PHYCOLOGY

“No matter how politely one says it, we owe our existence
to the farts of blue-green algae.” - Diane Ackerman

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 • 90-item Pretest
(60min)

• Lecture (80min)

• 10-min break

• Lecture (80min)

• Q&A (10min)

- The word phycology is derived from the Greek word phykos, which means “seaweed.”
- The term algology, described in Webster’s dictionary as the study of the algae, has fallen out of
favor because it resembles the term algogenic which means “producing pain.”
- algology 2. / (ælˈɡɒlədʒɪ) / noun. the branch of medicine concerned with the study of pain.

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 OVERVIEW

- The word phycology is derived from the Greek word phykos, which means “seaweed.”
- The term algology, described in Webster’s dictionary as the study of the algae, has fallen out of
favor because it resembles the term algogenic which means “producing pain.”
- algology 2. / (ælˈɡɒlədʒɪ) / noun. the branch of medicine concerned with the study of pain.

4
 A more appropriate word referring to the scientific
study of algae

 Algology

✔
 Phycology

 Algologist

 Phycologist

- The word phycology is derived from the Greek word phykos, which means “seaweed.”
- The term algology, described in Webster’s dictionary as the study of the algae, has fallen out of
favor because it resembles the term algogenic which means “producing pain.”
- algology 2. / (ælˈɡɒlədʒɪ) / noun. the branch of medicine concerned with the study of pain.

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 The father of phycology is

 Robert E. Lee

 William Henry Harvey

✔
 Felix Eugen Fritsch

none of the options

thallophytes (“plants” lacking roots, stems, and leaves)

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 - W. H. Harvey (1811-1866)
- is considered as one of the first
algologist who proposed the first
descriptive algal classification.

- classified algae for the first time in

1836 into four groups based on the
colour of thallus or pigmentation
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Henry_Harvey

- Pioneer algologist

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 F. E. Fritsch (1879 – 1954)
- also known as Father of Phycology

- proposed the most acceptable and

comprehensive algal classification.

- He classified algae into 11

https://www.npg.org.uk/collections/search
/portrait/mw220887/Felix-Eugen-Fritsch

- His classification is based on different characteristics as pigmentation, chemical nature of

reserve food material, flagellar arrangement (kind, number and point of insertion),
presence or absence of organized nucleus in cell and mode of reproduction.

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 These are thallophytes that have chlorophyll a as
their primary photosynthetic pigment and lack a
sterile covering of cells around the reproductive
cells

✔
 Algae

 Seagrasses

 Mangroves

 All of the options are correct

thallophytes (“plants” lacking roots, stems, and leaves)

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 ALGAE

- thallophytes (“plants”
lacking roots, stems,
and leaves)

thallophytes (“plants” lacking roots, stems, and leaves)

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- chlorophyll a as their
primary photosynthetic
pigment

11
 - lack a sterile covering of
cells around the
reproductive cells
(contrary to other
animal and plant cells)

The antheridia and archegonia in Bryophytes are surrounded by a layer of sterile cells, which protects
the sex organs from mechanical damage and desiccation.
The sex organs in Thallophyta are unicellular, and when multicellular every cell forms a gamete. There
is no jacket of sterile cells.

Antheridia - the male sex organ of algae, mosses, ferns, fungi, and other nonflowering plants.
Archegonia - In non-flowering plants, the archegonium produces female gametes

Algae most commonly occur in water, be it fresh water, marine, or brackish. However, they can also
be found in almost every other environment on earth, from the algae growing in the snow of some
American mountains to algae living in lichen associations on bare rocks, to unicellular algae in desert
soils, to algae living in hot springs.

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- most commonly occur in water (fresh
water, marine, or brackish)

- can also be found in almost every other

environment on earth or ubiquitous

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_______________ is the primary photosynthetic
pigment in algae.

 chlorophyll "d"

 chlorophyll "c"

 chlorophyll "b"

✔
 chlorophyll "a"

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Functions/Uses:
- as the primary producers

https://kascomarine.com/blog/understanding-the-benefits-and-problems-with-pond-
algae/algae-food-chain/

https://www.nationalgeographic.org/photo/marine-food-pyramid-1/

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 - form the oxygen necessary for
the metabolism of the
consumer organisms

50-80% of the oxygen in the Earth's atmosphere comes from phytoplankton carrying out
photosynthesis
https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/ocean-oxygen.html

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 - human consumption
Some algae (mostly red and
brown), are harvested and
eaten as a vegetable

- humans rarely directly consume the algae

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 - mucilages are extracted
(gelling and thickening
agents)

Mucilage - a thick, gluey substance produced by nearly all plants and some microorganisms.

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 Other Functions/Uses:
- food additives
- animal feeds
- nutraceuticals
- cosmetics
- textiles
- biofertilizer/biostimulants
- bio-packaging
- biofuel

- Seaweeds have multiple other uses in food and non-food industries, such as food additives,
animal feeds, pharmaceuticals, nutraceuticals, cosmetics, textiles, biofertilizer/biostimulants,
bio-packaging, and biofuel, among others (McHugh, 2003; FAO, 2018).
- However, knowledge of their contribution to these products is generally confined to seaweed-
related industries and the scientific community.
- textile through:
1. Algaeing converts the algae into a liquid formula that can then be used as a dye or turned into a
textile when combined with cellulose (algae-based clothing)
- the brown algae Iyengaria stellata, Sargassum muticum, Colpomenia sinuosa, and
the red alga Laurencia obtusa (Azeem, 2019)
2. Major antibacterial agents for textiles include metals, metalbased compounds, phenolic
compounds, and quaternary ammonium salts, etc., which all have toxicity and environmental issues.
Hence, it has become increasingly important for antibacterial agents to meet environmental and low
toxicity criteria, while retaining their functionality. The chemical compounds responsible for
antibacterial activity in seaweed have been variously identified as organic and fatty acids, terpenes,
carbonyls, bromophenols, halogenated aliphatic and sulfur-containing heterocyclic compounds,
isoprenylated and brominated hydroquinones, as well as phlorotannins (Mtolera and Semesi, 1996).
Example, for nanoparticle extraction, fresh weeds of Turbinaria conoides

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 The following are uses/functions of algae except

 human consumption

 textiles

 biofuel production

✔
 None of the options

thallophytes (“plants” lacking roots, stems, and leaves)

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 Humans directly consume algae.

✔
 TRUE

 FALSE

 True for microalgae only

 none of the options

- The word phycology is derived from the Greek word phykos, which means “seaweed.”
- The term algology, described in Webster’s dictionary as the study of the algae, has fallen out of
favor because it resembles the term algogenic which means “producing pain.”
- algology 2. / (ælˈɡɒlədʒɪ) / noun. the branch of medicine concerned with the study of pain.

