Anatomy and Physiology  all organs systems working together

 associated microorganism such as

 Anatomy intestinal bacteria
 investigates body structures
 means to dissect C, C, T, O,O O
 Physiology
 They’re 11 systems in the body: Integumentary,
 investigates process and function
Skeletal, Muscular, Lymphatic, Urinary,
 human physiology
Endocrine, Nervous, Cardiovascular,
 studies human organism
Respiratory, Reproductive, and Urinary system
 Systemic physiology:
 studies body-organs system Characteristics of Life
 Cellular physiology:
 studies body cells  Organism
A, P, S, C  functional interrelationship between
parts
Importance of Anatomy and Physiology  Metabolism
 chemical and physical changes
Understand how the body:  ability to acquire and used energy
 responds to stimuli  Responsiveness
 environmental cues  ability to sense and responds
 disease  both internal and external
 injury environments
 Growth
Types of Anatomy  increase in size
 Development
 Systemic:  changes in forms and size
 studies body-organ system  Differentiation – changes in cells
 Regional: structure and function
 studies body regions  Reproduction
 Surface:  formation of new cells/organism
 studies external feature  tissue repair
 e.g bone projections
 Anatomical imaging: O, M R, G, D, R
 using technologies
 e.g x-trays, ultrasound, MRI Homeostasis
S, R,S A  Homeostasis
 maintenance of constant internal
Six Levels from Chemical to Organization:
environment/ balance
 Chemicals:  Variables
 smallest level  measure of body properties that change
 atoms, chemical bones, molecules in value
 Cellular:  e.g body tem
 Cells - basic unit of life  heart rate
 compartments and organelles  bp
 e.g mitochondria, nucleus and etc  Normal range
 normal pagtaas or pagbaba around set
 Tissues: point
 groups of cells with similar structures  Set point
 four types: epithelial, connective,  normal/ average value of variable
muscular, and nervous H, V, N, S
 Organs:
 two/more tissues types acting together  Negative feedback
to perform  main mechanism
 e.g stomach, heart, liver and etc  used homeostasis regulation
 Organ-System:  responds involves:
 groups of organs  Detection – away from set
 e.g digestive system, reproduction and point
etc  Correction – towards set point
 Organism  Components of feedbacks:
1. Receptor
  detects changes in variables
2. Control center
 receives receptor signal
 establish set point
Subdivisions of the Abdomen
 sends signal to effector
3. Effector  4 regions/ quadrants
 caused change in variables 1. Right upper quadrant
 Positive feedbacks 2. Right lower quadrants
 occur when initials stimulus further 3. Left upper quadrants
stimulates 4. Left lower quadrants
R,R, L, L
Terminology and the Body Plan
 Anatomical position  9 subdivisions or regions
 erect 1. Right hypochondriac region
 all regulations descriptions based 2. Right lumbar region
on anatomical position 3. Right Iliac region
 Superior – above 4. Epigastric region
 Inferior – below 5. Umbilical region
 Anterior/ Ventral – front 6. Hypogastric region
 Posterior/ dorsal – back 7. Left hypochondriac region
 In 4 legged animals, the ventral is belly while 8. Left lumbar region
dorsal is back 9. Left Iliac region

Definitional Terms Body Cavities

 Medial – close to midline  Thoracic cavity

 space w/in chest wall and diaphragm
 Lateral – away from midline
 lungs, heart, thymus glands,
 Proximal – close to point of attachment
oesophagus, trachea
 Distal – away from point of attachment
 Mediastinum
 Superficial – close to the surface
 space between lings
 Deep – towards the surface
 heart, thymus gland, oesophagus,
Body Planes trachea
 Abdominal cavity
 Sagitat plane  space between diaphragm and pelvis
 separates into right and left  stomach, intestines, liver, spleen,
 Median plane pancreas, kidneys
 sagittal plane but divides in the midline  Pelvic cavity
 Transverse plane  space between pelvis
 horizontal plane  urinary bladder, reproductive organs,
 separates into superior (above) and part of large intestines
inferior (below) T, M, A, P
 Frontal plane
 vertical plane
 separate into anterior (front) and
posterior (back) parts
S, M, T, F

