REVIEWER IN BOTANY . .
a bayabas-bayabasan)- used to treat
Scientific names:
Adelfa (Nerium indicum)
Akapulko (Cassia alata)
Alagaw (Premna odorata)
Alugbati (Basella rubra)
Alusiman (Portulaca olearacea)
Amarillo (Tagetes erecta)
Ampalaya (Momordica charantia)
Anonas (Annona reticulata)
Atis (Anona squamosa)
Atsuete (Bixa orellana)
Balanoy (Ocimum basilicum)
Balete (Ficus stipulosa)
Balimbing (Averrhoa carambola)
Banaba (Lagerstroemia speciosa)
Bawang (Allium sativum)
Bayabas (Psidium guajava)
Bunga (Areca catechu)
Buyo (Piper betle)
Cacao (Theobroma cacao)
Carrot (Daucus carota)
Komprey (Symphytum officinale)
Duhat (Syszygium cumini)
Gugo (Entada phaseoloides)
Gumamela (Hibiscus rosa-sinensis)
Herba Buena (Clinopodium douglasii)
Ipil-ipil (Leucaena glauca)
Kaimito (Chrysophyllum cainito)
Kakawate (Gliricidia sepium)
Kalachuchi (Plumeria acuminata)
Kamantigi (Impatiens balsamina)
Kamatsile (Pithecelobium dulce)
Kamoteng kahoy (Manihot esculenta)
Kampanilya (Allamandra cathartica)
Kangkong (Ipomoea aquatica)
Katakataka (Bryophyllum pinnatum)
Luyang dilaw (Curcuma longa)
Kogon (Imperata cylindrica)
Lagundi (Vitex negundo)
Langka (Artocarpus heterophyllus)
Labanos (Raphanus raphanistrum)
Luya (Zingiber officinale)
Mais (Zea mays)
Makabuhay (Tinospora crispa)
Makahiya (Mimosa pudica)
Malunggay (Moringa oleifera)
Akapulko (a.k.
ringworms and skin fungal infections; ringworm bush
Ampalaya (a.k.a bitter gourd)- treatment for diabetes
Bawang (a.k.a garlic)- reduces cholesterol and helps
control BP
Bayabas (a.k.a guava)- used as an antiseptic or to
disinfect wounds
Lagundi (a.k.a S-leaved chaste tree)- used to relieve
cough and asthma
Niyog-niyogan (Quisqualis indica)- a.k.a honey suckle
and used to eliminate intestinal worms
Sambong (Blumea balsamifera)- a.k.a Blumea
camphora, (diuretic) helps in the excretion of urinary
stones
Tsaang gubat (Ehretia microphylla)- a.k.a scorpion
bush, used to treat intestinal motility and prepared
like tea
Pansit-pansitan (Peperomia pellucida)- a.k.a Silver
bush, used to fight arthritis and gout
Y/Herba Buena (a.k.a peppermint)- used as an
analagesic to relieve body pain.
BOTANY
-a.k.a plant science, plant biology, plant phytology, it
is the study of the origin, diversity, structure, internal
processes and relationship of plants.
Drugs derived from plants:
Colchicine- Colchicum autumnale
-Treatment for gout
Opium- Papaver somniferum
- Narcotic controlled drug
- Source of opioids like morphine
Coca Plant- Erthryoxylum coca
- Local anesthetics (applied externally)
AMIDES (BELMPR) ESTERS (BeChCoPT)
Willow tree- Source of aspirin or acetylsalicylic acid
- antiplatelet, analgesic, antipyretic, anti-
inflammatory
BOTANY COMPONENTS:
Plant molecular biology: structures and functions of
molecules
Plant cell biochemistry: Chemical interactions in plants
Plant cell biology: structural and functional UNIT of
plants
Plant anatomy: internal structure
Plant morphology: physical form and external HERBS
structure of plants -used for flavoring and garnishing foods
Plants physiology: functioning or mechanisms of -leaves of plants from TEMPERATE REGIONS
plants
Plant ecology: distribution and interaction of plants Sample:
with themselves and the environment Basil/Balanoy (Ocimum basilicum)
Plant taxonomy: Classifications of plants, its names etc -a.k.a St. Joseph’s Wort
-Eugenol (oil)
SAMPLE: -used in dentistry
Sampaguita (Jasminum sambac) -anti-inflammatory and bacteria
Kingdom: Plantae -toothache drops
Division: Mognoliophyta (produce seeds enclosed in an
ovary) PLANTS= COMPLEX ORGANISMS
Class: Mognoliopsida
Order: Lamiales CELL: smallest unit; perform all activities assoc. with
Family: Oleaceae life
Genus: Jasminum ATOM: smallest particle of an alement
Species: sambac MOLECULES: combined atoms (chemical bonding)
MACROMOLECULES: large biological molecules
MONOCOT ORGANELLES: compartment of macromolecules
Seed: one cotyledon TISSUES: perform SPECIFIC FUNCTIONS
Roots: occupy upper level of soil ORGANS:FUNCTIONAL UNITS that perform specific
roles
DICOT POPULATION: group of the same species that live
Seed: two cotyledons together (same area and time)
Roots: dig deeper COMMUNITY: population of different organisms that
(occurs in group of 4 or 5) interact in an area
BIOSPHERE: earth’s ecosystem
Bryology: (study of) mosses and similar plants
Agronomy: field crops and soil EUK ARYOTIC: cell with nucleus
Horticulture: ornamental plants, fruit, and vegetables
NUCLEUS
Forestry: forest conservation and production
Economic botany: plants with commercial importance. TRUE

