone.
Duct System
The duct system transports sperm from the
body and includes:
1. Epididymis
2. Ductus deferens
3. Urethra
1. Epididymis
 Highly convoluted tube 6 m (20 ft)
long. Found along the posterior lateral
side of the testis. First part of the male
duct system. Temporary storage site for
immature sperm. Sperm mature as they
journey through the epididymis. During
ejaculation, sperm are propelled to the
ductus deferens.
2. Ductus (vas) deferens
 Runs from the epididymis via the
spermatic cord through the inguinal canal
and arches over the urinary bladder.
Moves sperm by peristalsis into the
urethra.
a. Ampulla—end of the ductus
deferens, which empties into the
ejaculatory duct
b. Ejaculatory duct—passes through
the prostate to merge with the
urethra
Ejaculation—smooth muscle in the walls of
the ductus deferens create peristaltic waves
to squeeze sperm forward
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Vasectomy—cutting of the ductus deferens at
the level of the testes prevents transportation
of sperm (form of birth control)
3. Urethra
 Extends from the base of the urinary
bladder to the tip of the penis. Carries
both urine and sperm. Sperm enters from
the ejaculatory duct
Urethra Regions
a. Prostatic urethra—surrounded by
prostate gland
b. Membranous urethra—prostatic
urethra to penis
c. Spongy (penile) urethra—runs the
length of the penis to the external
urethral orifice
Ejaculation causes the internal urethra
sphincter to close
- Prevents urine from passing into the
urethra
- Prevents sperm from entering the
urinary bladder
ACCESSORY GLANDS AND SEMEN
1. Seminal vesicles
2. Prostate
3. Bulbourethral glands
- Seminal vesicles - Located at the base
of the bladder. Produce a thick,
yellowish secretion (60% of semen)
that contains:
a) Fructose (sugar)
b) Vitamin C
c) Prostaglandins
d) Other substances that nourish and
activate sperm
Duct of each seminal vesicle joins that of the
ductus deferens on each side to form the
ejaculatory duct
Prostate - Encircles the upper (prostatic) part
of the urethra. Secretes a milky fluid. Helps to
activate sperm. Fluid enters the urethra
through several small ducts
Bulbourethral Glands - Pea-sized glands
inferior to the prostate. Produce a thick, clear
mucus. Mucus cleanses the spongy (penile)
urethra of acidic urine prior to ejaculation
and serves as a lubricant during sexual
intercourse.
Semen
It is a milky white mixture of sperm and
accessory gland secretions. It is a components
of accessory gland secretions. Liquid portion
acts as a transport medium to dilute
sperm. Sperm are streamlined cellular
“tadpoles”. Fructose provides energy for
sperm cells. Alkalinity of semen helps
neutralize the acidic environment of
vagina. Semen inhibits bacteria.
LEARNING TASK # 4 EXTERNAL GENITALIA
A. Scrotum
B. Penis
Scrotum
 Divided sac of skin outside the abdomen
that houses the testes. Viable sperm
cannot be produced at normal body
temperature. Maintains testes at 3°C
lower than normal body temperature.
Penis
 Male organ of copulation that delivers
sperm into the female reproductive tract.
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Regions of the penis
1. Shaft
2. Glans penis (enlarged tip)
3. Prepuce (foreskin) - Folded cuff of
skin around proximal end. Often
removed by circumcision.
Internally there are three areas of spongy
erectile tissue around the urethra. Erections
occur when this erectile tissue fills with blood
during sexual excitement.
Male Reproductive Functions
Chief roles of the male in the reproductive
process:
1. Produce sperm
2. Produce a hormone, testosterone
Spermatogenesis
 Sperm production - Begins at puberty and
continues throughout life. Millions of
sperm are made every day
 Sperm are formed in the seminiferous
tubules of the testis
 Spermatogonia (primitive stem cells)
begin the process by dividing
rapidly. During puberty, follicle-
stimulating hormone (FSH) is secreted in
increasing amounts
 Each division of a spermatogonium stem
cell produces:
A. Type A daughter cell, a stem cell, that
continues the stem cell population
B. Type B daughter cell, which becomes
a primary spermatocyte, destined
to undergo meiosis and form four
sperm
Meiosis
 The special type of nuclear division that
differs from mitosis. Occurs in the
gonads. Includes two successive divisions
of the nucleus (meiosis I and II). Results in
four daughter cells (gametes).
 Gametes are spermatids with 23
chromosomes. 23 chromosomes are half
the usual 46 found in other body cells. 23
is known as the haploid number (n)—half
the genetic material as other body
cells. Union of a sperm (23 chromosomes,
n) with an egg (23 chromosomes, n)
creates a zygote (2n, or 46
chromosomes).
Spermiogenesis
 Spermatids are nonmotile and not
functional as sperm. A streamlining
process is needed to strip excess
cytoplasm from a spermatid and modify it
into a sperm. A sperm has three regions:
head, midpiece, tail. Acrosome sits
anterior to the sperm head (nucleus). The
entire process of spermatogenesis,
including spermiogenesis, takes 64 to 72
days.
Testosterone Production
During puberty:
 Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) begins
prodding seminiferous tubules to produce
sperm. Luteinizing hormone (LH) begins
activating the interstitial cells to produce
testosterone.
Testosterone
 Most important hormonal product of the
testes. Stimulates reproductive organ
development. Underlies sex drive
 Causes secondary sex characteristics like:
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1. Deepening of voice
2. Increased hair growth
3. Enlargement of skeletal muscles
4. Increased bone growth and density
ANATOMY OF THE FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE
SYSTEM
1. Ovaries
2. Duct system
a. Uterine (fallopian) tubes
b. Uterus
c. Vagina
3. External genitalia
Ovaries
Produce eggs (ova) and hormones (estrogen
and progesterone). Each ovary houses ovarian
follicles consisting of:
1. Oocyte (immature egg)
2. Follicle cells—layers of different cells
that surround the oocyte
Ovarian follicles
A. Primary follicle—contains an immature
oocyte
B. Vesicular (Graafian) follicle—growing
follicle with a maturing oocyte
C. Ovulation—the follicle ruptures when the
egg is mature and ready to be
ejected from the ovary; occurs about
every 28 days. The ruptured follicle is
transformed into a corpus luteum
Ovary support
 Suspensory ligaments secure the ovaries
to the lateral walls of the pelvis. Ovarian
ligaments anchor ovaries to the uterus
medially. Broad ligaments, a fold of
peritoneum, enclose and hold the ovaries
in place.
Duct System
1. Uterine (fallopian) tubes
2. Uterus
3. Vagina
Uterine (fallopian) tubes
 Form the initial part of the duct
system. Receive the ovulated oocyte from
the ovaries. Provide a site for
fertilization. Empty into the uterus. Little
or no contact between ovaries and
uterine tubes. Supported and enclosed by
the broad ligament
Uterine (fallopian) tube structure
Infundibulum
 distal, funnel-shaped end
 Fimbriae - fingerlike projections of the
infundibulum. Receive the oocyte from
the ovary. Cilia located inside the uterine
tube transport the oocyte
Uterus
 Situated between the urinary bladder and
rectum. Size and shape of a pear, in a
woman who has never been pregnant.
Receives, retains, nourishes a fertilized
egg.
Uterine Support
 Broad ligament suspends the uterus in the
pelvis. Round ligament anchors the uterus
anteriorly. Uterosacral ligament anchors
the uterus posteriorly
Regions of the Uterus
 Body—main portion
 Fundus—superior rounded region above
where uterine tube enters
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 Cervix—narrow outlet that protrudes into
the vagina
Layers of the Uterus
a) Endometrium, Inner layer
(mucosa). Site of implantation of a
fertilized egg. Sloughs off if no
pregnancy occurs (menstruation or
menses).
b) Myometrium is the middle layer of
smooth muscle that contracts during
labor
c) Perimetrium (visceral peritoneum) is
the outermost serous layer of the
uterus
Vagina
 Passageway that extends from cervix to
exterior of body and is located between
urinary bladder and rectum. Serves as the
canal that allows a baby or menstrual flow
to leave the body. Female organ of
copulation. Receives the penis during
sexual intercourse
 Hymen—partially closes the vagina until it
is ruptured
EXTERNAL GENITALIA AND FEMALE
PERINEUM
The female external genitalia, or vulva,
includes:
1. Mons pubis
2. Labia
3. Clitoris
4. Urethral orifice
5. Vaginal orifice
6. Greater vestibular glands
(1) Mons Pubis. a fatty area overlying the
pubic symphysis. Covered with pubic hair
after puberty.
(2) Labia or skin folds
b) Labia majora, hair-covered skin
folds. Enclose the labia minora. Also
encloses the vestibule
c) Labia minora—delicate, hair-free
folds of skin
2) Vestibule, Enclosed by labia
majora. Contains external openings of the
urethra and vagina.
3) Greater vestibular glands, One is found on
each side of the
vagina. Secretions lubricate vagina during
intercourse
4) Clitoris, Contains erectile
tissue. Corresponds to the male penis.
The clitoris lacks a reproductive duct. The
clitoris is similar to the penis in that it is:
a) Hooded by a prepuce
b) Composed of sensitive erectile
tissue
c) Swollen with blood during sexual
excitement
Perineum
 A diamond-shaped region between the
anterior ends of the labial folds, anus
posteriorly, and ischial tuberosities
laterally
Female Reproductive Functions and Cycles
 The total supply of eggs is determined by
the time a female is born. Ability to
release eggs begins at puberty with the
onset of the menstrual
cycle. Reproductive ability ends
at menopause (in female’s fifties). The
total supply of eggs is determined by the
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time a female is born. Ability to release
eggs begins at puberty with the onset of
the menstrual cycle. Reproductive ability
ends at menopause (in female’s fifties).
Oogenesis and the Ovarian Cycle
 Oogenesis is the process of producing
ova (eggs) in a female. Oogonia are
female stem cells found in a developing
fetus. Oogonia undergo mitosis to
produce primary oocytes that are
surrounded by cells that form primary
follicles in the ovary. Primary oocytes are
inactive until puberty. Follicle-
stimulating hormone (FSH) causes some
primary follicles to mature each
month. Cyclic monthly changes
constitute the ovarian cycle
 Meiosis starts inside maturing
follicle. First meiotic division produces a
larger secondary oocyte and a smaller
first polar body. A vesicular follicle
contains a secondary oocyte (maturation
from a primary follicle takes about 14
days). Ovulation of a secondary oocyte
occurs with the release of luteinizing
hormone (LH). Secondary oocyte is
released and surrounded by a corona
radiata. Meiosis is completed after
ovulation only if sperm penetrates the
oocyte. Ovum is produced
 Two additional polar bodies are
produced. Once ovum is formed, the 23
chromosomes can be combined with the
23 chromosomes of the sperm to form
the fertilized egg (zygote). If the
secondary oocyte is not penetrated by a
 sperm, it dies and does not complete
meiosis to form an ovum
Meiosis
 Males—produces four functional sperm
 Females—produces one functional ovum
and three tiny polar bodies
Sex cell size and structure
 Sperm are tiny, motile, and equipped with
nutrients in seminal fluid. Egg is large, is
nonmotile, and has nutrient reserves to
nourish the embryo until implantation.
Hormone Production by the Ovaries
Estrogens are produced by follicle cells. Cause
secondary sex characteristics:
1. Enlargement of accessory organs of the
female reproductive system.
2. Development of breasts
3. Appearance of axillary and pubic hair
4. Increase in fat beneath the skin,
particularly in hips and breasts
5. Widening and lightening of the pelvis
6. Onset of menses (menstrual cycle)
Progesterone is produced by the corpus
luteum. Production continues until LH
diminishes in the blood. Does not contribute
to the appearance of secondary sex
characteristics
Other major effects
1. Helps maintain pregnancy
2. Prepares the breasts for milk production
UTERINE (MENSTRUAL CYCLE)
 Cyclic changes of the endometrium, about
28 days in length. Regulated by cyclic
production of estrogens and
progesterone by the ovaries. FSH and LH,
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from the anterior pituitary, regulate the
production of estrogens and
progesterone by the ovaries. Ovulation
typically occurs about midway through
cycle, on day 14.
Stages of the menstrual cycle
1. Menstrual phase
2. Proliferative stage
3. Secretory stage
Days 1–5: menstrual phase
Functional layer of the endometrium is
sloughed. Bleeding occurs for 3 to 5
days. Ovarian hormones are at their lowest
levels. By day 5, growing ovarian follicles are
producing more estrogen.
Days 6–14: proliferative stage
Regeneration of functional layer of the
endometrium. Endometrium is repaired,
thickens, and becomes well
vascularized. Estrogen levels rise. Ovulation
occurs in the ovary at the end of this stage.
Days 15–28: secretory phase
Levels of progesterone rise and increase the
blood supply to the endometrium, which
becomes more vascular. Endometrium
increases in size and readies for implantation.
LEARNING TASK # 8 MAMMARY GLANDS
Present in both sexes, but function only in
females. Modified sweat glands
Function is to produce milk to nourish a
newborn. Stimulated by sex hormones
(mostly estrogens) to increase in size.
Parts of the Mammary Gland
1. Areola—central pigmented area
2. Nipple—protruding central area of areola
3. Lobes—internal structures that radiate
around nipple
4. Lobules—located within each lobe and
contain clusters of alveolar glands
5. Alveolar glands—produce milk when a
woman is lactating (producing milk)
6. Lactiferous ducts—connect alveolar
glands to nipple
7. Lactiferous sinus—dilated portion where
milk accumulates

