Anatomy and Physiology Systemic physiology considers the functions

of organ systems.
Anatomy is the study of body structure.
Physiology is the science of body
Functions.
Anatomy
- examines the relationship between
the structure of a body part and its
function.
Developmental Anatomy
- structural changes that occur
between conception and adulthood.
Neurophysiology focuses on the nervous
system.
Cardiovascular physiology deals with the
heart and blood vessels.
How does the study of anatomy
differ from the study of
physiology?
Why are anatomy and physiology
normally studied together?

Anatomy

Embryology
- subspecialty of developmental
anatomy
- changes from conception to the end
of the eighth week of development.
Cytology
- examines the structural features of
cells
Histology
- examines tissues
- composed of cells and the materials
surrounding them.
Gross Anatomy
- can be examined without the aid of a
- microscope, can be approached
either systemically or regionally.
System
- group of structures that have
one or more common functions

Surface Anatomy
- looking at the exterior of the body to
visualize structures deeper inside
the body

Anatomical imaging
- Uses radiographs (x-rays)
- ultrasound,magnetic resonance
imaging (MRI),
- other technologies to create Levels of Organization
pictures of internal structures (simplest-complex)

Physiology Atoms → Molecules → →Cells →Tissues

- scientific investigation of the
processes or functions of living
things.
Cell physiology examines the processes
occurring in cells.
→ Organs → Organ Systems → Organism
Did you know that you have more microbial
cells than human cells in
your body?
Major Organs of the Body - makes adjustments when the
environment changes and maintains
homeostasis
Normal Range
- indicates wherethe body can
function, or what is optimal set point
- value around which the range
fluctuates

How does a negative feedback loop

maintain homeostasis?

Sensors (receptors) detect conditions

within the body such as temperature,
information is relayed to the brain

Set point – the normal range that an

environmental parameter is to be controlled

How does a negative feedback loop

maintain homeostasis?
Characteristics of Life
Effectors – muscles or glands that
1. Movement- self initiated change
respond to deviation from the set point.
in position, motion of internal
parts.
Glands might initiate sweating to cool the
2. Responsiveness (irritability)
body back to its set point.
3. Growth
4. Reproduction
5. Respiration
6. Digestion
7. Development
8. Circulation
9. Assimilation
10. Excretion

Requirements of Human Life

Oxygen - required to make ATP, cell

energy
Positive feedback loops
Nutrients - water, food and vitamins
Positive feedback
Temperature - narrow range, body can - loops amplify or increase the
respond to changes in temperature occurrence of events.

Atmospheric Pressure - pressure

necessary for breathing

METABOLISM: All physical and chemical

changes occurring in an organism

HOMEOSTASIS: Tendency of the body to

maintain a stable, balanced internal
environment. Accomplished through self
regulating adjustments

Homeostasis and Feedback Loops

Two Basic Principles

1. Many disease states result from the

failure of negative-feedback
mechanisms to maintain homeostasis
and;
2. Some positive-feedback
mechanisms can be detrimental
instead of helpful.

Myths about drinking water.

1) Drinking 8 glasses a day is a must for

everyone.
2) Drinking a glass of water before taking a
bath helps lower blood pressure.
3) Being well hydrated will keep my face
from getting wrinkles.
4) Drink icy cold water will help with weight
loss.
5) Drinking a glass of water before bed
prevents heart attacks.
Medial means “toward the midline,”
and lateral means “away from the
midline.”
Superficial describes a structure
close to the surface of the body, and
deep is toward the interior of the
Body.

Body Parts and Regions

Terminology and the Body Plane

Anatomical Position
- body is erect and facing forward with
arms at the sides and palms forward.

Directional Terms

Proximal means “nearest,” whereas

distal means “distant.”
 General Organization of the Body

Axial Portion

- Head, neck, trunk

Sagittal Plane/ Lateral Plane A vertical

plane running from front to back; divides the
body or any of its parts into right and left
sides.

Median Plane a sagittal plane that

passes through the midline of the body,
dividing it into equal right and left halves.

Transverse (horizontal) Plane runs

parallel to the ground, dividing the body into
superior and inferior portions.