HETEROTROPHS: depends on others for food

SPICES AUTOTROPHS: produce own food
-used for seasonings and preservatives SAPHROPHYTES: eats decayed materials
-fruits of plants from TROPICAL REGIONS
CHARACTERISTICS OF PLANTS
Sample:  PLANTS TAKE IN AND USE ENERGY
Black pepper (Piper nigrum)  PLANTS RESPOND TO STIMULI
 PLANTS GROW AND DEVELOP
Nigrum- BLACK  PLANTS REPRODUCE

White oak (Quercus alba) ASEXUAL- does not involve the union of gametes
SEXUAL- involves the union of gametes
Alba- WHITE
PLANT DNA
Deoxyribonucleic Acid
-Transmits information from one generation to the 3 DOMAINS OF ORGANISMS
next DOMAIN ARCHAEA
-molecule of inheritance for all organisms DOMAIN BACTERIA
-carries important genetic information in cells DOMAIN EUKARYA

DOMAIN- LEVEL OF CLASSIFICATION above the

KINGDOM SYSTEM kingdom and is based on fundamental differences
Kingdom Animalia among organisms
-a.k.a METEZOA SPECIES: class of plants or animals whose members
-eukaryotic have the same main characteristics and are able to
-multicellular breed with each other
-heterotrophs
DOMAIN
Kingdom Bacteria KINGDOM
-prokaryotic (chemosynthetic) PHYLUM/DIVISION
-unicellular CLASS
-heterotrophic ORDER
-photosynthetic FAMILY
GENUS
Kingdom PROTISTa SPECIES
The very first
-unicellular/multicellular
-prokaryotic (CELLS THAT LACKS NUCLEUS) BINOMIAL SYSTEM 18th century
-heterotrophic -used in naming species
-ex: KELP (large multicellular protist)
CAROLUS LINNAEUS
Kingdom Fungi -simplified the naming of organisms
-eukaryotic
-heterotrophic Linnaeus system = Binomial sys. of nomenclature
-saprophytes (to gain nutrition) (Genus, specific epithet)
-asexual and sexual reproduction
(Teleomorph- sexual state) SPECIFIC EPITHET
(Anamorph- asexual state) -descriptive word that characterize organisms
SCIENTIFIC METHOD
Kingdom Archaea -A DYNAMIC PROCESS
-greek word “acrhaeos”: primitive/ancient
-unicellular ROBERT HOOKE
Ex. -first to observe cells; wrote micrographia
Pyrolobus Fumarii (high temperature) Salvino D’Armate
Picrophilus (Acid-tolerant) -watch/ eye glass
Methanogens (found in anaerobic environment) Antonie van leeuwenhoek
-father of microscope
Kingdom Plantae Ernst Ruska
-eukaryotic -developed electron microscope
-multicellular Richard Zsigmondy
-photosynthetic -invented ultramicroscope
-cell wall: cellulose Zacharias Jansen- 1st compound microscope
5 STEPS OF SCIENTIFIC METHOD
-RECOGNIZE a question or unexplained occurrence in
the natural world
-DEVELOP a hypothesis
-DESIGN AND PERFROM an experiment to test
hypothesis
-ANALYZE AND INTERPRET the data to reach
conclusion
-SHARE new knowledge in the scientific community
PLANT CELL ANATOMY
PLASMA CELL MEMBRANE
-CONFINES THE CONTENTS of the cell
CELL WALL
-PROTECTS THE CELL or SEPARATES THE CELL from
other cells
NUCLEAR ENVELOPE
-SEPARATES THE NUCLEUS from other organelles
NUCLEUS
-the CONTROL CENTER of the cell
NUCLEOLUS
-involved in the MAKING of subunits of ribosome
ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
-involved in the PROTEIN SYNTHESIS AND LIPID
SYNTHESIS
GOLGI BODY/APPARATUS/DICTYOSOME
-factory for processing and packaging proteins and
when the protein is modified it will bulge out as
VESICLE
MITOCHONDRIA
-powerhouse of the cell; releases energy from food
through cellular respiration
ATP
ATP = ADP + Phosphate + energy
CYTOPLASM/CYTOSOL
-WHERE ALL THE ORGANELLES ARE SUSPENDED
-helps the movement of cellular materials around the
cell through the process called cytoplasmic streaming
CHLOROPLAST
-involved in the PHOTOSYNTHESIS