Mammography
 Mammography is X-ray examination
that detects breast cancers too small
to feel. American Cancer Society
recommends mammography annually
for women between 45 and 54 years
old and every 2 years thereafter if the
results are normal.
 Breast cancer is often signaled by a
change in skin texture, puckering, or
leakage from the nipple.

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The Respiratory System
The Respiratory System is a series
of organs responsible for taking in oxygen and
expelling carbon dioxide. The
primary organs of the respiratory system are
the lungs, which carry out this exchange of
gases as we breathe. The respiratory organs
oversee the gas exchanges that occur
between the blood and the external
environment.
Organs of the Respiratory System
1. Nose
2. Pharynx
3. Larynx
4. Trachea
6. Lungs
Functional Anatomy of the Respiratory
System
Gas exchanges between the blood and
external environment occur only in the alveoli
of the lungs:
 Upper respiratory tract includes
passageways from the nose to larynx
 Lower respiratory tract includes
passageways from trachea to alveoli
 Passageways to the lungs purify,
humidify, and warm the incoming air.
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Learning Task #3 Nose
 It is the only externally visible part of the
respiratory system. its nostrils (nares) are
the route through which air enters the
nose.
 The Nasal cavity is the interior of the nose
while the Nasal septum divides the nasal
cavity. The Olfactory receptors are
located in the mucosa on the superior
surface while the rest of the cavity is lined
with respiratory mucosa, which:
a. Moistens air
b. Traps incoming foreign particles
c. Enzymes in the mucus destroy
bacteria chemically
Conchae are projections from the lateral
walls
a. Increase surface area
b. Increase air turbulence within the
nasal cavity
c. Increased trapping of inhaled
particles. The palate separates the
nasal cavity from the oral cavity
d. Hard palate is anterior and
supported by bone
e. Soft palate is posterior and
unsupported
Paranasal sinuses
 They are the cavities within the frontal,
sphenoid, ethmoid, and maxillary bones
surrounding the nasal cavity
Sinuses:
a. Lighten the skull
b. Act as resonance chambers for speech
c. Produce mucus
Learning Task # 4 The Pharynx
 It is commonly called the throat. It is
a Muscular passageway from nasal cavity
to larynx. It is continuous with the
posterior nasal aperture.
Three Regions of the Pharynx
1. Nasopharynx—superior region behind
nasal cavity
2. Oropharynx—middle region behind
mouth
3. Laryngopharynx—inferior region
attached to larynx
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 Oropharynx and laryngopharynx serve as
common passageway for air and
food. Epiglottis routes food into the
posterior tube, the esophagus
 Pharyngotympanic tubes open into the
nasopharynx and drains the middle ear
 Tonsils are clusters of lymphatic tissue
that play a role in protecting the body
from infection.
a. Pharyngeal tonsil (adenoid), a
single tonsil, is located in the
nasopharynx.
b. Palatine tonsils (2) are located in
the oropharynx at the end of the
soft palate
c. Lingual tonsils (2) are found at the
base of the tongue
Learning Task # 5 The Larynx
Commonly called the voice box. Located
inferior to the pharynx. Made of eight rigid
hyaline cartilages. Thyroid cartilage (Adam’s
apple) is the largest.
Functions
1. Routes air and food into proper channels
2. Plays a role in speech
 Epiglottis - a Spoon-shaped flap of elastic
cartilage. It protects the superior opening
of the larynx. it routes food to the
posteriorly situated esophagus and routes
air toward the trachea
 During swallowing, the epiglottis rises and
forms a lid over the opening of the larynx.
The Vocal folds (true vocal cords) vibrate
with expelled air and allow us to speak.
Learning Task # 7 The Main Bronchi
It is formed by division of the trachea. Each
bronchus enters the lung at the hilum (medial
depression). The Right bronchus is wider,
shorter, and straighter than left.
Bronchi subdivide into smaller and smaller
branches

 The glottis includes the vocal cords and

the opening between the vocal cords

Learning Task # 6 Trachea

It is commonly called the windpipe. It is a 4-
inch-long tube that connects to the larynx. Its
walls are reinforced with C-shaped rings of Learning Task # 8 Lungs
hyaline cartilage, which keep the trachea Occupies the entire thoracic cavity except for
patent (open). It is lined with ciliated mucosa. the central mediastinum.
The Cilia beat continuously in the opposite
direction of incoming air so it can expel
mucus loaded with dust and other debris
away from lungs.

 Apex of each lung is near the clavicle

(superior portion). The base rests on the
diaphragm.Each lung is divided into lobes
by fissures:
1. Left lung—two lobes
2. Right lung—three lobes

Serosa covers the outer surface of the lungs.

a. Pulmonary (visceral) pleura covers the
lung surface

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 b. Parietal pleura lines the walls of the
thoracic cavity
Pleural fluid fills the area between layers
 Allows the lungs to glide over the thorax
 Decreases friction during breathing
 Pleural space (between the layers) is
more of a potential space
The Bronchial Tree
 The main bronchi subdivide into smaller
and smaller branches. The Bronchial
(respiratory) tree is the network of
branching passageways. All but the
smallest passageways have reinforcing
cartilage in the walls. Conduits to and
from the respiratory zone.
The Bronchioles serves as the smallest
conducting passageways.
Learning Task # 8 Respiratory Physiology
Functions of the Respiratory System
1. Supply the body with oxygen
2. Dispose of carbon dioxide
Respiration includes four distinct events:
Four Events of Respiration
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1. Pulmonary Ventilation—moving air
into and out of the lungs (commonly
called breathing)
2. External Respiration—gas exchange
between pulmonary blood and alveoli
o Oxygen is loaded into the blood
o Carbon dioxide is unloaded from the
blood
3. Respiratory Gas Transport—transport
of oxygen and carbon dioxide via the
bloodstream
4. Internal Respiration—gas exchange
between blood and tissue cells in
systemic capillaries
Non-respiratory Gas Movements
Many situations other than breathing move
air into or out of the lungs may modify the
normal respiratory rhythm. Coughs and
Sneezes clear the air passages of debris of
collected mucus. Laughing and crying reflect
our emotions.
Examples are the following:
MOVEMENT MECHANISM AND RESULT
Cough Taking a deep breath, closing
glottis, and forcing air
superiorly from the lungs
against glottis. Then, glottis
opens suddenly, and a blast of
air rushes upward. Coughs act
to clear the lower respiratory
passageways.
Sneeze Similar to a cough, except that
expelled air is directed through
nasal cavities instead or
through oral cavity. The uvula,
a dangling tag of tissue hanging
from the soft palate, becomes
depressed and closes oral
cavity off from pharynx, rooting
air through nasal cavities.
Sneezes clear upper respiratory
passages.
Crying Inspiration followed by a
release of air in a number of
short expirations. Primarily an
emotionally induced
mechanism.
Laughing Essentially same as crying in
terms of the air movements
produced. Also an emotionally
induced mechanism.
Hiccups Sudden inspirations resulting
from spasms of diaphragm;
initiated by irritation of
diaphragm or phrenic nerves,
which serves diaphragm. The
sound occurs when inspired air
hits vocal folds of closed glottis.
Yawn Very deep inspiration, taken
with jaws wide open; ventilates
all alveoli (some alveoli may
remain collapsed during normal
quiet breathing)
Learning Task # 11 Respiratory Sounds
 Sounds are monitored with a stethoscope
 Two recognizable sounds can be heard
with a stethoscope:
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1. Bronchial sounds—produced by air rushing
through large passageways such as the
trachea and bronchi
2. Vesicular Breathing Sounds—soft sounds
of air filling alveoli
External Respiration, Gas Transport, and
Internal Respiration
I. Gas Transport
Gas exchanges occur as a result of
diffusion. External respiration is an exchange
of gases occurring between the alveoli and
pulmonary blood (pulmonary gas
exchange). Internal respiration is an exchange
of gases occurring between the blood and
tissue cells (systemic capillary gas exchange)
Movement of the gas is toward the area of
lower concentration
II. External Respiration
Oxygen is loaded into the blood. Oxygen
diffuses from the oxygen-rich air of the alveoli
to the oxygen-poor blood of the pulmonary
capillaries. Carbon dioxide is unloaded out of
the blood. Carbon dioxide diffuses from the
blood of the pulmonary capillaries to the
alveoli
III. Gas Transport in the Blood
Oxygen transport in the blood. Most oxygen
travels attached to hemoglobin and forms
oxyhemoglobin (HbO2).A small dissolved
amount is carried in the plasma.
Carbon dioxide transport in the blood. Most
carbon dioxide is transported in the plasma as
bicarbonate ion (HCO3–). A small amount is
carried inside red blood cells on hemoglobin,
but at different binding sites from those of
oxygen
For carbon dioxide to diffuse out of blood into
the alveoli, it must be released from its
bicarbonate form:
Bicarbonate ions enter RBC. Combine with
hydrogen ions. Form carbonic acid
(H2CO3). Carbonic acid splits to form water +
CO2. Carbon dioxide diffuses from blood into
alveoli.
IV. Internal Respiration
Exchange of gases between blood and tissue
cells. It is An opposite reaction from what
occurs in the lungs. Carbon dioxide diffuses
out of tissue cells to blood
(called loading). Oxygen diffuses from blood
into tissue (called unloading)
Learning Task # 13 Respiratory Disorders
I. Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease
(COPD)
It is exemplified by chronic bronchitis and
emphysema
Shared features of these diseases
1. Patients almost always have a history
of smoking
2. Labored breathing (dyspnea)
becomes progressively worse
3. Coughing and frequent pulmonary
infections are common
4. Most COPD patients are hypoxic,
retain carbon dioxide and have
respiratory acidosis, and ultimately
develop respiratory failure
II. Chronic bronchitis
- Mucosa of the lower respiratory
passages becomes severely inflamed
- Excessive mucus production impairs
ventilation and gas exchange
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- Patients become cyanotic and are
sometimes called “blue bloaters” as a
result of chronic hypoxia and carbon
dioxide retention
III. Emphysema
 Alveoli walls are destroyed; remaining
alveoli enlarge
 Chronic inflammation promotes lung
fibrosis, and lungs lose elasticity
 Patients use a large amount of energy
to exhale; some air remains in the
lungs
 Sufferers are often called “pink
puffers” because oxygen exchange is
efficient
 Overinflation of the lungs leads to a
permanently expanded barrel chest
 Cyanosis appears late in the disease
IV. Lung cancer
 It is the leading cause of cancer death for
men and women. Nearly 90 percent of
cases result from smoking. It is an
aggressive cancer that metastasizes
rapidly
 Three Common Types
- Adenocarcinoma
- Squamous cell carcinoma
- Small cell carcinoma
Developmental Aspects of the Respiratory
System
 Lungs do not fully inflate until 2 weeks
after birth. This change from
nonfunctional to functional respiration
depends on surfactant. Surfactant lowers
surface tension so the alveoli do not
collapse. Surfactant is formed late in
pregnancy, around 28 to 30 weeks
 Respiratory rate changes throughout life
a) Newborns: 40 to 80 respirations per
minute
b) Infants: 30 respirations per minute
c) Age 5: 25 respirations per minute
d) Adults: 12 to 18 respirations per
minute.