Frontal (coronal) Plane runs vertically to

divide the body into anterior (front) and
posterior (back) parts. Appendicular Portion

A cut through the length of the organ is a - Arms and legs

longitudinal section, and a cut at a right
angle to the length of an organ is a
transverse (cross) section.

CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

Cell Theory

- All living things are made up of cells.

 - Cells are the smallest working units
of all living things.
- All cells come from preexisting cells
through cell division.
-
Definition of Cell
Eukaryotic
A cell is the smallest unit that is capable of
performing life functions.

EXAMPLES OF CELLS
- Amoeba proteus

- Plant stem

Cell size is limited

- Bacteria The rate of diffusion is affected by a number

of variables, including

(1) surface area available for diffusion,

(2) temperature,
(3) concentration gradient of diffusing
substance, and
- Red blood cell (4) the distance over which diffusion must
occur.

● size of a cell increases

- Length of time for diffusion
on the outside membrane -
cell increases
- Nerve cell ● larger cells need to synthesize more
macromolecules
- Correspondingly higher
energy requirements
- Produce quantity of waste

SIZE OF LIVING THINGS

- 0.1 nm - atoms
- 1 nm - amino acids
Two Types of Cells - 10 nm proteins
- 100 nm - viruses
Prokaryotic - 1 nm - chloroplast
- 10 nm - plant and animals
 - 1 mm - frog egg - Bacteria
- 0.1 m mouse
- 1 m human
- 10 & 100 m - blue whale
- 1 km
5 Kingdom Classification of Organisms
BACTERIA (e.coli)
EUKARYOTA
Visible features: - Protista
- Cell wall (if stained) - Animalia
- Flagella (if stained) - Fungi
- -1-10pm - Plantae
PROKARYOTA/PROKARYOTIC
PROTIST (Amoeba) - Archaea
- Bacteria
Visible features:
- Nucleus
- Pesudopodia EUKARYOTIC
- Food vacuoles - Contain organelles surrounded by
- -50-500 um membranes
- Most living organisms
PLANT CELL (Leaf) - Cell that contain a nucleus.
- usually larger than the prokaryotic
Visible features: cells and found mainly in the
- Nucleus multicellular organisms.
- Chloroplasts - The organisms which have
- Cell wall prokaryotic cells are called
- -10-100 um eukaryotes.

ANIMAL CELL (cheek) CELL PARTS

Visible features: Organelles

- Nucleus - Organelles are structures that
enable the cell to live, grow and
- Mitochondria (only if stained)
reproduce.
- -10-50 um

SURROUNDING THE CELL

PROKARYOTIC

CELL MEMBRANE
- Prokaryotic cells have relatively
- Outer membrane of cell that
simple organization
controls movement in and out of
- Simplest organisms.
the cell
- Small.
- Double layer
- consist of cytoplasm
- Allows nutrients into the cell and
- surrounded by a plasma membrane
wastes outside of the cell
- encased within a rigid cell wall.
- Do not have a nucleus or membrane
enclosed organelles. CELL WALL
- One-celled or unicellular organism - Most commonly found
- The DNA in this cell is found in the in plant cells & bacteria
cytoplasm rather than in the nuclear - Supports & protects Cells
membrane.

TWO MAIN DOMAINS: INSIDE THE CELL

- Archaea
NUCLEUS
- Directs cell activities
- The control center of the cell
 - Separated from cytoplasm by
nuclear membrane
- Contains genetic material - DNA

NUCLEAR MEMBRANE
- Surrounds nucleus
- Made of two layers
- Openings allow material
to enter and leave
Nucleus
- double membrane
structure that separates
nucleus from cytoplasm.

CHROMOSOMES

- In nucleus
- Made of DNA
- Contain instructions for
traits & characteristics
- thread-like structures
located inside the
nucleus of animal and
plant cells.

NUCLEOLUS
- Inside nucleus
- Contains RNA to build proteins
- A spherical structure
found in the cell’s Nucleus
- primary function is to
produce and assemble
the cell’s ribosomes.