VACUOLE
-LARGEST ORGAN and disassembles the malformed
proteins to be re-used again
ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
SMOOTH ER- ASSOCIATED with lipid synthesis
ROUGH ER- ASSOCIATED with protein synthesis
RIBOSOMES- INVOLVED in protein synthesis
CHLOROPLAST
-CONDUCTS PHOTOSYNTHESIS
-interior: contains thylakoids
THYLAKOIDS
-membranous STACK OF THIN FLAT CIRCULAR PLATE
GRANUM
-STACKS of thylakoid
STROMA
-JELLYLIKE fluid where grana are embedded
-CONVERTS carbon dioxide to carbohydrates (plastids)
2 TYPES OF PLASTIDS
1. CHROMOPLAST
-CHROMO “color” PLAST “living”
-contains pigments
-synthesize food materials by photosynthesis
-fruits and flowers
Types:
CHLOROPLAST
-green color
-CHLOROPHYLL PIGMENT
-green algae
PHAEOPLAST
-dark brown color
-FUCOXANTHIN PIGMENT
-brown algae (diatoms, dinoflagelates)
RHODOPLAST
-red color
-PHYCOERYTHRIN PIGMENT
-red algae SPINDLE FIBER
FUCOXANTHIN (carotenoid pigment)
-absorbs light and transfer energy to chlorophyll
PHYCOERYTHRIN MICROFILAMENTS (7nm)
-responsible for photosynthesis for red algae - a.k.a actin filaments: RESPONSIBLE FOR THE
-absorbs blue-green light CYTOPLASMIC STREAMING
-Actin protein
2. LEUKOPLAST -more abundant in animal cell than in plant cell
-COLORLESS PLASTIDS
-seeds, roots, stems INTERMEDIATE FILAMENTS (10nm)
-the mid-sized fiber in the cytoskeleton
WHEN LEUKOPLAST ABSORBS LIGHT FROM THE SUN
OR UV LIGHT IT WILL SYNTHESIZE TO FORM PRIMARY CELL WALL
CHLOROPHYLL PIGMENT THEN TURN INTO -contains PECTIN
CHOLORPLAST
MIDDLE LAMELLA
MEMBRANE -A PECTIN LAYER which CEMENTS THE CELL WALLS OF
-SAC FILLED WITH LIQUIDS TWO ADJOINING PLANT CELLS TOGETHER
-contains WATER, CA+ and H20 soluble pigments
-ex. ANTHOCYANINS (onions) purple blue red color SECONDARY CELL WALL
-contains LIGNIN
VACUOLAR MEMBRANE/TONOPLAST
-surrounds each vacuole LIGNIN
-makes the SCW LESS FLEXIBLE AND LESS PERMEABLE
CYTOSKELETON TO WATER
-SUPPORTS the interior of the cell
CELLULAR TRANPORT
THREE MAJOR STRUCTURAL FIBERS: -carried out through openings called PITS in the wall
MICROTUBULES (25nm)
-tubulin CELL SIGNALING
-make up spindle -a communication process that COORDINATES ALL
CELL ACTIONS
SPINDLE: a special structure that MOVES (AN ERROR IN THE PROCESS MAY LEAD TO DISEASES:
CHROMOSOMES DURING CELL DIVISION CANCER AND AUTOIMMUNITY)
-provide tensile strength and rigidity to cellular
regions
PLASMODESMATA MICROSCOPE: INSTRUMENT that produces enlarged
-the CONNECTIONS THROUGH CHEMICAL SIGNALS OF image of small objects
PLANTS
-allows molecules and ions but not organelles to pass PARTS OF THE COMPOUND MICROSCOPE
from cell to cell (MAGNIFYING PARTS)
 OBJECTIVES
MICROSCOPE HISTORY Scanner
st
1 century- FIRST EYE GLASS -SHORTEST
Salvino D’ Armate - widest lens opening
Nearsightedness- myopia -used to observe wider field of object
Farsightedness- presbyopia
STEMS- invented in 17th century LPO
-SHORT
OBJECTIVES -large lens opening
Scanner -used to observe general outline of the object
-5x magnification
-0.10 NA (NUMERICAL APPERTURE) HPO
Low Power Objectives -LONG
-10x magnification -smaller lens
-0.25 NA -used in observing the details of the specimen
High Power objectives
-40x magnification OIO
-0.65 NA -LONGEST
Oil immersion objectives -very small lens opening
-100x magnification
-1.25 NA EYEPIECE/OCULAR
CEDAR WOOD OIL -detachable tube and magnifies object several times
-conifers
-PREVENTS REFRACTION or dispersing of light in (ILLUMINATING PARTS)
microsope IRIS DIAPHRAGM
-REGULATES THE AMOUNT OF LIGHT that enters the
condenser