Rate often increases again in old age

 Asthma
 Chronically inflamed, hypersensitive
bronchiole passages
 Respond to irritants with dyspnea,
coughing, and wheezing
 Usually affects Youth and middle age
 Most respiratory system problems are a
result of external factors, such as
infections and substances that physically
block respiratory passageways

Effects of Aging
1. Elasticity of lungs decreases
2. Vital capacity decreases
3. Blood oxygen levels decrease
4. Stimulating effects of carbon dioxide
decrease
5. Elderly are often hypoxic and exhibit
sleep apnea
6. More risks of respiratory tract infection

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Lymphatic System and Body Defenses
Functions:
 Transports escaped fluids from the
cardiovascular system back to the
blood.
 Plays essential roles in body defense
and resistance to disease.
Recall that the hydrostatic and osmotic
pressures operating at the capillary beds
force fluid out of the blood at the arterial
ends of the beds (“upstream”) and cause
most of the expelled fluid to be reabsorbed at
the venous ends (“downstream”).
Two Semi-Independent parts:
1. Lymphatic vessels
2. Lymphoid tissues and organs
Lymphatic vessels (Lymphatics)
 Lymph consists of excess tissue fluid
and plasma proteins carried by
lymphatic vessels
 If fluids are not picked up, edema
occurs as fluid accumulates in tissues
 Lymphatic vessels (lymphatics) pick up
excess fluid (lymph) and return it to
the blood
 Form a one-way system
 Lymph flows only toward the heart
 Similar to veins of the cardiovascular
system:
o Thin-walled
o Larger vessels have valves
o Low-pressure, pumpless
system
 Lymph transport is aided by:
o Milking action of skeletal
muscles
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o Pressure changes in thorax
during breathing
o Smooth muscle in walls of
lymphatic
Lymph capillaries
 Weave between tissue cells and blood
capillaries
 Walls overlap to form flaplike mini valves
 Fluid leaks into lymph capillaries
 Capillaries are anchored to connective
tissue by filaments
 Higher pressure on the inside closes mini
valves
 Fluid is forced along the vessel
This is very similar to the way that valves in
veins work to ensure blood returns to the
heart, despite being under low pressure.
Lymphatic Collecting Vessels
 Collect lymph from lymph capillaries
 Carry lymph to and away from lymph
nodes
 Return fluid to circulatory veins near
the heart
 Right lymphatic duct drains the lymph
from the right arm and the right side
of the head and thorax
 Thoracic duct drains lymph from rest
of body
Lymph nodes
 Lymph nodes filter lymph before it is
returned to the blood
 Harmful materials that are filtered:
o Bacteria
o Viruses
o Cancer cells
o Cell debris
Defense cells within lymph nodes o Tonsils
1. Macrophages – engulf and destroy o Peyer’s patches
bacteria, viruses, and other foreign o Appendix
substances in lymph
2. Lymphocytes – respond to foreign
substances in lymph

 Most lymph nodes are kidney-shaped,

less than 1 inch long, and buried in
connective tissue:
o Surrounded by a capsule
o Divided into compartments by
trabeculae

Cortex (outer part)

 Contains follicles—collections of Spleen
lymphocytes  Located on the left side of the
 Germinal centers enlarge when abdomen
antibodies are released by plasma cells  Filters and cleans blood of bacteria,
viruses, debris
 Provides a site for lymphocyte
Medulla (inner part)
proliferation and immune surveillance
 Contains phagocytic macrophages
 Destroys worn-out blood cells
 Forms blood cells in the fetus
Flow of Lymph through Nodes
 Acts as a blood reservoir
1. Lymph enters the convex side through
afferent lymphatic vessels
Thymus
2. Lymph flows through a number of
 Found overlying the heart
sinuses inside the node
 Functions at peak levels only during
3. Lymph exits through efferent
youth
lymphatic vessels
4. Because there are fewer efferent than
Tonsils
afferent vessels, flow is slowed
 Small masses of lymphoid tissue deep
to the mucosa surrounding the
Lymphatic tissues and organs
pharynx (throat)
 Other lymphoid organs  Trap and remove bacteria and other
Several other lymphoid organs contribute to
foreign pathogens
lymphatic function (in addition to the lymph  Tonsillitis results when the tonsils
nodes)
become congested with bacteria
o Spleen
o Thymus

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Peyer’s patches
 Found in the wall of the small
intestine
 Similar lymphoid follicles are found in
the appendix
 Macrophages capture and destroy
bacteria in the intestine

Mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue (MALT)

 Includes: Peyer’s patches, Tonsils and
Appendix
 Acts as a sentinel to protect respiratory
and digestive tracts

Body Defenses
Two mechanisms that make up the immune
system to defend us from foreign materials
1. Innate (nonspecific) Defense System
 Mechanisms protect against a variety
2. Adaptive (specific) Defense System
of invaders
 Fights invaders that get past the
 Responds immediately to protect
innate system
body from foreign materials
 Specific defense is required for each
 Mechanical barriers to pathogens
type of invader
(harmful or disease-causing
 The highly specific resistance to
microorganisms) and include:
disease is immunity
o Body surface coverings
o Intact skin
 Immunity - specific resistance to
o Mucous membranes
disease
o Specialized human cells
 Immune system - is a functional
o Chemicals produced by the
system rather than an organ system in
body
an anatomical sense

