Chapter 1: The Human Organism 1.

3 Structural and Functional

Organization of the Human Body
Human anatomy and physiology is
the study of the structure and function of Chemical Level
the human body.
- involves how atoms, such as
1.1 Anatomy (ă -nat′ŏ -mē ) hydrogen and carbon, interact
and combine into molecules
o the scientific discipline that
investigates the structure of the Cell Level
body
Cells - the basic structural and
o means to dissect, or cut apart
functional units of organisms
and separate, the parts of the
body for study - Molecules can combine to form
organelles, which are the small
Two basic approaches to the study of structures that make up some
anatomy: cells
Systemic anatomy Tissue Level
 the study of the body by Tissue - a group of similar cells
systems and the materials surrounding them.
 such as the cardiovascular,
nervous, skeletal, and - the characteristics of the cells
muscular systems and surrounding materials
 it is the approach taken in this determine the functions of the
and most introductory tissue
textbooks - classified into four primary
types: epithelial, connective,
Regional anatomy muscle, and nervous
 the study of the organization of Organ Level
the body by areas.
 Within each region, such as the Organ - is composed of two or
head, abdomen, or arm, all more tissue types that together
systems are studied perform one or more common
simultaneously functions
 this is the approach taken in most - the urinary bladder, skin,
medical and dental schools stomach, and heart are
examples of organs
1.2 Physiology (fiz-ē-ol′ō-jē)
Organ System Level
o the study of nature; the scientific
discipline that deals with the Organ system - a group of organs
processes or functions of classified as a unit because of a
living things. common function or set of
o dynamic rather than fixed and functions
unchanging
- the coordinated activity of the
o is the study of a specific
organ systems is necessary for
organism, the human, whereas
normal function
cellular physiology and
systemic physiology are Organism Level
subdivisions that emphasize
organism - any living thing
specific organizational levels
considered as a whole
 - a complex of organ systems
that are mutually dependent on
one another
1.4 Characteristics of Life
1. Organization
- refers to the specific
interrelationships among the
parts of an organism and how
those parts interact to perform
specific functions
2. Metabolism
- the ability to use energy to
perform vital functions, such as
growth, movement, and
reproduction
3. Responsiveness
- the ability of an organism to sense
changes in the environment and
make the adjustments that help
maintain its life
4. Growth
- refers to an increase in size of
all or part of the organism
- increase in cell number, cell size,
or the amount of substance
surrounding cells
5. Development
- includes the changes an
organism undergoes through
time; it begins with fertilization
and ends at death
- development usually involves
growth, but it also involves
differentiation
- Differentiation is change in cell
structure and function from
generalized to specialized.
6. Reproduction
- the formation of new cells or
new organisms
- Without reproduction of cells,
growth and tissue repair are
impossible.
- Without reproduction of the
organism, the species becomes
extinct.
1.5 Homeostasis
Homeostasis - the existence and
maintenance of a relatively constant
environment within the body despite
fluctuations in either the external
environment or the internal
environment.
- the maintenance of a variable,
such as body temperature,
around an ideal normal value,
or set point.
o variables - values that change
o set point - ideal normal value
Negative Feedback
- most systems of the body are
regulated by negative-feedback
mechanisms, which maintain
homeostasis.
- maintains variation within a
normal range
Negative - any deviation from the
set point is made smaller or is
resisted
- The maintenance of normal
body temperature is an example
of a negative-feedback
mechanism.
Have three components:
(1) receptor - monitors the value
of a variable
(2) control center - part of the
brain, establishes the set point
around which the variable is
maintained
(3) effector - the sweat glands, can
change the value of the
variable. A changed variable is a
stimulus because it initiates a
homeostatic mechanism
Positive Feedback
- occur when the initial stimulus
further stimulates the response
- the deviation from the set point
becomes even greater
 - At times, this type of response is
required to re-achieve
homeostasis
1.6 Terminology and the Body Plan
Body Positions
anatomical position
- refers to a person standing erect
with the face directed forward,
the upper limbs hanging to the
sides, and the palms of the hands
facing forward
supine
- when lying face upward
prone
- when lying face downward
To avoid confusion, relational
descriptions are always based on the
anatomical position, no matter the
actual position of the body.
Body Parts and Regions
 central region - head, neck,
and trunk
 trunk - thorax (chest),
abdomen (region between the
thorax and pelvis), and pelvis
(the inferior end of the trunk
associated with the hips)
 upper limb - arm, forearm,
wrist, and hand.
 lower limb - thigh, leg, ankle,
and foot
abdomen - superficially into four
sections, or quadrants, right-upper,
left-upper, right-lower, and left-lower
quadrants.
- subdivided into nine regions:
epigastric, right and left
hypochondriac, umbilical, right
and left lumbar, hypogastric,
and right and left iliac
Planes
 Sagittal plane - runs vertically
through the body and separates it
into right and left parts
 Median plane – a sagittal plane
that passes through the midline
of the body, dividing it into equal
right and left halves
 Transverse plane – horizontal
plane, runs parallel to the
surface of the ground, dividing
the body into superior and
inferior parts
 Frontal plane - coronal plane,
runs vertically from right to left
and divides the body into
anterior and posterior parts
Planes of Section
 longitudinal section- A cut
through the long axis of the
organ
 transverse section - cross
section, a cut at a right angle to
the long axis
 oblique section - a cut made
across the long axis at other
than a right angle
Body Cavities
The trunk contains three large cavities
that do not open to the outside of the
body: the thoracic cavity, the
abdominal cavity, and the pelvic
cavity.
 thoracic cavity - surrounded by
the rib cage and is separated
from the abdominal cavity by the
muscular diaphragm
 the heart, the thymus, the
trachea, the esophagus,
and other structures
 mediastinum - a median
structure that divides the
thoracic cavity into right and
left parts
 abdominal cavity - abdominal
muscles and contains the
stomach, the intestines, the
liver, the spleen, the pancreas,
and the kidneys
 pelvic cavity - a small space
enclosed by the bones of the
 pelvis and contains the urinary
bladder, part of the large
intestine, and the internal
reproductive organs.

 abdomino pelvic cavity -

abdominal and pelvic cavities
are not physically separated
sometimes
Serous Membranes
The trunk cavities are lined by serous
membranes.
serous membranes - secrete fluid that
fills the space between the parietal and
visceral membranes. The serous
membranes protect organs from friction.
o parietal serous membrane - lines
the wall of the cavity
o visceral serous membrane - part
covers the internal organs
Cavity
o pericardial cavity - surrounds the
heart
o pleural cavities - surround the
lungs
o peritoneal cavity - surrounds
certain abdominal and pelvic organs
Mesenteries - parts of the peritoneum
that hold the abdominal organs in place
and provide a passageway for blood
vessels and nerves to organs
Retroperitoneal organs - found
“behind” the parietal peritoneum
- kidneys, the adrenal glands,
the pancreas, parts of the
intestines, and the urinary
bladder