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 Mucilages are extracted from some algae for
gelling and thickening agents.

✔
 TRUE

 FALSE

 True for microalgae only

 none of the options

Mucilage - a thick, gluey substance produced by

nearly all plants and some microorganisms.

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 HABITAT

- The word phycology is derived from the Greek word phykos, which means “seaweed.”
- The term algology, described in Webster’s dictionary as the study of the algae, has fallen out of
favor because it resembles the term algogenic which means “producing pain.”
- algology 2. / (ælˈɡɒlədʒɪ) / noun. the branch of medicine concerned with the study of pain.

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 - Algae are a group of
ubiquitous organisms
which are present in Microcystis

diverse habitats
- grow in water or in land
or as an epiphyte,
endophyte, and as well as https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10811-019-
01987-3

in extreme conditions

Epiphyte - a plant that grows on another plant but is not parasitic. In marine systems, epiphytes
are species of algae, bacteria, fungi, sponges, bryozoans, ascidians, protozoa, crustaceans,
molluscs and any other sessile organism that grows on the surface of a plant, typically
seagrasses or algae.
Endophytes - organisms, often fungi and bacteria, that live between living plant cells.

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Epiphytes of seagrasses include algae (micro and macro), bacteria, fungi, sponges, bryozoans,
ascidians, protozoa, hydroids, crustaceans and mollusks

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 Planktonic Algae

- float freely on the surface

of water Microcystis
Volvox

a. Euplanktons

b. Tychoplanktons

Cladophora

a. True planktons which are free floating from the beginning and never get attached to the
substratum e.g. Volvox, Cosmarium, Microcystis, Chlamydomonas, Scenedesmus etc.
b. Initially these algae are attached to the substratum but later they detach and become free floating
e.g. Zygnema, Oedogonium, etc.

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 ___________________ are organisms adapted for
a planktonic habitat. They are free floating from
the beginning and never get attached to the
substratum.

✔
 euplankton

 tychoplankton

 meroplankton

 holoplankton

a. True planktons which are free floating from the beginning and never get attached to the
substratum e.g. Volvox, Cosmarium, Microcystis, Chlamydomonas, Scenedesmus etc.
b. Initially these algae are attached to the substratum but later they detach and become free floating
e.g. Zygnema, Oedogonium, etc.

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 ___________________ are attached to the substratum
(benthic) initially but later they detach by physical
processes such as turbidity currents and inadvertently
become part of the free floating plankton community.

 euplankton

✔
 tychoplankton

 meroplankton

 holoplankton

a. True planktons which are free floating from the beginning and never get attached to the
substratum e.g. Volvox, Cosmarium, Microcystis, Chlamydomonas, Scenedesmus etc.
b. Initially these algae are attached to the substratum but later they detach and become free floating
e.g. Zygnema, Oedogonium, etc.

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Note: Do not confuse with holoplankton or permanent
plankton which remain planktonic for their entire lives,
and meroplankton or temporary plankton which mostly
consists of larval stages of larger organism. Euplankton
are organisms adapted for a planktonic habitat, whereas
tychoplankton are organisms (typically benthic) that
have inadvertently become part of the plankton
community by physical processes such as turbidity
currents (Denne,2018).

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___________________ are permanent plankton
which remain planktonic for their entire lives.

 euplankton

 tychoplankton

 meroplankton

✔
 holoplankton

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___________________ are temporary plankton
which mostly consists of larval stages of larger
organism

 euplankton

 tychoplankton

✔
 meroplankton

 holoplankton

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 Benthic Algae
- bottom dwellers

a. Epizoic A B
b. Epilithic
c. Epipelic
d. Epiphytic

C D

a. growing on animal body surface (Cladophora grows on snail)

b. attached to stones or rocks (Ulothrix tenuissima, Tribonema minus, Batrachospermum monilisperme
etc.)
c. attached to sand and mud (Oedogonium sp., Clostarium sp., Cosmarium sp., etc.)
d. growing on surface of plants (Vaucheria sp., Ulothrix sp.)

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 Algae which are growing on animal body surfaces.

✔
 Epizoic

 Epilithic

 Epiphytic

 Epipelic

a. growing on animal body surface (Cladophora grows on snail)

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 Algae which are attached to stones or rocks
surfaces.

 Epizoic

✔
 Epilithic

 Epiphytic

 Epipelic

b. attached to stones or rocks (Ulothrix tenuissima, Tribonema minus, Batrachospermum

monilisperme etc.)

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 Algae which are attached to sand and mud.

 Epizoic

 Epilithic

 Epiphytic

✔
 Epipelic

attached to sand and mud (Oedogonium sp., Clostarium sp., Cosmarium sp., etc.)

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Algae which are growing on the surface of plants.

 Epizoic

 Epilithic

✔
 Epiphytic

 Epipelic

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 Neustonic Algae
- grow at air water
interface

Nautococcus

e.g. Botrydiopsis (Xanthophyceae), Chromatophyton (Chlorophyceae), Nautococcus

(Chlorooccaceae)

The algae growing in seawater are commonly known as marine algae (seaweeds) and they
may grow in supralittoral, sublittoral or littoral (intertidal or subtidal) zones.

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 Supralittoral Algae
- grow above the water level
and are found growing on
the rocky shore where
they are just dampened Ulothrix
only by the splashes of
high spring tide waves

Prasiola

Prasiola stipitata (a green seaweed), Ulothrix flacca etc.

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Sublittoral or Infra Littoral Algae
- - grow below the
water level.

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B97801280277210000
38

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 Littoral (Subtidal and Intertidal)Algae
- grow in the areas
where there is
periodic exposure
of tides and is a
junction between
land and sea.

Some of the examples of algae growing in this “subtidal zones” are Dictyota sp., Rhodymenia
sp., Grateloupia sp., Gracilaria sp., Polysiphonia sp., Chondrus crispus, Laminaria sp. etc.
Algae growing in Intertidal zones are Porphyra sp., Euglena sp., Laminaria sp., Gigartina sp.,
Fucus etc.

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Aerophytes
- growing on the
surface of leaves,
bark, moist walls,
flower pots, rocks,
fencing wires

Trentepohlia

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 Cryophytic Algae
- grow in
permanent or
semi – permanent
snow, capped
mountain and
polar regions

These algae when grow imparts color to the snow.