Planes of Section through an Organ

 Longitudinal section
 Transverse section Serous Membranes
 Oblique section
 line trunk cavities, cover organs
 Upper limbs
 Visceral serous membranes - covers organ
 upper arm, forearm, wrist, hand
 Parietal serous membranes - outer membrane
 Lower limbs
 Cavity - fluid filled space between membrane
 thigh, lower leg, ankle, foot
 Central region
Three sets of Serous Membranes and
 head, neck, trunk
U, L, C cavities
  Pericardium Connective Tissue Coverings
- around heart
- pericardial cavity  Epimysium – SK surrounded by
Connective Tissue sheets
 Pleura
 Fascicles – Sk subdivided into groups of
- around lungs muscle cells
- pleural cavity  Perimysium – each fascicle surrounded
by connective tissue covering
 Peritoneum  Endomysium – each skeletal muscle
- around abdominopelvic cavity and surrounded by connective tissue
covering
it’s organ
Epi,Fa, Peri, Endo
- peritoneal cavity
Muscle Fiber Structure
P, P, P
 Muscle fiber
MUSCULAR SYSTEM  single layer cell
 several nuclei in periphery
 Skeletal Muscle fibers
 several nuclei in periphery
Types of Muscles  Sarcolemma (Call membrane) – many
tubelike called Transverse tubules/ T
 Skeletal tubules
 attached to bone  T tubules
 striated  occur along the muscle fiber
 Voluntary  associated with enlarged portion called
 Cardiac Sarcoplasmic reticulum
 in heart  Terminal cisternae – the enlarged
 striated portions
 involuntary  T- tubules connect the sarcolemma to
 Smooth terminal cisternae to form a muscle
 in blood vessels, hollow organs (e.g. triad
stomach)  Sarcoplasm – cytoplasm of muscle fiber
 non-striated contains bundle of proteins
 involuntary  Myofibrils – bundles of proteins, consist
of: myofilaments, actin, and myosin
C, S,S
Nerve Supply
Functions
 Motor neuron
 Movement
 nerve cell stimulates muscle cells
 Maintain posture
 Neuromuscular junction
 Respiration
 synapse, where fiber of a nerve
 Production of body heat
connects with a muscle fiber
 Communication
 Synapse
 Heart beat
 cell-cell junctions
 Contraction of organs and vessels
 Motor unit
 group of muscle fibes that motor
Make Me Run Perfectly Cause Hope’s Coming
neuron stimulates
 Presynaptic terminal
Properties of Muscle
 end of neuron cell
 Contractility  Synaptic cleft
 shorten forcefully  space between presynaptic terminal
 Excitability and postsynaptic membrane
 respond to stimulus  Postsynaptic membrane
 Extensibility  muscle fiber membrane (sarcolemma)
 stretch beyond normal  Synaptic vesicle
 Elasticity  vesicle in presynaptic terminal that
 recoil to original length stores and release neurotransmitter
 Neurotransmitters
C,E, E,E  chemicals stimulates postsynaptic cells
 Acetylcholine
Skeletal Muscle/ Striated muscle  neurotransmitters stimulates skeletal
muscle
 40% body weight
 named cause of muscle attached to it Energy for Muscle Contractions
 some attach to skin/ connective tissues
sheets  Muscle fibers
 energy demanding cells
  energy come from aerobic (O2) or Upper Scapular and Limb Muscles
Anaerobic (W/o O2) and ATP
1. Aerobic production of ATP during exercise  Trapezius
and normal condition  shoulder and upper back
2. Anaerobic production of ATP during short-  extends neck and head
term work  Pectoralis major:
3. Conversion of molecules called creatine  chest
phosphate to ATP  elevates ribs
4. Conversion of 2 ADP to 1 ATP and 1 AMP  Serratus anterior:
during heavy exercise  between ribs
 elevates ribs
Cardiac Muscle  Deltoid:
 shoulder
 cells are long, striated and branching  abductor or upper limbs
 one nucleus per cell
 involuntary Upper Limb Muscles
 cells connected to another called Intercalated
disks  Triceps brachii
 function as a single unit  3 heads
 extends elbow
Skeletal Muscle  Biceps brachii
 “flexing muscle”
 Tendon  flexes elbow and shoulder
 muscle to bone (M-B)
 Brachialis
 Aponeuroses  flexes elbow
 broad, sheetlike tendons  Letissimus dorsi
 Retinaculum  lower back
 band of connective tissues  extends shoulder
 holds down tendons at each wrist and
ankle
 Insertion
 end of muscle attached to bone Forearm Muscles
 Belly
 between the origin and insertion  flexor longus
 Agonists  flexor carpi radialis
 group of muscle working together  flexor carpi ulnaris
 Antagonist  flexor digitorium profundus
 group of muscle oppose muscle action  flexor digitorium superficials
 pronator
 Nomenclature  brachioradialis
- muscle named according:  extensor carpi radialis brevis
1. Location
2. Size Pelvic Floor Muscles
3. Shape
4. Orientation of fascicles  levator ani
5. Origin and Insertion  ishiocavernosus
6. Number of heads  bulbospongiosus
7. Function  deep transverse perineal
 superficial transverse perineal
Muscle of Mystification
Muscles of Hips and Thighs
 Temporalis
 Masseter  lliopsoas:
 Pterygoids (2 pairs)  flexus hip
 Gluteus maximus
Thoracic Muscle  buttocks
 extends hip and abducts thigh
 External intercostal:  Gluteus medius:
 elevate ribs for inspiration  hip
 Internal intercostal:  abducts and rotates thigh
 depress ribs during forced expiration
 Diaphragm Muscles of the Upper Leg
 moves during quiet breathing
- quadriceps composed of 4 thigh muscles:
Abdominal Wall Muscles
The rectus femoris:
 Internal abdominal oblique:
 front of thigh
 compress abdomen
 extend knee and flexes hip
 Transverse abdominis:
 The vastus lateralis:
 compress abdomen
  extend knee
 The vastus medialis:
 extends knee
 The vastus intermedius:
 extends knee
 Gracilis:
 adducts thigh and flexes knee