CYTOPLASM
- Gel-like mixture or a jelly-like
fluid contained in the cell that holds the - Digestive 'plant' for proteins, fats,
organelles. and carbohydrates
- Surrounded by cell membrane - Transports undigested material to
- Contains hereditary material cell membrane for removal
- Consists of cytosol and cellular - Cell breaks down if lysosome
organelles except for the cell explodes
Nucleus.
VACUOLES
ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM - Membrane-bound sacs for storage,
- Moves materials around in cell digestion, and waste removal
- Smooth type: lacks ribosomes - Contains water solution
- Rough type (pictured): ribosomes - Help plants maintain shape
embedded in surface
- Transportation system of cell
- Rough ER- ribosome's attached CHLOROPLAST
- Smooth ER- no ribosome’s
- produce proteins for the rest of the - Usually found in plant cells
cell to function. - Contains green chlorophyll
- Where photosynthesis takes place
RIBOSOMES
- Each cell contains thousands
- Make proteins
- Found on ribosomes & floating
throughout the cell
- intercellular structure made of both
RNA and protein
- intercellular structure made of both
RNA and protein
- site of protein synthesis in the cell.
- reads the messenger RNA (mRNA)
sequence and translates that genetic
code into a specified string of amino
acids

MITOCHONDRIA

- Produces energy through

- chemical reactions – breaking
down fats & carbohydrates
- Controls level of water and other
materials in cell
- Recycles and decomposes
proteins, fats, and carbohydrates
- membrane-bound cell organelles
(Mitochondrion, singular) that
generate most of the chemical
energy needed to power the cell's
biochemical reactions.
GOLGI BODIES
Tissues
Xavier Bichat - Considered as the "Father
of Histology". Plant histology is studied in
both plant anatomy and physiology.
HISTOLOGY - The field of study that
involves the microscopic examination of
tissue appearance, organization, and
function or, in connection with disease, as
histopathology.

- Protein 'packaging plant' History

- Move materials within the cell
The word "tissue" which derives from the
- Move materials out of the cell
French word "tissu", the past participle of
the verb tisser, "to weave".was
LYSOSOME
introduced into the study of anatomy by
1801 by Xavier Bichat, who was"the first to
propose that tissue is a central element Function
in human anatomy and o Movement
considered organs as collections of often o Locomotion
disparate tissues, rather than as entities in o Maintains Postures
themselves". o Produces Heat
o Facial Expression
Xavier Bichat also distinguished 21 types of
elementary tissues from which the organs of Types of Muscle Tissue
the human body are composed,a number
later reduced by other authors. Cardiac - Specialized, organized type of
tissue that only exists in the heart.
TISSUES - are group of cells that are - It is responsible for keeping the
similar in structure and perform a specific heart pumping and blood circulating
function. around the body.

Skeletal - A highly organized tissue

composed of bundles of muscle fibers
called myofibers which contain several
myofibrils. Each myofiber represents a
muscle cell with its basic cellular unit, the
sarcomere. Bundles of myofibers form
fascicles, and bundles of fascicles form
muscle tissue.

Smooth - consists of thick and thin

filaments that are not arranged into
sarcomeres giving it a non-striated pattern.
(Ex. Kidney filaments)

EPITHELIAL TISSUE - Referred to as

epithelium, refers to the sheets of cells that
cover exterior surfaces of the body, line
internal cavities and passageways, and
form certain glands.

o Protection from physical and

NERVOUS TISSUE - Is found in the brain, chemical injury.
spinal cord, and nerves. o Protection against microbial
invasion.
o responsible for coordinating and o Contains receptors which respond to
controlling many body activities. stimuli.
o Stimulates muscle contraction, o Filters,secretes and reabsorbs
o Creates an awareness of the material.
environment, o Sectrets serious fluids to lubricate
o Plays a major role in emotions, structures.
memory, and reasoning.

NERVOUS TISSUE CELLS

A. Neurons - are the cells responsible for
communication through electrical signals.
B. Glial Cells - are supporting cells,
maintaining the environment around the
neurons.