(photo) Field images of snow and glacial algae. (a) Green snow, Chloromonas brevispina (Chlorophyta,
Chlamydomonadales), Carson Mountains, NV, June 2016. (b) Golden-brown snow, Hydrurus sp.
(Chrysophyceae), King George Island, Antarctica, January 2009. (c) Orange snow, Sanguina aurantia
(Chlorophyta, Chlamydomonadales), Svalbard (Norway), July 2018. (d) Pink snow, Chlainomonas kolii
(Chlorophyta, Chlamydomonadales), Donner Pass, CA, June 2016. (e) Red snow, Sanguina nivaloides
(Chlorophyta, Chlamydomonadales), European Alps, Austria, July 2008. (f) Grey-colored glacier,
Mesotaenium berggrenii (Streptophyta, Zygnematales), Gurgler Glacier, Austria, August 2017. Photos
and captions from Hoham and Remias (2019).

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Endozoic Algae
- growing inside the
body of
vertebrates or
aquatic animals

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 Symbiotic Algae
- grow in
association with
several organisms

Symbiodinium

they cause severe damage, for e.g. Cephaleuros virescence (Chlorophyceae) grows on tea,
coffee and other plants (causes red rust or algal rust).

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 Halophytic Algae
- grow in waters
with very high
salinity may be up
to 70–80 ppt

e.g. Dunaliella, Stephanoptera, Chlamydomonas ehrenbergii, Oscillatoria, Ulothrix.

Dunaliella salina growing in salt pans of sambhar lake, Rajasthan (algae growing in extreme halophytic
conditions) (Courtesy: Prof. Dinabhandhu Sahoo).

(photo) Field images of snow and glacial algae. (a) Green snow, Chloromonas brevispina (Chlorophyta,
Chlamydomonadales), Carson Mountains, NV, June 2016. (b) Golden-brown snow, Hydrurus sp.
(Chrysophyceae), King George Island, Antarctica, January 2009. (c) Orange snow, Sanguina aurantia
(Chlorophyta, Chlamydomonadales), Svalbard (Norway), July 2018. (d) Pink snow, Chlainomonas kolii
(Chlorophyta, Chlamydomonadales), Donner Pass, CA, June 2016. (e) Red snow, Sanguina nivaloides
(Chlorophyta, Chlamydomonadales), European Alps, Austria, July 2008. (f) Grey-colored glacier,
Mesotaenium berggrenii (Streptophyta, Zygnematales), Gurgler Glacier, Austria, August 2017. Photos
and captions from Hoham and Remias (2019).

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 Parasitic Algae
- live as parasite
and semiparasite
on other algae as
well as higher
plants

they cause severe damage, for e.g. Cephaleuros virescence (Chlorophyceae) grows on tea,
coffee and other plants (causes red rust or algal rust).

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 Terestrial Algae
- growing on soils,
logs, rocks etc. are
grouped under
terrestrial algae

Trentepohlia

ex: Anabaena cycadaceae grows in the corolloid roots of Cycas plants;

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 Thermophytic Algae
- grow in hot
springs, where the
temperature may
go beyond 85 °C

Almost all thermophytic algae are known from Cyanophyceae (ex: Cyanidium caldarium found in acidic
hot springs).

(photo) Cyanidium algae with chlorophyll in the 133 degree water of Norris Geyser Basin, a very active
thermal area in Yellowstone National Park

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Algae which grow above the water level and are
found growing on the rocky shore where they are
just dampened only by the splashes of high spring
tide waves

 Sublittoral

 Littoral
Ulothrix

✔
 Supralittoral

 Subtidal

Prasiola

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Algae which grow below the water level.

✔
 Sublittoral

 Littoral

 Supralittoral

 Subtidal

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780128027
721000038

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Algae which grow in the areas where there is
periodic exposure of tides and is a junction
between land and sea.

 Sublittoral

✔
 Littoral

 Supralittoral

✔ Subtidal


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These are species of algae, bacteria, fungi, sponges,
bryozoans, ascidians, protozoa, crustaceans, molluscs
and any other organisms that grow on the surface of
seagrasses and other marine algae.

✔
 Epiphytes

 Cryophytes

 Aerophytes

 Thermophytes

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 CYTOMORPHOLOGICAL TYPES
(Structure of Thallus)

Cytomorphology - The study of cellular morphology. Cytomorphology is useful in determining

the external features of cells.

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Type the WORD. Wrong spelling will be disqualified

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 Algae which have cell chains consisting of daughter
cells connected to each other by their end wall.

 Siphonous type

 Siphonocladous type ✔

✔
 Filamentous type

 Coenobium

Simple filament of Oscillatoria sp.

Filaments result from cell division in the plane perpendicular to the axis of the filament and
have cell chains consisting of daughter cells connected to each other by their end wall.
Filaments can be simple (Fig1.3.8-10), have false branching (Fig1.3.11-12), or true
branching (Fig1.3.13).

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 Simple filament of Ulothrix variabilis. Simple filament of Spirogyra sp.

Filaments result from cell division in the plane perpendicular to the axis of the filament and
have cell chains consisting of daughter cells connected to each other by their end wall.
Filaments can be simple (Fig1.3.8-10), have false branching (Fig1.3.11-12), or true
branching (Fig1.3.13).

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 False branched filament of
Scytonema sp. Scale bar: 50 μm.

False branched filament of Tolypothrix.

Filaments result from cell division in the plane perpendicular to the axis of the filament and have cell
chains consisting of daughter cells connected to each other by their end wall. Filaments can be simple
(Fig1.3.8-10), have false branching (Fig1.3.11-12), or true branching (Fig1.3.13).

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 True branched filament of Cladophora
glomerata.

Filaments result from cell division in the plane perpendicular to the axis of the filament and have cell
chains consisting of daughter cells connected to each other by their end wall. Filaments can be simple
(Fig1.3.8-10), have false branching (Fig1.3.11-12), or true branching (Fig1.3.13).

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 Uniseriate
filament of
Pluriseraite
Stigonema
filament of
ocellatum.
Stigonema
mamillosum.

Filaments of Stigonema ocellatum (Cyanobacteria) consist of a single layer of cells and are
called uniseriate, whereas those of Stigonema mamillosum (Cyanobacteria) made up of
multiple layers are called multiseriate.

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 Algae consist of a single giant tubular cell
containing thousands to millions of nuclei dividing
by asynchronous mitosis, and hence they are
unicellular, but multinucleate.

✔
 Siphonous type

 Siphonocladous type

 Filamentous type

 Coenobium
Siphonous thallus of Vaucheria sessilis. An example of
coenocyte or apocyte, a single cell containing many
nuclei.