Biceps femoris, semimembranous,

semitendinosus:

 Hamstring
 back of thugh
 flexes knee, rotates legs, extend hips

Muscle of Lower Leg

 Tibialis anterior:
 front of lower leg
 inverts foot
 Gastrocnemius:
 calf
 flexes foot and leg
 Soleus:
 attaches to ankle
 flexes foot

Fluid-mosaic model

 is the model used to describe the cell membrane

structure.

Cell Structure

Organelles:
• specialized structures in cells that perform
• specific functions
• Example: nucleus, mitochondria, ribosomes

Cytoplasm:
• jelly-like substance that holds organelles

Cell membrane:
• also termed the plasma membrane
• a structure that encloses the cytoplasm

Functions of the Cell

 Smallest units of life

 Cell metabolism and energy use
Synthesis of molecules
Communication
 Reproduction and inheritance

Cell Membrane

 The cell membrane, or plasma membrane, is

 the outermost component of a cell.
 It forms a boundary between material in
inside the cell and the outside.
 Materials inside the cell are intracellular and
those outside are extracellular. It acts as a
selective barrier.
Phospholipid
 Molecule has a polar head region that is
hydrophilic and a nonpolar tail region that is
hydrophobic.
cell membrane
 Has selective permeability, which allows
only certain substances to pass in and out
of the cell.
 Some substances, like O2 and CO2,
can pass directly through the cell
membrane’s phospholipid bilayer.
Passive membrane transport
 Does not require the cell to expend
energy.
 include diffusion, osmosis, and facilitated
diffusion
Active membrane transport
 Does require the cell to expend energy,
usually in the form of ATP.
 include active transport, secondary active
transport, endocytosis, and exocytosis.
Diffusion
 Generally involves movement of substances
in a solution down a concentration gradient.
solution
 is generally composed of two major parts,
solutes and the solvent.
Solutes
 Are substances dissolved in a predominant
liquid or gas, which is called the solvent.
 Solutes, such as ions or molecules, tend
to move from an area of higher
concentration of a solute to an area of
lower concentration of that same solute
in solution.
Diffusion
 This movement from high concentration to a
low Concentration.
Concentration gradient
 is the difference in the concentration of a
solute in a solvent between two points
divided by the distance between the two
points.
 is said to be steeper when the concentration
difference is large and/or the distance is
small.
Leak channels
 constantly allow ions to pass through.
Gated channel
 Limit the movement of ions across the
membrane by opening and closing.
Osmosis
 is the diffusion of water (a solvent) across a
selectively permeable membrane from a
region of higher water concentration to one
of lower water concentration.
 exerts a pressure, termed osmotic pressure,
which is the force required to prevent
movement of water across cell membrane
Osmotic pressure
 Depends on the difference of solution
concentrations inside a cell relative to
outside the cell.
Hypotonic solution
 Has a lower concentration of solutes and a
higher concentration of water relative to the
cytoplasm of the cell.
 Water moves by osmosis into the cell,
causing it to swell.
 The solution has less tone, or osmotic
pressure, the cell.
Isotonic
 A cell immersed in an isotonic solution has
the same solute concentrations inside and
outside the cell.
 The cell neither shrink nor swell.
Hypertonic
 The cytoplasm of a cell in a hypertonic
solution has a lower solute concentration