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 The Immune System Phagocytes
 Cells such as neutrophils and
Innate Defense Mechanism Adaptive DM macrophages engulf foreign
material by phagocytosis
First line of Second line of Third line of
 The phagocytic vesicle is fused
Defense Defense Defense
with a lysosome, and enzymes
 Skin  Phagocytic cells  Lymphocytes
digest the cell’s contents
 Mucous  Natural Killer  Antibodies
membranes Cells  Macrophages
 Secretions  Antimicrobial and other Inflammatory response
of skin and proteins antigen
 Triggered when body tissues are
mucous  The presenting
membranes inflammatory cells injured
response  Four most common indicators
 Fever
(cardinal signs) of acute inflammation
o Redness
Surface membrane barriers
o Heat
 Such as the skin and mucous membranes,
o Pain
provide the first line of defense against
o Swelling (edema)
the invasion of microorganisms
 Damaged cells release inflammatory
 Protective secretions produced by these
chemicals
membranes:
o Histamine
– Acidic skin secretions inhibit
o Kinin
bacterial growth
 These chemicals cause:
– Sebum is toxic to bacteria
o Blood vessels to dilate
– Mucus traps microorganisms
o Capillaries to become leaky
– Gastric juices are acidic and kill
o Phagocytes and white blood
pathogens
cells to move into the area
– Saliva and tears contain lysozyme
(called positive chemotaxis)
(enzyme that destroys bacteria)
Function
 Prevents spread of damaging agents
Internal defenses: cells and chemicals
 Disposes of cell debris and pathogens
 Cells and chemicals provide a second
through phagocytosis
line of defense
 Sets the stage for repair

Natural Killer cells and Phagocytes

Process
NK cells
 Neutrophils migrate to the area of
 Lyse (burst) and kill cancer cells, virus-
inflammation by rolling along the
infected cells
vessel wall (following the scent of
 Release chemicals called perforin and
chemicals from inflammation)
granzymes to degrade target cell
contents

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  Neutrophils squeeze through the
capillary walls by diapedesis to sites of
inflammation
 Neutrophils gather in the precise site
of tissue injury (positive chemotaxis)
and consume any foreign material
present
Antimicrobial Proteins
 Enhance innate defenses by:
o Attacking microorganisms directly
o Hindering reproduction of
microorganisms
 Most important types
o Complement proteins
o Interferon
 Antimicrobial proteins: complement
proteins
o Complement refers to a group of
at least 20 plasma proteins that
circulate in the plasma
o Complement is activated when
these plasma proteins encounter
and attach to cells (known as
complement fixation)
 Membrane attack complexes (MACs), one
result of complement fixation, produce
holes or pores in cells
o Pores allow water to rush into the
cell
o Cell bursts (lyses)
 Activated complement enhances the
inflammatory response
 Antimicrobial proteins: interferons
o Interferons are small proteins
secreted by virus-infected cells
o Interferons bind to membrane
receptors on healthy cell surfaces
to interfere with the ability of
viruses to multiply
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Fever
 Abnormally high body temperature is a
systemic response to invasion by
microorganisms
 Hypothalamus regulates body
temperature at 37ºC (98.6ºF)
 The hypothalamus thermostat can be
reset higher by pyrogens (secreted by
white blood cells)
 High temperatures inhibit the release of
iron and zinc (needed by bacteria) from
the liver and spleen
 Fever also increases the speed of repair
processes
Adaptive Body Defenses
 Adaptive body defenses are the body’s
specific defense system, or the third line
of defense
 Immune response is the immune
system’s response to a threat
 Antigens are targeted and
destroyed by antibodies
Three aspects of adaptive defense
1. Antigen specific
 the adaptive defense system recognizes
and acts against particular foreign
substances
ANTIGENS
 are any substance capable of exciting the
immune system and provoking an
immune response
 Examples of common nonself antigens
 Foreign proteins provoke the
strongest response
 Nucleic acids
 Large carbohydrates

Some lipids

Pollen grains
Microorganisms (bacteria, fungi,
viruses)
 Self-Antigens
 Human cells have many protein
and carbohydrate molecules
 Self-antigens do not trigger an
immune response in us
 The presence of our cells in
another person’s body can trigger
an immune response because
they are foreign
 Restricts donors for
transplants
 Haptens
 incomplete antigens, are not
antigenic by themselves
 When they link up with
our own proteins, the
immune system may
recognize the combination
as foreign and respond
with an attack
 Found in poison ivy,
animal dander,
detergents, hair dyes,
cosmetics
 SYSTEMIC
o immunity is not restricted to the
initial infection site
 MEMORY
o the adaptive defense system
recognizes and mounts a stronger
attack on previously encountered
pathogens
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Two arms of the Adaptive Defense System
1. Humoral Immunity = antibody-
mediated immunity
 Provided by antibodies present in body
fluids
2. Cellular Immunity = cell- mediated
immunity
 Targets virus-infected cells, cancer
cells, and cells of foreign grafts
Cells of the Adaptive Defense System: An
overview
Crucial cells of the adaptive system
1. Lymphocytes
 Respond to specific antigens
 B lymphocytes (B cells) produce
antibodies and oversee humoral
immunity
 T lymphocytes (T cells) constitute the
cell-mediated arm of the adaptive
defenses; do not make antibodies
 T cells develop immunocompetence in
the thymus and oversee cell-mediated
immunity
o Identify foreign antigens
o Those that bind self-antigens
are destroyed
o Self-tolerance is important
part of lymphocyte
“education”
 B cells develop immunocompetence
in bone marrow and provide humoral
immunity
 Immunocompetent T and B
lymphocytes migrate to the lymph
nodes and spleen, where encounters
with antigens occur
 Differentiation from naïve cells into
mature lymphocytes is complete
 when they bind with recognized
antigens
 Mature lymphocytes (especially T
cells) circulate continuously
throughout the body
 Arise from hemocytoblasts of bone
marrow
 Whether a lymphocyte matures into a
B cell or T cell depends on where it
becomes immunocompetent
Immunocompetence - The capability to
respond to a specific antigen by binding
to it with antigenspecific receptors that
appear on the lymphocyte’s surface
2. Antigen-presenting cells (apcs)
 help the lymphocytes but do not
respond to specific antigens
 Engulf antigens and then present
fragments of them on their own
surfaces, where they can be
recognized by T cells
 Major types of cells behaving as APCs
 Dendritic cells
 Macrophages
 B lymphocytes
 When they present antigens, dendritic
cells and macrophages activate T cells,
which release chemicals
Humoral Immune Response
 B lymphocytes with specific receptors
bind to a specific antigen
 The binding event sensitizes, or
activates, the lymphocyte to undergo
clonal selection
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 A large number of clones is produced
(primary humoral response)
 Most of the B cell clone members
(descendants) become plasma cells
o Produce antibodies to destroy
antigens
o Activity lasts for 4 or 5 days
o Plasma cells begin to die
 Some B cells become long-lived
memory cells capable of mounting a
rapid attack against the same antigen
in subsequent meetings (secondary
humoral response)
o These cells provide
immunological memory
Active Immunity
 Occurs when B cells encounter
antigens and produce antibodies
 Active immunity can be:
– Naturally acquired during
bacterial and viral infections
– Artificially acquired from
vaccines
Passive Immunity
 Occurs when antibodies are obtained
from someone else
 – Naturally acquired from a o Variable regions form
mother to her fetus or in the antigen-binding sites, one on
breast milk each arm of the T or Y
– Artificially acquired from o Constant regions determine
immune serum or gamma the type of antibody formed
globulin (donated antibodies) (antibody class)
 Immunological memory does not
occur
 Protection is short-lived (2–3 weeks)
 Monoclonal antibodies
– Antibodies prepared for clinical
testing for diagnostic services
– Produced from descendants of
a single cell line
– Exhibit specificity for only one
antigen
– Examples of uses for
monoclonal antibodies:
 Cancer treatment Antibody Classes
 Diagnosis of pregnancy  Antibodies of each class have slightly
 Treatment after exposure different roles and differ structurally
to hepatitis and rabies and functionally
 Five major immunoglobulin classes
Antibodies (Immunoglobulins, IGS) (MADGE)
 Constitute gamma globulin part of 1. IgM—can fix complement
blood proteins 2. IgA—found mainly in secretions, such as
 Soluble proteins secreted by activated mucus or tears
B cells (plasma cells) 3. IgD—important in activation of B cell
 Formed in response to a huge number 4. IgG—can cross the placental barrier and
of antigens fix complement; most abundant
antibody in plasma
Structure 5. IgE—involved in allergies
 Four polypeptide chains, two heavy
and two light, linked by disulfide
bonds to form a T- or Y-shaped
molecule
 Each polypeptide chain has a variable
(V) region and a constant (C) region