Siphonous algae consist of a single giant tubular cell containing thousands to millions of
nuclei dividing by asynchronous mitosis, and hence they are unicellular, but multinucleate
(or coenocytic).

No cross-walls are present and the algae often take the form of branching tubes

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Acetabularia are macronucleate (having remarkable large nucleus). During sexual reproduction, the
nucleus undergoes multiple rounds of mitosis, forming many daughter nuclei all within one nuclear
membrane.

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Diverse morphologies and cellular organization in the green algae. Orders within class Ulvophyceae
contain examples of multicellular organisms(Ulva), siphonocladous species with multinucleate,
multicellular organization (Cladophora), giant uninucleate cells (Acetabularia), and multinucleate
siphonous algae(Caulerpa). The relationships among Ulvophycean classes (not drawn to scale) are
based on the molecular phylogeny of Cocquyt et al. (2010).

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 An algae which is a macronucleate or having
remarkable large nucleus formed by many
daughter nuclei all within one nuclear membrane

✔
 Acetabularia

 Caulerpa

 Ulva

 Cladophora

Siphonous algae consist of a single giant tubular cell containing thousands to millions of
nuclei dividing by asynchronous mitosis, and hence they are unicellular, but multinucleate
(or coenocytic).

No cross-walls are present and the algae often take the form of branching tubes

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- multicellular thalli
- uniseriate filamentous, branched, or unbranched organization, composed of multinucleate cells

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 COENOBIUM

- Figure 1.3.5 Motile coenobium of Volvox aureus with its spherical colonies composed of up to 50,000
flagellated cells interconnected by cytoplasmic bridges.
- Many algae are solitary cells, the unicell, with or without flagella, hence motile or nonmotile
- Other algae exist as aggregates of few or many single cells held together loosely or in a highly
organized fashion, the colony. In this type of aggregate, cell number is indefinite, growth occurs by
cell division of its components, there is no division of labor, and each cell can survive on its own
- When the number and arrangement of cells are determined at the time of origin of the colony and
remain constant during the lifespan period of the individual colony, the colony is termed
coenobium

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 - Many algae are solitary cells, the unicell, with or without flagella, hence motile or
nonmotile
- Other algae exist as aggregates of few or many single cells held together loosely or in a
highly organized fashion, the colony. In this type of aggregate, cell number is indefinite,
growth occurs by cell division of its components, there is no division of labor, and each
cell can survive on its own
- When the number and arrangement of cells are determined at the time of origin of the
colony and remain constant during the lifespan period of the individual colony, the colony is
termed coenobium

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 This type of thallus organization consists of
nonmotile, quite independent cells embedded
within a common mucilaginous matrix.

 Parenchymatous

 Pseudo-parenchymatous

✔
 Palmelloid type

 Coenobium

This type of thallus organization consists of nonmotile, quite independent cells embedded within a
common mucilaginous matrix. The palmelloid type can be present as a temporary phase of the life
cycle in some species and as permanent feature in others.

Under unfavorable conditions, algae such as Chlamydomonas (Chlorophyta), Haematococcus

(Chlorophyta), or Euglena (Euglenozoa) lose their flagella, round off, and undergo successive divisions,
while the cells secrete mucus. Once favorable conditions are restored, the mucilage dissolves and cells
revert to the flagellate conditions (Fig.1.3.23).

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Development of palmelloid cysts of Dunaliella salina in laboratory cultures initiated from waters with
low (~6%) salinity from solar salterns: a, Palmelloid cysts in 5-day-old laboratory cultures (12.5% NaCl).
b, c, Mature cysts in 8-day-old culture magnified 400 and 1000 respectively. d, Release of cells from
the palmelloid. e, f, Green and orange cells of D. salina in 14 and 35-day-old cultures respectively,
developed by sub-culture of cells released from the palmelloid. Bar represents 10 m (Keerthi, et al.,
2016)

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 ___________ is an example of an alga which
undergoes a temporary palmelloid stage.

 Pediastrum

✔
 Euglena

 Ulva

 Volvox

This type of thallus organization consists of nonmotile, quite independent cells embedded
within a common mucilaginous matrix. The palmelloid type can be present as a temporary
phase of the life cycle in some species and as permanent feature in others.

Under unfavorable conditions, algae such as Chlamydomonas (Chlorophyta), Haematococcus

(Chlorophyta), or Euglena (Euglenozoa) lose their flagella, round off, and undergo successive
divisions, while the cells secrete mucus. Once favorable conditions are restored, the mucilage
dissolves and cells revert to the flagellate conditions (Fig.1.3.23).

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 PARENCHYMATOUS AND PSEUDO-PARENCHYMATOUS TYPE

cells of the
primary
filament divide
in all directions
and any
essential
filamentous
structure is
lost

In the case of parenchymatous algae, cells of the primary filament divide in all directions
and any essential filamentous structure is lost. (ex. Ulva, Laminaria, Fucus)

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 PARENCHYMATOUS AND PSEUDO-PARENCHYMATOUS TYPE

made up of a
loose or close
aggregation of
numerous,
intertwined,
branched
filaments that
collectively form
the thallus, held
together by
mucilage

Pseudo-parenchymatous algae are made up of a loose or close aggregation of numerous,

intertwined, branched filaments that collectively form the thallus, held together by mucilage,
especially in red algae. Thallus construction is entirely based on a filamentous construction.

Figure 1.3.22 Pseudo-parenchymatous thallus of Palmaria palmata

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STRUCTURE OF THE ALGAL CELL

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CELL WALLS AND MUCILAGES
two components:
(1) fibrillar component, which forms the skeleton of the wall (ex. cellulose)

(2) amorphous component, which forms a matrix within which the fibrillar component is
embedded (alginic acid and fucoidan in Phaeophyceae; galactans which includes agar and
carrageenan in Rhodophyta)

Cell wall structure in the brown algae. After Schiewer and Volesky

74
Alginic acid and fucoidin are commercially
exploited polysaccharides found in the cell walls of
which algal group?

 Chlorophyceae

✔
 Phaeophyceae

 Rhodophyceae

 Cyanophyceae

75
Agar and carrageenan are galactans found in the
cell walls of which algal group?

 Chlorophyceae

 Phaeophyceae

✔
 Rhodophyceae

 Cyanophyceae

76
 CHLOROPLAST
- plastid capable of photosynthesis

Thylakoids
- contain the chlorophylls and are the
sites of the photochemical reactions

Stroma
- carbon dioxide fixation occurs

Pyrenoid
- associated with storage product

Eyespot or Stigma
- involved in response to light

Semidiagrammatic drawing of a cell in a Volvox vegetative colony. The colony wall (CW) is distinct from
the cell wall (W). (C) Chloroplast; (E) eyespot; (F) flagellum; (G) Golgi; (M) mitochondrion; (N) nucleus;
(P) pyrenoid; (S) starch. (Adapted from Pickett-Heaps, 1970.)