and higher water concentration than the
surrounding solution.
 Water moves by osmosis from the cell
shrinkage, or crenation.
Carrier Mediated transport
 Mechanisms include facilitated diffusion
and active transport.
Facilitated Diffusion
 Is a carrier-mediated transport process that
moves substances across the cell membrane
from an area of higher concentration to an
area of lower concentration.
Secondary Active transport
 Uses the energy provided by a
concentration gradient established by the
active transport of one substance.
 No additional energy is required above the
energy provided by initial active transport
pump.
Endocytosis
 Is a process that brings materials into cell
using vesicles.
Receptor-mediated endocytosis
 Occurs when a specific substance binds to
the receptor molecule and is transported
into the cell.
Phagocytosis
 Is often used for endocytosis when solid
particles are ingested.
Pinocytosis
 Has much smaller vesicles formed, and
they contain liquid rather than solid
particles.
Exocytosis
 Involves the use of membrane-bound sacs
called secretory vesicles that accumulate
materials for release from the cell.
Nucleus
 Controls all the activities of the cell.
Ribosomes
 The site of protein synthesis
Endoplasmic Reticulum
 Is a series of membranes forming sacs and
tubules that extends from the outer nuclear
membrane into the cytoplasm.
Golgi Apparatus
 Consists of closely packed stacks of
curved, membrane-bound sacs.
 It collects, modifies, packages, and
distributes proteins and lipids manufactured
by the ER.
Lysosomes
 Are membrane-bound vesicles formed from
the Golgi apparatus.
 Contain a variety of enzymes that function
as intracellular digestive systems.
Peroxisomes
 Are small, membrane-bound vesicles
containing enzymes that break down fatty
acids, amino acids, and hydrogen peroxide.
Mitochondria
 Are small organelles responsible for
producing considerable amount of ATP by
aerobic metabolism.
Cytoskeleton
 Gives internal framework to the cell.
Microtubules
 Performs a variety of roles, including
helping support the cytoplasm of the cells,
and assisting in cell division.
Microfilaments
 Are small fibrils formed from protein
subunits that structurally support the
cytoplasm, determining cell shape.
Intermediate Filaments
 Are fibrils formed from protein subunits
that smaller in diameter than microtubules
but larger in diameter than microfilaments.
Centrioles
 Is a specialized area of cytoplasm close to
the nucleus where microtubule formation
occurs.
Cilia
 Project from the surface of certain cells.
Flagella
 Have a structure similar to that of cilia but
are much longer, and they usually occur only
one per cell.
Microvili
 Are specialized extensions of the cell
membrane that are supported by
microfilaments.
DNA
 Contains the formation that directs protein
synthesis; a process called gene expression.
Transcription
 Involves copying of DNA into MRNA
Translation
 Involves mRNA being used to produce a
protein.
Mitosis
 Involves formation of 2 daughter cells from a
single parent cell.
Prophase
 The chromatin condenses to form visible
chromosomes.
Metaphase
 The chromosomes align near the center of
the cell.
Anaphase
 At the beginning, The chromatids separate
and each chromatid is called a chromosome.
Telophase
 The chromosomes in each of the daughter
cells become organized to form two separate
nuclei, one in each newly formed daughter
cell.
Extracellular matrix

 Bone, cartilage, tendons, and ligaments of the

skeletal; system are all connective tissues.