MUSCLE TISSUE - Is composed of cells

that have the special ability to shorten or
contract.
- Highly cellular and is well supplied
with blood vessels
CONNECTIVE TISSUE - Most abundant
and widely distributed tissue.
o Connects, binds and supports
structures
o Protects and cushions organs and
tissues
o Insulate (fat)
o Transports substances (blood)
a) Dense Connective Tissue – forms
strong, rope-like structures such as
tendons and ligaments.
b) Adipose Tissue – otherwise known
as body fat, it is a connective tissue
that extends throughout your body.
c) Areolar Tissue – A type of
connective tissue that is present
throughout the human body.
d) Compact Bone – provides
protection and strength to bones.
Consists of units called osteons or
Haversian systems.
e) Blood Connective Tissue –
consists of cells and cell fragments
(formed elements) suspended in an
intercellular matrix (plasma).
TISSUE REPAIR - Also called as “wound
healing”, is the process by which the skin, or
any injured organ, repairs itself after injury.
It prevents or limits further damage, to clean
and seal the wound against infection, to
restore tissue strength, and, if possible,
tissue function.
Wound healing is divided into four
overlapping states:
1) hemostasis - the initial response to the
maintenance of hemostasis is achieved by
clotting in any damaged regions of the
circulatory system. To prevent blood loss
and reduce the chance of infection
spreading throughout the body, circulation
platelets within the blood begin to form a
fibrin clot, which seals the wound site.
2) inflammation - the inflammatory
response clears the wound site of debris
and prevents infection. Immune cells, such
as neutrophils and macrophages, are
attracted by factors released from the
wound site and begin to accumulate,
travelling through the circulatory system.
These cells are responsible for the removal
of debris and killing of bacteria that easily
colonize the wound site, and prepare the
wound for the proliferative/remodeling
phase.
3) proliferation - during the proliferative
phase new tissue and an extra cellular
matrix to support tissue repair are laid down
to reconstitute the wound site.
The proliferative phase can be divided into
four phases; in the case of shallow wounds
the first two steps may not occur:
Re-vascularisation: New blood vessels are
formed around the wound site in order to
supply the cells and nutrients required to
remodel the wound.
Granulation: Fibroblasts attracted to the
wound site quickly lay down a temporary
extra cellular matrix, comprised of collagen
and fibronectin, upon which the epidermis
can be reconstituted.
Re-epithelialization: The exact mechanism
of re-epithelialization is poorly understood. It
is thought that surviving epithelial cells
around the wound edge become more
motile and stretch to cover the wound site.
Once a continuous epidermis is formed,
they lose this motility and begin to divide.
Contraction: Re-epithelization is thought to
occur simultaneously with contraction,
where myo-fibroblasts recruited around the
wound site pull against each other to
contract the size of the wound.
 The two layers are seperated by serous
fluid secreted by the epithelium.

Three sites where serous membranes

are found:
4) remodeling - During the remodeling
a. The Pericardium – surrounds the heart
stage, the rapidly laid down tissue is altered
and some of the blood vessels.
to more closely mimic surrounding, mature
b. The Pleura – surrounds the lungs.
tissues. It is where tissue strength and
c. The Peritoneum – surrounds the
functions are restored.
abdominal cavity.

Body Membranes

Basic Types of Body Membranes

1. Mucous Membrane - lubricates and

protects these organs and cavities from
abrasive particles and bodily fluids, as well
as invasive pathogens
• Sometimes called a mucosa, lines a
body cavity or hollow passageway
that is open to the external
environment.
3. Cutaneous Membrane - The skin is an
• Composed of epithelium and epithelial membrane also called the
connective tissue. cutaneous membrane. It is a stratified
• Consist of epithelial cells, some of squamous epithelial membrane resting on
which produce a secretion called top of connective tissue
mucus.
• The cells fill up with mucus which - The apical surface of this membrane
have the appearance of a goblet or exposed to the external environment
flask and are known as goblet cells. and is covered with dead,
keratinized cells that help protect the
body from desiccation and
pathogens.

2. Serous Membrane - line body cavities

that do not open directly to the outside, and
they cover the organs located in those
cavities. Serous membranes are covered by
a thin layer of serous fluid that is secreted
by the epithelium.
Parietal Layers – Line the walls of the body
cavity (pariet – refers to a cavity wall).
Visceral Layer – covers the organ (the
viscera).
4. Synovial Membrane - a specialized
connective soft-tissue membrane that lines
the inner surface of synovial joint capsules.
Together with bone, articular cartilage,
tendon, ligament, and fibrous capsule, it is
an important component of the tissues that
form an integrated joint.
• Made up of a layer of fine, flattened
epithelial cells on a layer of delicate
connective tissue.
• Secretes clear, sticky, oily synovial
fluid, which acts as a lubricant to the
joints and helps to maintain their
stability.