PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY
Module 1. INTRODUCTION TO BOTANY
Intended learning outcomes:
1. Discuss different branches of botany and
the contributions of early botanists
2. Explain the theories of the origin of life,
evolution and adaptation
3. Describe how plants adapt to its
environment
1.1 Branches of Botany and Early Botanist
contributions
What is Botany?
It is one of the main branches of Biology
(science of life) that focuses on the systematic
and scientific study of plants.
Plant anatomy –study of the internal structure
of plants.
Plant morphology –study of the physical form
and external structures of plants.
Histology - the study of the microscopic
structure of tissues.
Plant Cytology - study of cells and cell
structure.
Theophrastus (371-287 BC)
Father of Botany and the first real botanist
He studied plant morphology, classification and
the natural history of plants.
Works
Enquiry into Plants or Historia Plantarum-
describes anatomy of plants and classifies them
into stature (trees, shrubs, herbs).
The Causes of Plants or De Causis Plantarum –
propagation and growth of plants that provided
guide to farmers and gardeners.
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Prepared by: Ana Marie L. Rubenicia, RPh, MS Pharm
Pharmaceutical Botany SY 2019-2020
Robert Hooke (1635-1703)
Hooke is best known today for his identification
of the cellular structure of plants. When he
looked at a sliver of cork through his
microscope, he noticed some "pores" or "cells"
in it.
Nine months of experiments and observations
are recorded in his 1665 book "Micrographia: or
some Physiological Descriptions of Minute
Bodies made by Published Micrographia in
1665.
Micrographia, was the first important work on
microscopy, the study of minute objects through
a microscope.
Discovered cells in living plant tissue
Used microscope observation to discover plant
tissues.
Marcello Malpighi (1628 –1694) and Nehemiah
Grew (1628-1711)
Together with Nehemiah Grew (1628–1711),
Malpighi is considered to be one of the founders
of the study of plant anatomy, for he examined
in detail the structure and development of many
plants.
Marcelo Malpighi (1628-1694) – from Italy,
discovered various tissues in stems and roots.
Nehemiah Grew (1628-1711) – from England,
described the structure of wood.
Plant physiology – study of plant functions.
Plant physiology looks at the different parts of
plants and how they work, either individually or
collectively. It includes the study of such topics
in plant biology as the structure and function of
leaves, stems and roots, water and sugar
conductivity, and the reproductive organs of
plants.
J.B. van Helmont (1577-1644)
A Flemish physician and chemist, who was the
first to demonstrate that plants do not have the
same nutritional needs as animals. Plants
absorbs water as a result of what we now know
as photosynthetic activity.
Joseph Priestley (1733- 1804)
1771, he discovered accidentally that gases
play a role in photosynthesis. Put a candle in a
glass jar with a plant and in ten days the candle
was able to combust. A gas (oxygen) must be
released by the plant that supports combustion.
Plant taxonomy – the study that identifies,
describes, names and classifies plants.
Plant systematics – related to plant taxonomy,
is the science of developing methods for
grouping organisms.
Carolus Linnaeus (1707-1778)
The Swedish botanist, owed for the present
system of naming and classifying plants. He
provided a uniform system for defining and
naming plants and animal using generic name
(genus) and a specific name (species).
>in 1735 he published The System of Nature
(Systema Naturae) that organized all plants and
animals from the level of kingdoms all the way
down to species
>in 1753 publication, The Genera of plants and
Species Plantarum, marked the initial use of the
nomenclature for all flowering plants and ferns.
Plant ecology – the study of the interaction of
plants with one another and with their
environment.
Ernst Haeckel (1834-1919) the German
scientist, 1866 he coined the word “ecology”.
Ethnobotany - the study of the traditional
knowledge and customs of a people concerning
plants and their medicinal, religious and other
uses.
John William Harshberger (1869-1929) - US
botanist, in 1895 he coined the term
"ethnobotany".
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Prepared by: Ana Marie L. Rubenicia, RPh, MS Pharm
Pharmaceutical Botany SY 2019-2020
Pedanius Dioscorides (40—90 AD) - a Greek
physician, pharmacologist and botanist,
physician of the Roman Army & author of a 5-
volume encyclopedia about herbal medicine (a
pharmacopeia), that was widely read for more
than 1000 years.
>published "De Materia Medica", which was a
catalogue about the medicinal use of 600 plants
in the Mediterranean
Shen Nong 5000 yrs ago - his name means "the
Divine Farmer“ and he is the Father of Chinese
agriculture, he taught his people how to cultivate
grain as food and to avoid killing animals.
>the most well-known work attributed to