Chloroplasts contain small (30–100 nm), spherical lipid droplets between the thylakoids (Fig. 1.4.6c &
d). These lipid droplets serve as a pool of lipid reserve within the chloroplast. Many motile algae have
groups of tightly packed carotenoid lipid-globules that constitute an orange-red eyespot or stigma
(Fig.1.4.7) that is involved in response to light.

77
 Motile algae exhibit three types of
responses to light:

1. Phototaxis
- orientation of cell movement is
effected by the direction and intensity
of light

2. Photophobia (photoshock)
- change in direction of movement of
the cell caused by a rapid change in
light intensity

3. Gliding (quiesence)
- flagella stop beating and adhere to a
surface or an air/water interface

1. Phototaxis. In phototaxis, the orientation of cell movement is effected by the direction and
intensity of light. The cells move toward the light in positive phototaxis and away from the light
in negative phototaxis.
2. Photophobia (photoshock). Photophobia is a change in direction of movement of the cell
caused by a rapid change in light intensity, irrespective of the direction of the light. Swimming
cells stop and change the beat pattern from the normal asymmetric flagellar stroke to a
symmetrical stroke that propels the cell backward (Fig. 1.4.8). At the end of the photophobic
response, the cells tumble and resume swimming in a new direction.
3. Gliding (quiesence). In gliding, the flagella stop beating and adhere to a surface or an air/water
interface (Mitchell, 2000). The cells can glide over the surface with one flagellum actively
leading and the other passively trailing (Fig. 1.4.8). Cells may switch direction by changing which
flagellum is active. Gliding motility may be a common phenomenon among organisms that live
in the thin film of water on soil particles.

Figure 1.4.8Three types of flagellar orientation in Chlamydomonas. Inphototaxis, the cells swim
forward and rotate. Phototaxis requires that cells swim forward in a spiral path that causes rotation of
the symmetrically placed eyespot. In photoshock, the cell has a transient avoidance response that
causes the cell to swim backwards. In gliding, the leading flagellum and passive flagellum are 180°
apart.

78
A type of algal light response where the orientation
of cell movement is effected by the direction and
intensity of light.

✔
 Phototaxis

 Photophobia

1. In phototaxis, the orientation of cell

 Gliding
movement is effected by the direction
and intensity of light. The cells move
 Stigma toward the light in positive phototaxis
and away from the light in negative
phototaxis.

79
A type of algal light response where there is a
change in the direction of cell movement caused by
a rapid change in light intensity, irrespective of the
direction of the light.
2. Photophobia is a change in direction of
 Phototaxis movement of the cell caused by a rapid change in
light intensity, irrespective of the direction of the
✔
 Photophobia light. Swimming cells stop and change the beat
pattern from the normal asymmetric flagellar stroke
 Gliding to a symmetrical stroke that propels the cell
backward. At the end of the photophobic response,
 Stigma the cells tumble and resume swimming in a new
direction.

80
Many motile algae have groups of tightly packed
carotenoid lipid-globules called __________ that is
involved in algal response to light.

 Pyrenoid

 Stroma

 Thyllakoids

✔
 Stigma

81
 Chlorophyll
Chlorophyll a
- the primary photosynthetic pigment in all photosynthetic algae

Chlorophyll b
- found in the Euglenophyta and Chlorophyta; light-harvesting pigment
transferring absorbed light energy to chlorophyll a.

Chlorophyll c
- found in the Dinophyta, Cryptophyta, and most of the Heterokontophyta.
Chlorophyll c has two spectrally different components (c1, c2)

Chlorophyll d
- occurs in some cyanobacteria

Chlorophyll a is the primary photosynthetic pigment in all photosynthetic algae.

Chlorophyll b is found in the Euglenophyta and Chlorophyta. Chlorophyll b functions

photosynthetically as a light-harvesting pigment transferring absorbed light energy to
chlorophyll a.

Chlorophyll c is found in the Dinophyta, Cryptophyta, and most of the Heterokontophyta.

Chlorophyll c has two spectrally different components: chlorophyll c1 and c2. Chlorophyll c2 is
always present, but chlorophyll c1 is absent in the Dinophyta and Cryptophyta. Chlorophyll c
probably functions as an accessory pigment to photosystem II.

Chlorophyll d occurs in some cyanobacteria (Murakami et al., 2004).

82
A type of chlorophyll which occurs in some
cyanobacteria

 Chlorophyll a

 Chlorophyll b

 Chlorophyll c

✔
 Chlorophyll d

83
ALGAL NUTRITION

84
____________ are heterotrophic algae which
engulf food particles whole into food vesicles for
digestion.

✔
 phagocytotic

 osmotrophic

 saprophytic

 parasitic

85
____________ are heterotrophic algae which
absorb nutrients in a soluble form through the
plasma membrane.

 phagocytotic

✔
 osmotrophic

 saprophytic

 parasitic

86
 ____________ are primarily heterotrophic, but are
capable of sustaining themselves by phototrophy
when prey concentrations limit heterotrophic
growth

✔
 Obligate heterotrophic algae

 Obligate phototrophic algae

 Facultative mixotrophic algae

 Obligate mixotrophic algae

On the basis of their nutritional strategies, we can classify algae into four groups:
1. Obligate heterotrophic algae: they are primarily heterotrophic, but are capable of
sustaining themselves by phototrophy when prey concentrations limit heterotrophic growth
(e.g., Gymnodium gracilentum, Myzozoa);
2. Obligate phototrophic algae: their primary mode of nutrition is phototrophy, but they can
supplement growth by phagotrophy and/or osmotrophy when light is limiting (e.g., Dinobryon
divergens, Ochrophyta);
3. Facultative mixotrophic algae: they can grow equally well as photoautotrophs and as
heterotrophs (e.g., Fragilidium subglobosum, Myzozoa);
4. Obligate mixotrophic algae: their primary mode of nutrition is phototrophy, but
phagotrophy and/or osmotrophy provide substances essential for growth (in this group, we can
include photoautoxotrophic algae) (e.g., Euglena gracilis, Euglenozoa).

87
 ____________ are algae whose primary mode of
nutrition is phototrophy, but they can supplement
growth by phagotrophy and/or osmotrophy when
light is limiting.