Extracellular matrix

 Collage is a tough, ropelike protein.

Cartilage Extracellular Matrix

 Contains collagen and proteoglycans.

Bone extracellular Matrix

 Contains collagen and minerals, including

calcium and phosphate.

Long bones

 Longer than they are wide; example upper and

lower bones.

Short bones

 Approximately as wide as they are long;

example bone in the wrist and ankle

Flat bone

 Relatively thin, flattened shape; example skull

and sternum
Irregular bone
 Include the vertebrae and facial bones.
Bone marrow
 Bones contain cavities, such as the large
medullary cavities in the epiphyses of long
bones and in the interior of other bones.
Red marrow
 Is the location of blood forming cells.
Yellow marrow
 Forms part of cranium floor, lateral, posterior
portion of eye orbits, lateral portions of
cranium anterior to temporal bones.
Ethmoid bone
 Anterior portion of cranium, including medial
surface of eye orbit and roof of nasal cavity.
Maxillae
 Form upper jaw, anterior portion of hard palate,
part of lateral walls of nasal cavity, floor of eye
orbits.

 Is mostly fat. Palatine bones

Spongy bone tissue  Form posterior portion of hard palate, lateral

wall of nasal cavity.
 It is located at the epiphyses of long bones and
center of the bones. Zygomatic bones
 It has no osteons  Cheek bones
Osteoblast  Also form floor and lateral wall of each eye orbit

 Responsible for the formulation of bone and the Lacrimal bones

repair and remodelling of bone.  Medial surfaces of eye orbits
Osteocytes Nasal bones
 Cells that maintain bone matrix and form from  Form bridge of nose
osteoblast after bone matrix has surrounded it.
Vomer

 In midline of nasal cavity

 Forms nasal septum with the ethmoid bone
Osteoclasts Inferior nasal conchae
 Contribute to bone repair and remodelling by  Attached to lateral walls of nasal cavity
existing bone, called bone reabsorption.
Mandible
Intramembranous ossification
 Lower jawbone
 Bone formation that occurs within connective  Only movable skull bone
tissue membranes.
Hyoid bone
Axial skeleton
 Is an unpaired, U-shaped bone that is not part
 Composed of the skull, the vertebral column, of the skull and has no direct bony attachment
and the thoracic cage. to the skull or any other bone.
Frontal bone Vertebral column
 Anterior part of cranium  Spine, is the central axis of the skeleton,
Parietal bones extending from the base of the skull to slightly
past the end of the pelvis.
 Sides and roof of cranium
Humerus
Occipital bones
 Upper limb
 Posterior portion and floor of cranium.
Ulna
Temporal bones
 Forearm
 Inferior to parietal bones on each side of the
cranium. Radius

Sphenoid bone  Forearm

Carpals  Slightly movable joint
 Example: Between vertebrae
 Wrist
Diarthrosis
Metacarpals
 Freely movable joint
 Hand  Example- knee, elbow, and wrist articulations.
Pelvis Flexion: Bending
 Includes pelvic girdle and coccyx Extension: Straightening
Ischium Abduction: Movement away from midline
 Inferior and posterior region Adduction: Movement toward the midline
Acetabulum Pronation: rotation of the forearm with palms up
 Hip socket (joint) Rotation: Movement of a structure about the long axis
Femur Effects of aging: Deceased of collagen production, loss if
 Thigh Bone density, Degenerative changes.

Patella

 Knee cap

Tibia

 Large lower leg

Fibula

 Small lower leg

Tarsals

 Ankle

Metatarsals

 Foot

Phalanges

 Toes and fingers

Fibrous joint

 United by fibrous connective tissue

 Subclasses are sutures, syndesmosis, and
gomphoses

Cartilaginous

 United by fibrous connective tissue

 Subclasses are synchondroses and symphysis

Synovial

 Joined by a fluid cavity

 Most joints of the appendicular

Synarthrosis

 Non-moving joint
 Example- skull bone articulations

Amphiarthrosis