Shennong is The Divine Farmer's Herb-Root
Classic.
Huang Di (2697–2597 BCE) - the Yellow
Emperor - regarded as the founder of Chinese
civilization.
His Classic of Internal Medicine is important in
understanding the basic ideas of traditional
Chinese herbal science, acupuncture and
moxibustion Yin and Yang, the Five Phases of
Evolutive Change, Meridian theory.
Louis Lewin (1850-1929)- German toxicologist
first to study psychoactive plants systematically.
1924 appeared his book “Phantastica “
Lewin's most enduring task was to create a
system of classification of psychoactive drugs
and plants based on their action.
Plant Geography - the study of the geographic
distribution of plant species and their influence
on the earth’s surface.
Alexander Von Humboldt, (1769 –1859) - often
referred to as the "father of phytogeography".
He advocated a quantitative approach to
phytogeography that has characterized modern
plant geography.
Genetics – the study of heredity, founded by
Gregor Johann Mendel (1822 – 1884), who
performed classic experiments with pea plants.
Genomics – the study of genes and their
functions, and related techniques
Plant Pathology - study of plant diseases.
Paleobotany - study of plant fossils.
1.2 Evolution and Adaptation
Charles Darwin
A British naturalist proposed the theory of
biological evolution by natural selection. He
defined evolution as
“descent with modification,” the idea that
species change over time, give rise to new
species, and share common ancestors.
>suggested a mechanism for evolution: natural
selection,
“heritable traits that help organisms survive and
reproduce become more common in a
population over time”.
Darwin's concept of natural selection was based
on several key observations:
 Traits are often heritable.
 More offspring are produced than can
survive.
 Offspring vary in their heritable traits.
Four Principals of Natural Selection
 Overproduction- producing more
offspring than can survive
 Competition- individuals compete for
food, nesting sites, territory, & other
resources that affect their ability to
reproduce
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Prepared by: Ana Marie L. Rubenicia, RPh, MS Pharm
Pharmaceutical Botany SY 2019-2020
 Variations- a difference between
members of same species that may help
it survive and reproduce
 Selection- over time, the environment
“selects” organisms w/ helpful traits to be
parents of next generation
Based on these simple observations, Darwin
concluded the following:
 In a population, some individuals will
have inherited traits that help them
survive and reproduce
 Because the helpful traits are heritable,
and because organisms with these traits
leave more offspring, the traits will tend
to become more common in the next
generation.
 over generations, the population will
become adapted to its environment
Natural selection is this theory that accounts for
the adaptations of organisms, those
innumerable features that so equip them for
survival and reproduction; it is this theory that
accounts for the divergence of species from
common ancestors and thus for the endless
diversity of life.
Adaptation refers to the process where the
members of a population become better suited
to some feature of their environment through
change in a characteristic that affects their
survival or reproduction.
It is the adjustment or changes in behavior,
physiology, and structure of an organism to
become more suited to an environment.
Plants have adaptations to help them survive
(live and grow) in different areas. Adaptations
are special features that allow a plant or animal
to live in a particular place or habitat.
1.3 Diversity of Plant Adaptations  Waxy coating on stems and leaves help
reduce water loss.
Plants have adaptations to help them survive
 Flowers that open at night lure pollinators
(live and grow) in different areas. Adaptations
who are more likely to be active during
are special features that allow a plant or animal the cooler night.
to live in a particular place or habitat. These
 Slower growing requires less energy.
adaptations might make it very difficult for the
The plants don't have to make as much
plant to survive in a different place. This explains food and therefore do not lose as much
why certain plants are found in one area, but not water.
in another. For example, you wouldn't see a
cactus living in the Arctic. Nor would you see lots This cactus displays
of really tall trees living in grasslands. several desert
adaptations: it has
Desert
spines rather than
The desert is very dry and often hot. The rain leaves and it stores
often comes all at the same time. The rest of the water in its stem.
year is very dry. There is a lot of direct sunlight
shining on the plants. The soil is often sandy or
rocky and unable to hold much water. Winds are
This cactus displays
often strong, and dry out plants. Plants are
light-colored hair that
exposed to extreme temperatures and drought helps shade the plant
conditions. Plants must cope with extensive
water loss.