ABBE CONDENSER
-used to illuminate or condense the reflected light
from the mirror to the object being examined

MIRROR
-reflect the light through the objective, lenses then to
the eyes

2 faced:
Plain/flat- used when the source of light is very bright
Concave- used with low intensity of light from natural
and artificial source
(MECHANICAL PARTS) BASE
Adjustment knobs -V or U-shaped structure; supports the whole
-used to adjust objectives when focusing instrument
2 knobs:
Course adjustment TERMINOLOGIES
-upper larger knobs, for faster movement of the body RESOLVING POWER
tube when focusing LPO -ABILITY OF THE LENS TO CLEARLY SEPARATE or
distinguish two points or two lines individually in the
Fine adjustment image
-lower smaller knobs used for focusing HPO
PARFOCAL
Revolving nosepiece -refers to the objectives and the eyepiece where
-rotary head attached to the base of the body tube practically NO CHANGE IN FOCUS has to be made
-holds the objectives when one objective is substituted for another
-facilitates the shifting of objectives
REFRACTION
Dust shield -BENDING OF LIGHT RAYS away from the objective
-fixed plate attached to the base of the body tube lens when light passes from the glass of the
-situated above the revolving nosepiece microscope slide to air

Draw tube WORKING DISTANCE

-smaller CYLINDER ATTACHED TO THE BASE OF THE -DISTANCE BETWEEN THE FRONT LENS and TOP OF
BODY TUBE THE COVER GLASS
Body tube ANGULAR APERTURE
-A HOLLOW CYLINDER in front of the upper part of -the ANGLE or cone of light rays capable of entering
the arm; serves as passageway of light the front lens of the objective from a point in the
Stage clips object
-PAIR OF METALS that holds the slide in place
DEPTH OF FOCUS
Stage -THICKNESS OF THE OBJECT that may be seen at one
-platform where THE SLIDE CONTAINING THE time under focus
SPECIMEN SI PLACED
NUMERICAL APERTURE
INCLINATION JOINT -MEASUREMENT of the ability of the condenser and
-movable parts which FACILITATE TILTING of the the objective lens to gather light
MICROSCOPE
MAGNIFICATION
ARM -RATIO OF THE APPARENT SIZE OF AN OBJECT as seen
-CURVED BASIC PART which the base, body and stage through the microscope and the actual size of the
are attached object
-SERVES AS HANDLE and provides support for the
optical parts FOCUSING
-ADJUSTMENT OF THE DISTANCE between the
PILLAR objective lens and the specimen
-VERTICAL EXTENSION of the base to which the arm is
attached VIRTUAL OR FLOATING IMAGE
-the IMAGE of an object SEEN THROUGH THE
MISCROSCOPE (COMPOUND)
MICROSCOPIC FIELD
-the BRIGHT ocular ILLUMINATED AREA AS SEEN
THROUGH THE EYEPIECE
SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPE (SEM)
-DETAILED STRUCTURE of the surface OF THE
SPECIMEN
-possesses the 3D image property
ELECTRON MICROSCOPE
-uses electrons to ILLUMINATE A SPECIMEN and
create an enlarged image
-one of the powerful tools for studying CELL
STRUCTURES and FUNCTIONS
LENSES- powerful electromagnets
STEREOSCOPIC/DISSECTING MICROSCOPE
-simple microscope
-HORATIO S. GREENOUGH (forefather of the stereo
models that are known today)
-used in viewing the three-dimensional image of a
dissected specimen where a movement is required
when examining it
TYPES OF MICROSCOPE
COMPOUND MICROSCOPE
-image appears inverted
-can magnify image up to SEVERAL TIMES the actual
size of an object
-two lens system: OBJECTIVE and EYEPIECE
SIMPLE OR MAGNIFIER
-a.k.a magnifying glass