 Obligate heterotrophic algae

✔
 Obligate phototrophic algae

 Facultative mixotrophic algae

 Obligate mixotrophic algae

On the basis of their nutritional strategies, we can classify algae into four groups:
1. Obligate heterotrophic algae: they are primarily heterotrophic, but are capable of
sustaining themselves by phototrophy when prey concentrations limit heterotrophic growth
(e.g., Gymnodium gracilentum, Myzozoa);
2. Obligate phototrophic algae: their primary mode of nutrition is phototrophy, but they can
supplement growth by phagotrophy and/or osmotrophy when light is limiting (e.g., Dinobryon
divergens, Ochrophyta);
3. Facultative mixotrophic algae: they can grow equally well as photoautotrophs and as
heterotrophs (e.g., Fragilidium subglobosum, Myzozoa);
4. Obligate mixotrophic algae: their primary mode of nutrition is phototrophy, but
phagotrophy and/or osmotrophy provide substances essential for growth (in this group, we can
include photoautoxotrophic algae) (e.g., Euglena gracilis, Euglenozoa).

88
 ____________ are algae which can grow equally
well as photoautotrophs and as heterotrophs.

 Obligate heterotrophic algae

 Obligate phototrophic algae

✔
 Facultative mixotrophic algae

 Obligate mixotrophic algae

On the basis of their nutritional strategies, we can classify algae into four groups:
1. Obligate heterotrophic algae: they are primarily heterotrophic, but are capable of
sustaining themselves by phototrophy when prey concentrations limit heterotrophic growth
(e.g., Gymnodium gracilentum, Myzozoa);
2. Obligate phototrophic algae: their primary mode of nutrition is phototrophy, but they can
supplement growth by phagotrophy and/or osmotrophy when light is limiting (e.g., Dinobryon
divergens, Ochrophyta);
3. Facultative mixotrophic algae: they can grow equally well as photoautotrophs and as
heterotrophs (e.g., Fragilidium subglobosum, Myzozoa);
4. Obligate mixotrophic algae: their primary mode of nutrition is phototrophy, but
phagotrophy and/or osmotrophy provide substances essential for growth (in this group, we can
include photoautoxotrophic algae) (e.g., Euglena gracilis, Euglenozoa).

89
ALGAL REPRODUCTION

90
The following are methods of reproduction
observed in algae except

 vegetative

 asexual

 sexual

✔
 none of the choices

91
REPRODUCTION IN ALGAE
Vegetative
- division of a single cell or
fragmentation of a colony

Asexual
- production of motile spore

Sexual
- union of gametes

92
 VEGETATIVE AND ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
1. Binary Fission or Cellular
Bisection
- simplest; parent organism divides into
two equal parts
- Growth follows a typical curve
consisting of a lag phase, an
exponential or log phase, and a
stationary or plateau phase, (and
death phase)

1. Binary Fission or Cellular Bisection

- It is the simplest form of reproduction; the parent organism divides into two equal parts, each having
the same hereditary information as the parents

- The growth of the population follows a typical curve consisting of a lag phase, an exponential or
log phase, and a stationary or plateau phase, where increase in density has leveled off (see
Figure 1.7.2). In multicellular algae or in algal colonies, this process eventually leads to growth of
the individual.
- Figure 1.7.2(a) Growth curve of an algal population under batch culture conditions. (b)
Corresponding variations of the growth rate.

93
2. Zoospore, Aplanospore, and
Autospore

Zoospores - flagellate motile spores that may

be produced within a parental vegetative cell

Aplanospores - aflagellate (lacking flagellum)

spores that begin their development within the
parent cell wall before being released; can
develop into zoospores
Zoospores of Tetraselmis sp. within
the parental cell wall. Scale bar: 5
μm.

94
Autospores - aflagellate daughter cells
that will be released from the ruptured wall
of the original parent cell; lack the
capacity to develop in zoospores.

Spores may be produced within and by Nannochloropsis

ordinary vegetative cells or within
specialized cells or structures called
sporangia.

Chlorella

Examples of autospore-forming genera are Nannochloropsis (Ochrophyta) and Chlorella (Chlorophyta).

95
3. Autocolony
Formation
Cell division no longer
produces unicellular
individuals but multicellular
groups, a sort of
embryonic colony that
differs from the parent in
cell size but not in cell
number (ex. Volvox,
Pediastrum)

In this reproductive mode, when the coenobium/colony enters the reproductive phase, each
cell within the colony can produce a new colony similar to the one to which it belongs.

In Volvox, division is restricted to a series of cells which produce a hollow sphere within the
parent colony, and with each mitosis each cell becomes smaller. The new colony everts, its
cell forms flagella at their apical poles, and it is released by rupture of the parent sphere.

96
In Pediastrum, the protoplast of some cells of the colony undergoes divisions to form
biflagellate zoospores. These are not liberated but aggregate to form a new colony within the
parent cell wall.

97
Figure 1.7.6A diagram which illustrates the process of asexual reproduction in Pediastrum
duplex;autocolony formation. From left to right, a parent colony produces a number of biflagellate
zoospores kept within a vesicle. An emergent vesicle which leaves a break in the mother cell. An
aggregation and arrangement of round shaped motile spores take place and spherical spores
transform into "butterfly-shaped cells". These cells organise and finalise into a new complete daughter
colony drifting and floating along water current.

98
4. Fragmentation

- A more or less random

process whereby noncoenobic
colonies or filaments break into
two to several fragments having
the capacity of developing into
new individuals.

Spirogyra

Chlorella

99
5. Resting Stages

Hypnospores and
hypnozygotes
- have thickened walls, are
produced ex novo by
protoplasts which previously
separated from the walls of the
parental cells.

Dinoflagellate hypnozygote. Scale bar: 10 μm.

Chlorella

Under unfavorable conditions, particularly of desiccation, many algal groups produce thick-
walled resting cells, such as hypnospores, hypnozygotes, statospores, and akinetes.

Hypnospores are present in Ulotrix spp. (Chlorophyta) and Chlorococcum spp. (Chlorophyta),
whereas hypnozygotes are present in Spyrogyra spp. (Chlorophyta) and Dinophyceae
(Myzozoa)

Hypnospores and hypnozygotes enable these green algae to survive temporary drying out of
small water bodies and also allow aerial transport from one water body to another, for
instance, via birds. It is likely that dinoflagellate cysts have a similar function.

ex novo – (Latin) from scratch; from the beginning

100
Statospores
- endogenous cysts formed
within the vegetative cell by
member of Chrysophyceae
such as Ochromonas spp

Akinetes
- enlarged vegetative cells that
develop a thickened wall in
response to limiting
environmental nutrients or
limiting light. Akinetes (arrows) of Anabaena sp. Scale bar: 10 μm.
Chlorella

Statospores. The cyst walls consist predominantly of silica and so are often preserved as
fossils. These statospores are spherical or ellipsoidal, often ornamented with spines or other
projections. The wall is pierced by a pore, sealed by an unsilicified bung, and a nucleus,
chloroplasts and abundant reserve material lie within the cyst. After a period of dormancy, the
cyst germinates and liberates its content in the form of one to several flagellated cells.