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Antibody Function
 Antibodies inactivate antigens in a
number of ways:
– Complement fixation: chief
antibody ammunition used
against cellular antigens
– Neutralization: antibodies bind to
specific sites on bacterial
exotoxins or on viruses that can
cause cell injury
– Agglutination: antibody-antigen
reaction that causes clumping of
cells
– Precipitation: cross-linking
reaction in which antigen-
antibody complex settles out of
solution
Cellular Immune Response (cell-mediated)
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Main difference between two arms of the
adaptive response:
 B cells secrete antibodies
 T cells fight antigens directly
 Like B cells, immunocompetent T cells are
activated to form a clone by binding with
a recognized antigen
 Unlike B cells, T cells are unable to bind to
free antigens
- Antigens must be presented by a
macrophage, and double recognition
must occur
- APC engulfs and presents the
processed antigen in combination
with a protein from the APC
Different classes of Effector T Cells
1. Helper T cells
 Recruit other cells to fight
invaders
 Interact directly with B cells
bound to an antigen, prodding the
B cells into clone production
 Release cytokines, chemicals that
act directly to rid the body of
antigens
2. Cytotoxic (killer) T cells
 Specialize in killing infected cells
 Insert a toxic chemical (perforin or
granzyme)
 The perforin enters the foreign
cell’s plasma membrane
 Pores now appear in the target
cell’s membrane
 Granzymes (protein-digesting
enzymes) enter and kill the
foreign cell
  Cytotoxic T cell detaches and
seeks other targets
3. Regulatory T cells
 Release chemicals to suppress the
activity of T and B cells
 Stop the immune response to
prevent uncontrolled activity
 A few members of each clone are
memory cells
T cells must recognize nonself and self through
the process of antigen presentation
• Nonself—the antigen fragment
presented by APC
• Self—coupling with a specific
glycoprotein on the APC’s surface at the
same time
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Organ Transplants and Rejection
• Blood group and tissue matching is
done to ensure the best match possible
o 75% match is needed to
attempt a graft
• Organ transplant is followed by
immunosuppressive therapy to prevent
rejection
Major Types of Transplants or Grafts
• Autografts—tissue transplanted from
one site to another on the same person
• Isografts—tissue grafts from a
genetically identical person (identical
twin)
• Allografts—tissue taken from a person
other than an identical twin (most
common type of graft)
• Xenografts—tissue taken from a
different animal species (never
successful)
Disorders of Immunity
The most important disorders of the immune
system
1. Allergies
– Allergies, or hypersensitivities, are
abnormal, vigorous immune responses
 – The immune system overreacts to an
otherwise harmless antigen, and tissue
damage occurs
Types of Allergies
1. Immediate (Acute) Hypersensitivity
• Seen in hives and anaphylaxis
• Due to IgE antibodies and
histamine
• Anaphylactic shock is systemic,
acute allergic response and is rare
2. Delayed Hypersensitivity
• Reflects activity of T cells,
macrophages, and cytokines
• Symptoms usually appear 1–3 days
after contact with antigen
• Allergic contact dermatitis (poison
ivy, cosmetics)
2. Autoimmune diseases
 Occurs when the body’s self-tolerance
breaks down
 The body produces auto-antibodies and
sensitized T lymphocytes that attack its
own tissues
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 Most forms of autoimmune disease
result from the appearance of formerly
hidden self antigens or changes in the
structure of self-antigens, and antibodies
formed against foreign antigens that
resemble self-antigens
 Examples of autoimmune diseases:
– Rheumatoid arthritis—destroys
joints
– Myasthenia gravis—impairs
communication between nerves and
skeletal muscles
– Multiple sclerosis—white matter of
brain and spinal cord is destroyed
– Graves’ disease—thyroid gland
produces excess thyroxine
– Type I diabetes mellitus—destroys
pancreatic beta cells, resulting in
deficient insulin production
– Systemic lupus erythematosus
(SLE)—affects kidney, heart, lung,
and skin
– Glomerulonephritis—severe
impairment of kidney function due
to acute inflammation
3. Immunodeficiencies
 May be congenital or acquired
o Severe combined
immunodeficiency disease
(SCID) is a congenital disease
o AIDS (acquired immune
deficiency syndrome) is caused
by a virus that attacks and
cripples the helper T cells
 Result from abnormalities in any
immune element
 Production or function of immune cells
or complement is abnormal
Developmental Aspects of the Lymphatic
System and Body Defenses
• Lymphatic vessels form by budding off
from veins
• Lymph nodes present by fifth week of
development
• The thymus and the spleen are the first
lymphoid organs to appear in the
embryo
• Other lymphoid organs are poorly
developed before birth
• The immune response develops around
the time of birth
• The ability of immunocompetent cells
to recognize foreign antigens is
genetically determined
• Stress appears to interfere with normal
immune response
• Efficiency of immune response wanes in
old age, and infections, cancer,
immunodeficiencies, and autoimmune
diseases become more prevalent

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MUSCULAR SYSTEM IMPORTANCE OF CONNECTIVE TISSUE:
 Muscles are responsible for all types of  Help support & bind muscle fibers
body movement – they contract or shorten  Increase muscle strength
 “machines” of the body  Provides a route (entry & exit)
 nerves & blood vessels
Terminologies:
 sarco - flesh CONNECTIVE TISSUE WRAPPINGS OF
 myo - muscle SKELETAL MUSCLE:
 my/s – muscle Endomysium – around single muscle fiber
 endo – within/inner  Perimysium – around a fascicle (bundle)
 peri – around of fibers
 epi – on, above, upon  Epimysium – covers the entire skeletal
muscle
3 Muscle Types  Fascia – on the outside of the epimysium
 Differ in their cell structure, body location,
& how they are stimulated to contract.
 Skeletal & smooth muscle cells are
elongated. For these reasons these type of
muscle cells (but not cardiac) is called
muscle fibers.