-used by watch makers, skin specialists
JOSEPH JACKSIN LISTER: discovered WEAK LENSES
TOGETHER PROVIDE CLEAR MAGNIFICATION
ERNST ABBE: a mathematical theory linking
RESOLUTION TO LIGHT WAVELENGTH is invented
RICHARD ZSIGMONDY: invented ULTRAMICROSCOPE
FRITS XERNIKE: invented PHASE-CONTRAST
MICROSCOPE
ERNST RUSKA: ELECTRON MICROSCOPE
GERD BININIG and HEINRICH ROHRER: SCANNING
TUNNELING MICROSCOPE
PHOTOSYSTEMS I AND II ARE LIGHT-HARVESTING
UNITS OF THE LIGHT DEPENDENT REACTIONS
PHOTOSYSTEM (MULTIPROTEIN COMPLEX)- where
the process that converts light into chemical energy
stored in carbohydrates molecules takes place
PHOTOSYSTEM II (mauuna)
-appears sooner than photosystem I
-produces ATP
-sensitive to light wavelengths of 680nm
PHOTOSYSTEM I
-produces NADPH
-sensitive to light wavelengths of 700nm
NADP+ (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide
phosphate)
STAGES IN PHOTOSYNTHESIS
NADP+ is reduced forming NADPH
Products of light-dependent reactions:
-ATP (adenosine triphosphate)
-NADPH
Both needed in the carbon fixation reactions
LIGHT-DEPENDENT REACTION (PHOTO PART)-
THYLAKOID
CARBON FIXATION REACTION (SYNTHESIS PART)-
STROMA
RAW MATERIALS FOR PHOTOSYNTHESIS:
H₂O and CO₂
6CO₂ + 12H₂O + light energy  C₆H₁₂0₆ +6O₂ + 6H₂O
CHLOROPHYLL IS ENERGIZED BY:
-DIRECT ENERGY FROM LIGHT SOURCE OR SUNLIGHT
-INDIRECTLY BY ENERGY PASSED BY THE ACCESSORY
PIGMENTS THAT HAVE BECOME ENERGIZED BY LIGHT
Carotenoids- protects chlorophyll and other parts of
the thylakoid membrane from excess light energy
that could damage the photosynthetic components
Chlorophyll a- initiates photosynthesis: bright green
Chlorophyll b- participates in photosynthesis; yellow
green
Thylakoid lumen- fluid-filled interior space of
thylakoid
Thylakoid membranes of higher plants compose of:
Phospholipids and galactolipids
2 types of diffusion
SIMPLE DIFFUSION
-unassisted passage of small, hydrophobic, non-polar
molecules from high to low concentration
Readily diffuse materials: oxygen and carbon dioxide
FACILITATED DIFFUSION
-use integral membrane proteins to help larger,
charged, hydrophilic, and polar molecules across a
concentration gradient

Stroma- contains most of the enzymes required to OSMOSIS

produce carbohydrates molecules
STROMATA
-microscopic pores where the interior of the leaf
exchanges gases with the outside
Mesophyll
-inner tissue (parenchyma) of a leaf
-with higher concentration of water vapor
-PHOTOSYNTHETIC TISSUE
GROUND STATE
-the lowest energy state
LONGER WAVELENGHTS- do not excite molecules
SHORTER WAVELENGTH- disrupts molecules
-movement of water through a selected permeable
membrane from a solution f high to low
concentration of water
ISOTONIC
-water molecules diffuse through the plasma cell
membrane equally in both directions (cell: same)
HYPERTONIC
-when a cell is placed in a higher solute concentration
than that within the cell (cell: shrinks)
HYPOTONIC
-when a cell is placed in low solute concentration
than that within the cell (cell: turgid/swells)

FLUID MOSAIC MODEL by S.J. Singer and Garth L.

Nicolson- plasma membrane

Membrane- phospholipids (amphipathic molecule)

HEAD POLAR (HYDROPHILIC)
TAIL NON-POLAR (HYDROPHOBIC)

PASSAGE OF MATERIALS ACROSS MEMBRANES

-PASSIVE TRANSPORT
-SIMPLE DIFFUSION
-FACILITATED DIFFUSION
-OSMOSIS
-ACTIVE TRANSPORT

PASSIVE TRASNPORT
-transport across the cell membrane that DOES NOT
REQUIRE ENERGY