Akinetes is of widespread occurrence in the blue-green and green algae. They are essentially
enlarged vegetative cells that develop a thickened wall in response to limiting environmental
nutrients or limiting light. Figure 1.7.8 shows the akinetes of Anabaena cylindrica
(Cyanophyta). They are extremely resistant to drying and freezing, as well as function as a
long-term anaerobic storage of the genetic material of the species. Akinetes can remain in
sediments for many years, enduring very harsh conditions, and remain viable to assure the
continuance of the species. When suitable conditions for vegetative growth are restored, the
akinete germinates into new vegetative cells.

101
A type of algal reproduction where cell division no longer
produces unicellular individuals but multicellular groups,
a sort of embryonic colony that differs from the parent in
cell size but not in cell number.

✔
 Autocolony formation

 Fragmentation

 Autospores

 All of the options

102
A type of algal reproduction characterized by a more or
less random process whereby noncoenobic colonies or
filaments break into two to several fragments having the
capacity of developing into new individuals.

 Autocolony formation

✔
 Fragmentation

 Autospores

 All of the options

103
The following are examples of resting algal cells
which are produced during unfavorable conditions,
except

 hypnospores

 statospores

 akinetes

✔
 autospores

104
Mode of reproduction in algae which involves
plasmogamy (union of cells), karyogamy (union of
nuclei), chromosome/gene association, and
meiosis, resulting in genetic recombination.

 vegetative and asexual

✔
 sexual

 zoospores

 All of the options

105
 SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
Different combinations of gamete types are possible:

Isogamy - gametes are both motile and indistinguishable

Heterogamy - When the two gametes differ in size

Anysogamy - both gametes are motile, but one is small

(sperm) and one is large (egg)

Oogamy – when only one gamete is motile (sperm), which

fuses with one nonmotile and very large (egg)

Gametes may be morphologically identical with vegetative cells or markedly differ from them,
depending on the algal group. The main difference is obviously the DNA content which is
haploid instead of diploid. Different combinations of gamete types are possible.

Oogamy same with human

106
A type of sexual reproduction in algae where the
gametes involved are both motile and
indistinguishable.

✔
 isogamy

 heterogamy

 anysogamy

 oogamy

107
A type of heterogamy in algae where both gametes
are motile, but one is small (sperm) and one is
large (egg).

 isogamy

 heterogamy

✔
 anysogamy

 oogamy

108
 LIFE CYCLES
1. Haplontic or Zygotic Life
Cycle
- characterized by a single
predominant haploid
vegetative phase, with the
meiosis taking place upon
germination of the zygote (ex.
Chlamydomonas)

Algae exhibit three different life cycles with variation inside the different groups. The main difference
is the point where meiosis occurs and the type of cells it produces, and whether or not there is more
than one free-living stage present in the life cycle.

Figure 1.7.9 Life cycle of Chlamydomonas sp.: 1, mature cell; 2, cell-producing zoospores; 2′, cell-
producing gametes (strain + and strain −); 3, zoospores; 3′, gametes; 4′, fer liza on; 5′, zygote; 6′,
release of daughter cells. R!: meiosis; a.r.: asexual reproduction; s.r.: sexual reproduction.

Haploid - refers to a cell or an organism that has only a single set of chromosomes.

109
 LIFE CYCLES
2. Diplontic or Gametic Life
Cycle
- has a single predominant
vegetative diploid phase, and
the meiosis gives rise to
haploid gametes (ex. Diatoms,
Fucus)

Figure 1.7.10 Life cycle of a diatom: 1, vegetative cell; 2–3, vegetative cell division; 4, minimum cell
size; 5, gametogenesis; 6–7, fertilization; 8, auxospores; 9, initial cells. R!: meiosis.

Gametogenesis - the process in which cells undergo meiosis to form gametes.

Auxospores - are swelled cells where a new cell wall of maximum dimensions is produced.

Diplontic life cycle (same with human)

110
 LIFE CYCLES sporophyte

3. Diplohaplontic or
Sporic Life Cycles
- present an alternation of
generation between two gametophyte gametophyte
different phases consisting
of a haploid gametophyte
and a diploid sporophyte
(ex. Ulva, Laminaria,
Porphyra)

sporophyte

- The gametophyte produces gametes by mitosis, and the sporophyte produces spores through
meiosis.
- Alternation of generation in the algae can be isomorphic, in which the two phases are
morphologically identical as in Ulva (Chlorophyta) or heteromorphic, with predominance of the
sporophyte as in Laminaria (Ochrophyta), or with predominance of the gametophyte as in Porphyra
(Rhodophyta)
- Figure 1.7.12 Life cycle of Ulva sp.: 1, sporophyte; 2, male zoospore; 2′, female zoospore; 3, young
male gametophyte; 3′, young female gametophyte; 4, male gametophyte; 4′, female gametophyte;
5, male gamete; 5′, female gamete; 6–8, syngamy; 9, young sporophyte. R!: meiosis.
- Sporophyte and gametophyte in Ulva are morphologically identical/ isomorphic alternation of
generation

111
 Isomorphic alternation of generation - two sporophyte

phases are morphologically identical (Ulva)

Heteromorphic alternation of generation -

predominance of the sporophyte (Laminaria) ,
gametophyte as in (Porphyra)

gametophyte gametophyte

Figure 1.7.14 Life cycle of Porphyra sp.: 1, male gametophyte; 1′, female gametophyte; 2, sperm; 2′,
egg; 3, fertilization and zygote; 4, spores; 5, sporophyte; 6, male spore; 6′, female spores; 7,

112
gametophyte gametophyte

Heteromorphic alternation of generation - predominance of

the sporophyte (Laminaria) , gametophyte as in (Porphyra)
sporophyte

Figure 1.7.13 Life cycle of Laminaria sp.: 1, sporophyte; 2, male zoospore; 2′, female zoospore; 3, male
gametophyte; 3′, female gametophyte; 4, sperm; 4′, egg and fertilization; 5, zygote; 6, young
sporophyte. R!: meiosis.