1. Skeletal Muscle
CHARACTERISTICS:
• Most are attached by tendons to bones
• Cells are multinucleate
• Striated – have visible banding
• Voluntary – subject to conscious control
• Reflexes - without command
• Cells are surrounded and bundled by
connective tissue

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SKELETAL MUSCLES ATTACHEMENTS: 3. Cardiac Muscle
 Epimysia - blends into a connective tissue CHARACTERSITICS:
attachment  Has striations
1. TenDon- cord-like structure  Single nucleus
(collagen fibers)  Branching cells joined by special
2. Aponeuroses- sheet-like structure junctions called intercalated discs
 Site of Muscle Attachment  Involuntary
1. Bones  Arranged in spiral figure 8-shaped
2. Cartilages bundles
3. Connective tissue coverings  Closely coordinated contraction & steady
pace

2. Smooth Muscle
CHARACTERISTICS:
 No striations
 Spindle-shaped cells FUNCTIONS OF THE MUSCLE:
 Single nucleus  Produce movement
 Involuntary  Maintain posture
 Mainly in the walls of hollow visceral  Stabilize joints
organs  Generate heat
 Contraction - slow, sustained and tireless
MICROSCOPIC ANATOMY OF SKELETAL
MUSCLE
 Multiple nucleus beneath the
sarcolemma
Sarcolemma
 specialized plasma membrane of the
muscle fiber
 “muscle husk”

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Myofibril
 Complex organelle composed of
bundles of myofilaments
 Myofibrils are aligned to give distinct
bands:
 I band = light band
 A band = dark band
Sarcomere
– Muscle segment; region of a myofibril
between 2 successive Z discs
– Contractile unit of a muscle fiber
ORGANIZATION OF SACOMERE:
 Thick filaments = myosin filaments
 Composed of the protein myosin
 Has ATPase enzymes – split ATP to
generate power for contraction
 Thin filaments = actin filaments
 Composed of the protein actin +
regulatory binding protein
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Myofilaments
– Actin & myosin containing structure
– Thick filaments
– composed of protein myosin
– Has ATPase enzymes – split ATP to
generate power for contraction
Myosin filament heads
– Projection or cross bridges
MECHANISM OF MUSCLE CONTRACTION:
The Sliding Theory
▪ Activation by nerve causes myosin heads
(cross bridges) to attach to binding sites
of the thin filament
▪ Myosin heads then bind to the next site of
the thin filament
▪ This continued action causes a sliding of
the myosin along the actin
▪ The result is that the muscle is shortened
(contracted)
MUSCLE CONTRACTIONS
CROSS BRIDGE CYCLE
SacroPlasmic Reticulum (SR)
– specialized smooth ER
– store calcium; release it on demand
when the muscle fiber is stimulated to
contract
– important muscle fiber
Nerve Stimulus to Muscles
Motor Unit
• One neuron & the entire muscle cell
it stimulates
Skeletal Muscles
 Must be stimulated by a nerve cell
(motor neuron) to contract
Axon – long threadlike extension of neuron;
nerve fiber
Axon terminals – branching
Neuromuscular Junctions
 Association site of nerve and muscle
 Contain vesicles filled with chemical
referred to as a neurotransmitter
Acetylcholine (ACh) – specific
neurotransmitter that stimulates skeletal
muscle cells
Synaptic Cleft
 gap between nerve & muscle
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 filled with interstitial fluid
 nerve & muscle do not make contact
EVENTS AT NEUROMUSCULAR JUNCTION
ALS- AmytroPhic Lateral Sclerosis
– Lou Gehrig’s disease
– Motor neuron degenerate over time,
resulting in paralysis that gradually
worsens
– Stephen Hawking
– Cause is unknown
– Command characteristics:
 Malfunctioning mitochondria
 Inflammation
 Generation of free radicals that
damage DNA and tissue much like
intense UV light
– 3-5 years because breathing muscles will
eventually be affected, resulting in
suffocation
Botox for Spasticity- Cerebral Palsy
– Uses various forms of botulinum toxin to
temporarily paralyze muscle activity
– Botulinum toxin
 cosmetics and therapeutic
reasons
 Affect the body at the
neuromuscular junctions called
synapses
– Prevents the release of the chemical
acetylcholine
– Can be injected but not ingested
– Related uncontrolled movements:
 Hypochondriasis
 Migraines
 Cerebral Palsy
PROPERTIES OF SKELETAL MUSCLE ACTIVITY
(SINGLE CELL OR FIBERS)
 Contractility – ability to shorten when an
adequate stimulus is received
 Excitability (irritability)– ability to
receive and respond to a stimulus
 Extensibility – ability to be stretched
  Elasticity – ability to recoil and
resume resting length after
stretched
CONTRACTION OF A SKELETAL MUSCLE
 Muscle fiber contraction is “all or
none”
– a muscle cell will contract to its
fullest extent when it is stimulated
adequately; it never partially
contracts
 Graded responses
– different degrees of skeletal muscle
shortening
– By changing the frequency of muscle
stimulation
– By changing the number of muscle
cells being stimulated
MUSCLE RESPONSE TO INCREASINGLY RAPID
STIMULATION
• Twitch - single, brief, jerky contractions
• Tetanic Contraction
– Muscles are stimulated so rapidly that
no evidence of relaxation is seen
– Completely smooth contractions &
sustained
 Lockjaw – caused by toxin made by
bacteria; causes muscles to go into
uncontrollable spasms, finally causing
respiratory arrest
ENERGY FOR MUSCLE CONTRACTION
Muscles used stored ATP for energy
 Bonds of ATP are broken to release
energy
 Only 4-6 seconds worth of ATP is stored
by muscles
 After this initial time, other pathways
must be utilized to produce ATP
PATHWAYS FOR ATP REGENERATION:
DIRECT PHOSPHORYLATION
– Muscle cells contain creatine phosphate
(CP)
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 CP is a high-energy molecule
– After ATP is depleted, ADP is left
– CP transfers energy to ADP, to regenerate
ATP
– CP supplies are exhausted in < 15 sec
AEROBIC RESPIRATION PATHWAY
– Supplies ATP at rest & during light /
moderate exercise
– Series of metabolic pathways that occur
in the mitochondria
– Glucose is broken down to Carbon dioxide
and water, releasing energy (32-36 ATP)
– This is a slower reaction that requires
continuous oxygen
ANAEROBIC GLYCOLISIS AND LACTIC ACID
FORMATION:
– Reaction that breaks down glucose
without oxygen
– Glucose is broken down to pyruvic acid to
produce about 2 ATP
– Pyruvic acid is converted to lactic acid
– This reaction is not as efficient, but is fast
 Huge amounts of glucose are
needed
 Lactic acid produces muscle
fatigue (sore muscles)
MUSCLE FATIGUE AND OXYGEN
DEBT/DEFICIT
Oxygen – get rid of lactic acid Fatigued
Muscles – unable to contract
 When a muscle is fatigued, it is unable
to contract
 The common reason for muscle
fatigue is oxygen debt
 Oxygen must be “repaid” to
tissue to remove oxygen debt
 Oxygen is required to get rid