Desert Plant Adaptations

 Some plants, called succulents, store This plant has a waxy
water in their stems or leaves. coating on its leaves
 Some plants have no leaves or small
seasonal leaves that only grow after it
rains. The lack of leaves helps reduce
water loss during photosynthesis.
Leafless plants conduct photosynthesis
in their green stems.
 Long root systems spread out wide or go
deep into the ground to absorb water; The Temperate Grasslands
 Some plants have a short life cycle, The temperate grasslands, also called prairie,
germinating in response to rain, growing, feature hot summers and cold winters. Rainfall
flowering, and dying within one year. is uncertain and drought is common. The soil is
These plants can evade drought. extremely rich in organic material due to the fact
 Leaves with hair help shade the plant, that the above-ground portions of grasses die
reducing water loss. Other plants have off annually, enriching the soil. The area is well-
leaves that turn throughout the day to
suited to agriculture, and few original prairies
expose a minimum surface area to the
survive today.
heat.
 Spines to discourage animals from eating
plants for water
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Prepared by: Ana Marie L. Rubenicia, RPh, MS Pharm
Pharmaceutical Botany SY 2019-2020
Temperate Grassland (Prairie) Plant
Adaptations
 During a fire, while above-ground
portions of grasses may perish, the root
portions survive to sprout again
 Some prairie trees have thick bark to
resist fire
 Prairie shrubs readily resprout after fire
 Roots of prairie grasses extend deep
into the ground to absorb as much
moisture as they can
 Extensive root systems prevent grazing
animals from pulling roots out of the
ground
 Prairie grasses have narrow leaves
which lose less water than broad leaves
 Grasses grow from near their base, not
from tip, thus are not permanently
damaged from grazing animals or fire
 Many grasses take advantage of
exposed, windy conditions and are wind
pollinated
 Soft stems enable prairie grasses to
bend in the wind
Soft stems enable
prairie grasses to
bend in the wind.
Narrow leaves
minimize water loss.
Many grasses are
wind pollinated and
are well-suited to the
exposed, windy
conditions of the
grasslands.
The Tropical Rainforest
The tropical rainforest is hot and it rains a lot.
This abundance of water can cause problems
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Prepared by: Ana Marie L. Rubenicia, RPh, MS Pharm
Pharmaceutical Botany SY 2019-2020
such as promoting the growth of bacteria and
fungi which could be harmful to plants. Heavy
rainfall also increases the risk of flooding, soil
erosion, and rapid leaching of nutrients from the
soil (leaching occurs when the minerals and
organic nutrients of the soil are "washed" out of
the soil by rainfall as the water soaks into the
ground). Plants grow rapidly and quickly use up
any organic material left from decomposing
plants and animals. This results is a soil that is
poor. The tropical rainforest is very thick, and
not much sunlight is able to penetrate to the
forest floor. However, the plants at the top of the
rainforest in the canopy, must be able to survive
12 hours of intense sunlight every day of the
year. There is a great amount of diversity in
plant species in the tropical rainforest.
Tropical Rainforest Plant Adaptations
 drip tips and waxy surfaces allow water
to run off, to discourage growth of
bacteria and fungi
 buttresses and prop and stilt roots help
hold up plants in the shallow soil
 some plants climb on others to reach the
sunlight
 some plants grow on other plants to
reach the sunlight
 flowers on the forest floor are designed to
lure animal pollinators since there is
relatively no wind on the forest floor to aid
in pollination
 smooth bark and smooth or waxy flowers
speed the run off of water
 plants have shallow roots to help capture
nutrients from the top level of soil.
 many bromeliads are epiphytes (plants
that live on other plants); instead of
collecting water with roots they collect
rainwater into a central reservoir from
which they absorb the water through
hairs on their leaves
 epiphytic orchids have aerial roots that
cling to the host plant, absorb minerals,
and absorb water from the atmosphere
 Drip-tips on leaves
help shed excess
water.
Prop roots help
support plants in
the shallow soil.
Some plants
collect rainwater
into a central
reservoir.
The Temperate Rain Forest
The temperate rain forest features minimal
seasonal fluctuation of temperature: the winters
are mild and the summers cool. Condensation
from coastal fogs also add to the dampness.
The soil is poor in nutrients. Large evergreen
trees, some reaching 300 feet in height, are the
dominant plant species.
Temperate Rain Forest Plant Adaptations
 epiphytes such as mosses and ferns
grow atop other plants to reach light.
 cool temperatures lead to slow
decomposition but seedlings grow on
"nurse logs" to take advantage of the
nutrients from the decomposing fallen
logs.
 trees can grow very tall due to amount
of precipitation.
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Prepared by: Ana Marie L. Rubenicia, RPh, MS Pharm
Pharmaceutical Botany SY 2019-2020
Epiphytes live on
other plants to
reach the sunlight.
Trees can grow
very tall in this
very moist
environment.
The Temperate Deciduous Forest
There are four distinct seasons in the temperate
deciduous forest: spring, summer, autumn, and
winter. The temperature varies from hot in the
summer to below freezing in the winter. Rain is
plentiful. The temperate deciduous forest is
made up of layers of plants; the number of
layers depends upon factors such as climate,
soil, and the age of the forest. The tallest trees
make up the forest canopy which can be 100
feet or more above the ground. Beneath the
canopy, the understory contains smaller trees
and young trees. These understory trees are
more shade tolerant than canopy trees. Below
the understory is a shrub layer. Carpeting the
forest floor is the herb layer made up of
wildflowers, mosses,and ferns. Fallen leaves,
twigs, and dried plants cover the ground,
decompose, and help add nutrients to the
topsoil.
Temperate Deciduous Forest Plant and warm summers. Some parts of the taiga
Adaptations have a permanently frozen sub layer of soil
 wildflowers grow on forest floor early in called permafrost. Drainage is poor due to the
the spring before trees leaf-out and permafrost or due to layers of rock just below the
shade the forest floor soil surface, and together with the ground
 many trees are deciduous (they drop carved out by receding glaciers, lead to the
their leaves in the autumn, and grow new development of lakes, swamps, and bogs. The
ones in spring). Most deciduous trees soil is acidic and mineral-poor. It is covered by a
have thin, broad, light-weight leaves that deep layer of partially-decomposed conifer
can capture a lot of sunlight to make a lot
needles.
of food for the tree in warm weather;
when the weather gets cooler, the broad Taiga Plant Adaptations
leaves cause too much water loss and  many trees are evergreen so that plants
can be weighed down by too much snow, can photosynthesize right away when
so the tree drops its leaves. New ones temperatures rise
will grow in the spring.  many trees have needle-like leaves
 trees have thick bark to protect against which shape loses less water and sheds
cold winters snow more easily than broad leaves
 waxy coating on needles prevent
Broad leaves can evaporation
capture a lot of
 needles are dark in color allowing more
sunlight for a tree.
solar heat to be absorbed
 many trees have branches that droop
downward to help shed excess snow to
keep the branches from breaking
Needle-like
Many trees have leaves help
thick bark to protect reduce water
against the cold loss and
winters in the aids in the
temperate shedding of
deciduous forest. snow.
The shape of
In the autumn, many conifer
deciduous trees trees helps
drop their leaves to shed heavy
minimize water snow to save
loss. branches from
breaking