113
Type the WORD. Wrong spelling will be disqualified

114
This type of life cycle in algae is characterized by a
single predominant haploid vegetative phase, with
the meiosis taking place upon germination of the
zygote.

✔
 Haplontic or Zygotic Life Cycle

 Diplontic or Gametic Life Cycle

 Diplohaplontic or Sporic Life Cycles

✔
 Isomorphic Life Cycle

115
This type of life cycle in algae has a single
predominant vegetative diploid phase, and the
meiosis gives rise to haploid gametes.

 Haplontic or Zygotic Life Cycle

✔
 Diplontic or Gametic Life Cycle

 Diplohaplontic or Sporic Life Cycles

 Isomorphic Life Cycle

116
This type of life cycle in algae which present an
alternation of generation between two different
phases consisting of a haploid gametophyte and a
diploid sporophyte.

 Haplontic or Zygotic Life Cycle

 Diplontic or Gametic Life Cycle

✔
 Diplohaplontic or Sporic Life Cycles

 Isomorphic Life Cycle

117
ALGAL CLASSIFICATION

118
 BASIS FOR ALGAL CLASSIFICATION
 Photosynthetic apparatus and pigments
Nature of reserve food
Nature of cell wall components
Type, number and attachment of flagella
Cell structure
Endosymbiosis is a primary force in eukaryotic cell
evolution

Endosymbiosis - symbiosis in which one of the symbiotic organisms lives inside the other. It is a
primary force in eukaryotic cell evolution. Recent studies of algal evolution have shown that
endosymbiosis has occurred several times and has yielded a variety of eukaryotic cells.

119
TYPES ALGAL CLASSIFICATION
 Classification Proposed by W. H. Harvey (1836)

 F.E. Fritsch’s Classification (1935)

 G.M. Smith’s Classification (1950)

 Round’s Classification (1973)

 Bold and Wynne’s Classification (1985)

 Robert Edward Lee’s Classification (1989)

120
EVOLUTION OF ALGAL CLASSIFICATION
 Classification Proposed by W. H. Harvey (1836)
- classified algae for the first time in 1836 into four
groups based on the colour of thallus or
pigmentation

121
 Classification Proposed by F. E. Fritsch (1935)
- most acceptable and comprehensive algal
classification.
- based on different characteristics as pigmentation,
chemical nature of reserve food material, flagellar
arrangement (kind, number and point of insertion),
presence or absence of organized nucleus in cell
and mode of reproduction.
- classified algae into 11 classes

122
123
124
Diatoms belong to this class

 Dinophyceae

✔
 Bacillariophyceae

 Ochrophyta

 Dinophyta

125
 Classification Proposed by R. E. Lee ( 2008 )
- classified algae in two groups Prokaryota and
Eukaryota which were further divided into
divisions.
- Prokaryota has just one division Cyanophyta,
whereas Eukaryota were further divided on the
basis of nature of chloroplast membrane.

126
127
The phylum for prokaryotic algae

 Cyanophyceae

✔
 Cyanophyta

 Chlorophyceae

 Chlorophyta

128
129
130
Diatoms belong to this Phylum

 Dinophyceae

 Bacillariophyceae

✔
 Ochrophyta

 Dinophyta

131
Which of the following phyla has paramylon as its
storage product?

✔
 Euglenophyta

 Cyanophyta

 Dinophyta

 Chlorophyta

132
 Division-level classification of algae is tenuous for
algae.
 A simpler and more common classification of algae on
the basis of photosynthetic pigments can be used, as
follows:
1. Chlorophyceae (green algae)
2. Phaeophyceae (brown algae)
3. Rhodophyceae (red algae)

133
  AlgaeBase (https://www.algaebase.org/)

Estimates of the number of living algae varies from 30,000 to more than 1 million species, but
most of the reliable estimates refer to the numbers given in AlgaeBase, which currently
documents 32,260 species of organisms generally regarded as algae of an estimated 43,918
described species of algae, corresponding to about 73% (Barsanti and Gualtieri, 2014).

134
SEAWEEDS AND
MICROALGAE: AN
OVERVIEW FOR
UNLOCKING THEIR
POTENTIAL IN GLOBAL
AQUACULTURE
DEVELOPMENT

135
In 2019, algae, including seaweeds and
microalgae, contribute nearly _______ percent of
world aquaculture production (FAO,2021).

✔
 30

 20

 10

 40

136
The following are examples of macroalgae, except

✔
 Nannochloropsis

 Turbelaria

 Gracilaria

 Laminaria
Nannochloropsis

137
The following are examples of microalgae, except

 Chlorella

 Volvox

✔
 Caulerpa

 Spirulina

138
Contribution of commercial microalgae cultivation
in the global algae cultivation in 2019

✔
 0.2 percent

 2 percent

 22 percent

 .02 percent

139
Top seaweed producing country based on Global
Seaweed Production of 2019 (FAO 2021)

✔
 China

 Indonesia

 Republic of Korea

 Philippines

140
Philippines ranked __________ in the top seaweed
producing countries based on Global Seaweed
Production of 2019 (FAO 2021)

1

2

3

✔
4

141
The following are the taxonomic groups for
seaweeds, except

 Phaeophyceae

 Rhodophyta

 Chlorophyta

✔
 Cyanobacteria

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Brown seaweed cultivation has concentrated on
these cold-water genera (FAO 2021):

✔
 Laminaria and Undaria

 Laminaria and Sargassum

 Laminaria and Macrocystis

 Sargassum and Macrocystis

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Uses of brown seaweeds includes the following
except for

 as human foods

 alginate production

 animal feeds

✔
 none of the options

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Red seaweed cultivation is concentrated on these
genera

 Kappaphycus/Eucheuma

 Gracilaria

 Porphyra

✔
 all of the options

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Garcilaria are mostly used for

✔
 agar production

 carrageenan production

 human food

 all of the options

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 World green seaweed cultivation in 2019 primarily
comprised five Aquatic Sciences and Fisheries
Information System (ASFIS) species items which
do not include

 Caulerpa spp.

 Codium fragile

 Enteromorpha prolifera

✔
 Laminaria japonica

ASFIS – Aquatic Sciences and Fisheries Information System – species items in FAO statistics could refer
to either individual species, hybrids or groups of related species, such as families (when identification
to species is impossible). www.fao.org/fishery/collection/asfis/en

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The following are microalgae species closely
related to aquaculture, except

 Chlorella spp.

 Nannochloropsis spp.

 diatoms (Bacillariophyceae)

✔
 none of the options

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Pediastrum?
Closterium is a genus of unicellular charophyte green algae

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