of accumulated lactic acid
 Increasing acidity (from lactic acid) and
lack of ATP causes the muscle to contract
less
TYPES OF MUSCLE CONTRACTIONS:
Istonic Contractions
• Myofilaments are able to slide past
each other during contractions
• The muscle shortens, movement
occurs
Isometric Contactions
• Muscle filaments are trying to slide,
but the muscle is pitted against an
immovable object
• Tension in the muscles increases, but
do not shorten.
Muscle Tone
• State of continuous partial contractions
• Some fibers are contracted even in a
relaxed muscle
• Result of different motor units being
stimulated in a systemic way
• Muscle remains firm, healthy, and
constantly ready for action
EFFECTS OF EXERCISE ON THE MUSCLE
 Results of increased muscle use
 Increase in muscle size
 Increase in muscle strength
 Increase in muscle efficiency
 Muscle becomes more fatigue
resistant
MUSCLES AND BODY MOVEMENTS
 Movement is attained due to a muscle
moving an attached bone
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 Muscles are attached to at least two
points:
1. Origin – attachment to an
immovable bone
2. Insertion – attachment to a
movable bone
TYPES OF ORDINARY BODY MOVEMENTS:
1. Flexion – decreases angle of joint and
brings two bones closer together
2. Extension - opposite of flexion
3. Rotation - movement of a bone in
longitudinal axis (shaking head “no”)
4. Abduction – moving limb away from the
midline or median plane; fanning
movement of the fingers or toes when
they are spread apart
5. Adduction – opposite of abduction;
movement of limb toward the body
midline
6. Circumduction – combination of flexion,
extension abduction and adduction;
commonly seen in ball-and-socket joints
such as the shoulder
TYPES OF MUSCLES
• Prime mover – muscle with the major
responsibility for producing a certain
movement
 • Antagonist – muscle that opposes or
reverses a prime mover
• Synergist – muscle that aids the action of
the prime mover or by reducing
undesirable movements (syn=together,
erg=work)
 When a prime mover is active, its
antagonist is stretched and relaxed.
 Fixators (specialized synergists) - hold a
bone still or stabilizes the origin of a
prime mover
NAMING OF SKELETAL MUSCLE:
DIRECTION OF MUSCLE FIBERS
 named in reference to some
imaginary line; usually the midline of
the body or the long axis of a limb
bone
 Example: rectus (straight);
transversus
RELATIVE SIZE OF MUSCLE
 such terms as maximus, minimus, and
longus
 Example: gluteus maximus – largest
muscle of the gluteus muscle group
maximus – largest; minimus – smallest;
longus – longest pectoralis major
LOCATION OF THE MUSCLE
 Named for the bone with which they are
associated.
 Example: frontalis, temporalis, occipitalis
pectoralis major, transversus abdominis,
external intercostals
NUMBER OF ORIGINS
 Example: triceps (three heads), biceps
brachii, quadriceps
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LOCATION OF THE MUSCLE’S ORIGIN AND
INSERTION
 Named for their attachment sites
 Example: sterno (on the sternum),
sternocleidomastoid, biceps brachii,
pectoralis major, clavicle (cleido), mastoid
SHAPE OF THE MUSCLE
 Named for their distinct shapes
 Example: deltoid (triangular)
ACTION OF THE MUSCLE
 Named for their action
 Example: flexor and extensor (flexes or
extends a bone), adductor muscles of the
thigh all bring about its adduction
ARRAGEMENT OF ITS FASCICLES
 circular - concentric rings; close by
contracting; sphincters (orbicularis
muscles)
 convergent - converge toward a single
insertion tendon; triangular or fan-
shaped (pectoralis major)
 parallel - parallel to the long axis of the
muscle; straplike.
 fusiform - spindle-shaped with an
expanded belly (biceps brachii)
 pennate - (“feather”); a short fascicle
attaches obliquely to a central tendon
HEAD AND NECK MUSCLES
2 CATEGORIES OF HEAD AND MUSCLES
1. FACIAL- inserted into soft tissue;
muscle or skin
 Frontalis. raise eyebrows; wrinkle
forehead
 Occipitallis. pulls scalp posteriorly
 Orbicularis Oculi. close eyes, squint,
blink, wink.
 Orbicularis Oris. closes mouth;
protrudes lips (kiss)
 Buccinator. flattens the cheek; whistle
 Zygomaticus. raises corners of the
mouth upward; grin
 2. CHEWING- break down food in the body
- Paired except:
 platysma, orbicularis oris, frontalis,
occipitalis
– Buccinator. chewing muscle
– Masseter. covers angle of
lower jaw; elevate mandible
– Temporalis. synergist of
masseter in closing the jaw
1. Platysma- pull the corners of the
mouth inferiorly (“sad clown” face);
tenses neck
2. Sternocleidomastoid- both muscles
contract – neck flexion; “prayer”
muscles
3. Torticollis- twisting of the neck in
one side
TRUNK MUSCLE
1. Anterior Muscle
 Pectoralis Major
– forms anterior wall of the axilla
– adduct & flex arm
2. Intercostal Muscle
– Deep muscles found between the
ribs.
 Vertebral column
 Anterior thorax muscles
 Muscles of the abdominal wall
3. External Intercostal Muscle
- small muscles between the ribs;
synergist of diaphragm
 Diaphragm- acts with external
intercostal to accomplish
inspiration
MUSCLES OF THE ABDOMINAL GIRDLE
1. Rectus Abdominis
 Pubis to rib cage
 Flex vertebral column
 Compress the abdominal contents
(defecation; childbirth)
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 Involved in forced breathing
2. External Oblique
 8th rib to ilium
 flex the vertebral column
 rotate trunk and bend it laterally
3. Internal Oblique
– Iliac crest to last three ribs
4. Transversus Abdominis
– from lower ribs & iliac crest to pubis
– compresses abdominal contents
DEEP TRUNK MUSCLE
A. POSTERIOR MUSCLES
 Trapezius
– extend the head
– elevate, depress, adduct, & stabilize
scapula
 Latissimus dorsi
– Pulling arm posteriorly
– extends & adducts humerus power
stroke (swimming)
 Erector spinae
– composite muscle – 3 muscle
columns (longissimus, iliocostalis,
and spinalis)
– Head & back extension (prime
mover)
– control the action of bending over
at the waist
– common source of lower back pain
 Quadratus Lumborum
– iliac crest to upper lumbar vertebrae
– (1) flexes the spine laterally
– Both - extend the lumbar spine
ARM MUSCLE
1. Deltoid
– winds across the shoulder girdle from
spine of the scapula to the clavicle;
inserts to proximal humerus
– Arm abduction (prime movers)
UPPER LIMB MUSCLE III. Quadriceps Group
1. Biceps Brachii – As a whole act to extend the knee
– bulges when elbow is flexed powerfully (kicking a football.)
– lifts radius – Rectus femoris - extends knee; flex
– Forearm flexion (prime mover); thigh at hip
supinate the forearm – Insertion: patella; tibial tuberosity
– vastus lateralis & rectus – IM (infants)
2. Brachials
– lifts ulna IV. Adductor Group (Groin Muscle)
– elbow flexion – adduct thigh