The Tundra The tundra is cold year-round—it

The Taiga
Also known as boreal forests, the taiga is
dominated by conifers (cone-bearing plants),
most of which are evergreen (bear leaves
throughout the year). The taiga has cold winters
has short cool summers and long, severe
winters. The tundra has a permanently frozen
sublayer of soil called permafrost. Drainage is
poor due to the permafrost and because of the
cold, evaporation is slow. The tundra receives
little rain and what it does receive is usually in

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Prepared by: Ana Marie L. Rubenicia, RPh, MS Pharm
Pharmaceutical Botany SY 2019-2020
the form of snow or ice. It has long days during water, nutrients, and dissolved gases are
the growing season, sometimes with 24 hours of absorbed through the leaves directly
daylight, and long nights during the winter. from the water.
There is little diversity of species. Plant life is  roots and root hairs reduced or absent;
dominated by mosses, grasses, and sedges. roots only needed for anchorage, not for
absorption of nutrients and water
Tundra Plant Adaptations  some plants have leaves that float atop
 Tundra plants are small (usually less the water, exposing themselves to the
than 12 inches tall) and low-growing due sunlight
to lack of nutrients, because being close
 in floating plants chlorophyll is restricted
to the ground helps keep the plants from
to upper surface of leaves (part that the
freezing, and because the roots cannot
sunlight will hit) and the upper surface is
penetrate the permafrost.
waxy to repel water
 Plants are dark in color—some are even
red—this helps them absorb solar heat.  some plants produce seeds that can float
 Some plants are covered with hair which
helps keep them warm. In floating plants,
chlorophyll is
 Some plants grow in clumps to protect
restricted to the
one another from the wind and cold.
upper surface.
 Some plants have dish-like flowers that
Note the green
follow the sun, focusing more solar heat
color on the top of
on the center of the flower, helping the
the leaves and
plant stay warm.
the reddish
underside of the
These tundra
overturned leaf.
plants are low-
growing.
Aquatic plants
must be flexible
to withstand the
pressures of
moving water.
This plant grows in
a clump to help
conserve heat.

Source:
http://www.mbgnet.net/bioplants/adapt.html

“Life Finds A Way, Plants Won’t Just Give

Plant Adaptations in Water
Up”
 underwater leaves and stems are flexible
Thank you… End of Module 1
to move with water currents
 some plants have air spaces in their
stems to help hold the plant up in the
water
 submerged plants lack strong water
transport system (in stems); instead
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Prepared by: Ana Marie L. Rubenicia, RPh, MS Pharm
Pharmaceutical Botany SY 2019-2020