3. Brachiordialis MUSCLE CAUSING MOVEMENT AT TH ANKLE

– Weak muscle from humerus to AND FOOT
distal forearm 1. Tibialis Anterior
 Ankle dorsiflexion (prime mover)
4. Triceps Brachii
– Posterior humerus 2. Tibialis Posterior
– Elbow extension (prime mover)  Foot inversion (prime mover)
– “boxer’s” muscle
3. Extensor Digitorum Longus
MUSCLE CAUSING MOVEMENT AT HIP JOINT  Toe extension (prime mover)
1. Gluteus Maximus
– climbing stairs, jumping 4. Fiburalis (Peroneus) Muscle (Longus,
– Hip extensor Brevis, & Tertius)
 plantar flexes & everts the foot
2. Gluteus Medius
– IM injections 5. Gastrocnemius
– hip abductor; stabilizes pelvis  “toe dancer’s” muscle
(walking)  Ankle plantar flexion (prime mover)

3. Iliopsoas 6. Soleus
– fused muscle  arises on the tibia & fibula = does not
– Hip flexion (prime mover) affect knee movement
– Keep body from falling backward  strong plantar flexor

MUSCLE CAUSING MOVEMENT AT THE KNEE DEVELOPMENTAL ASPECT

JOINT  Mid adolescence – Developed Muscle
I. Hamstring Group  16th Week of Pregnancy - Movements
– Thigh extension & knee flexion (prime of the Fetus
movers)  After Birth- Gross Reflex
– (Biceps femoris, semimembranosus,  Cephalic/Caudal Direction
semitendinosus)  Proximal /Distal Direction

II. Sartious
– “tailor’s” muscle
– weak thigh flexor

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DISORDERS
1. Muscular Dystrophy: inherited, muscle
enlarge due to increased fat and
connective tissue, but fibers degenerate
and atrophy
2. Duchenne’s MD: lacking a protein to
maintain the sarcolemma
3. Myasthenia Gravis: progressive
weakness due to a shortage of
acetylcholine receptors

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