5.

Development – changes an organism undergoes

THE HUMAN through time

ORGANISM 6. Reproduction
cells/organisms
– formation of new
Anatomy
! Study of the structures of the body
Homeostasis
! Anatomy; to dissect, or cut apart, or separate
! Ability to maintain relatively stable internal
Approaches to the Study of Anatomy conditions
1. Systemic Anatomy – study of the body by ! Homeo: same; stasis: standing still
organ system ! Balance / Equilibirum

2. Regional Anatomy – study of the body by areas
Gen. Ways to Examine the Internal Structures
1. Surface Anatomy – study of external features;
superficial structures to locate deeper structures
2. Anatomical Imaging – non-invasive method for
examining deep structures; x-ray, CT scan, PET
scan, MRI
Homeostatic mechanisms – normally maintain body
temp near an ideal normal value; sweating, shivering
Variables – conditions that can change
Set point – ideal value
Normal range – acceptable range of values on which
HM can still be met

Physiology Homeostatic Control Mechanisms

! Study of the processes and functions of the 1. Negative-feedback Mechanism
body ! Regulates most systems of the body to maintain
! Main goals; to understand and predict; to homeostasis
understand how the body maintains conditions ! Negative; any deviation from the set point is
resisted
Structural and Functional Organization
1. Chemical Level 2. Positive-feedback Mechanism
! How atoms interact and combine into molecules ! Not homeostatic and is rare in a healthy individ
! Positive; when a value deviates from normal, the
2. Cell Level system’s response is to make it greater
! Cell – basic structural and functional unit of ! Massive blood loss, child birth
organisms
Components to Maintain Homeostasis
3. Tissue Level a. Receptors
! Tissue – group of similar cells b. Control center – analyzes information and
determines the appropriate response
4. Organ Level c. Effector – provides the meant o control the
! Organ – composed of two or more tissue types value of a variable
that perform common functions
Terminology and The Body Plan
5. Organ System Level Body Positions
Anatomical Position – a person standing erect with the
! Organ System – group of organs classified as a
unit with a common set of functions face directed forward, the upper limbs hanging to the
sides, and the palms of the hands facing forward
6. Organism Level
Supine – lying face upward
! Organism – any living thing considered as a
whole
Prone – lying face downward
Characteristics of Life
1. Organization – interrelationship among the
parts of an organism and how those parts
interact to perform specific functions

2. Metabolism – ability to use energy to perform

vital functions

3. Responsiveness – ability to sense changes in the

environment and make the adjustments

4. Growth – increase in size

M o r a n o , M . A .
Directional Terms LOWER LIMB
Hip Coxal
Inferior Lower Thigh Femoral
Superior Higher Kneecap Pat`ellar
Leg Crural
Anterior Front
Posterior Back Foot Pedal
Ankle Talus
Ventral Belly Top of foot Dorsum
Dorsal Back Toes Digital

Proximal Nearest Skull Cranial

Distal Distant Base of Skull Occipital
Back of Neck Nuchal
Away from the
Lateral
midline TRUNK
Medial Towards the midline Back Dorsal
Shoulder blade Scapular
Superficial Toward or on surface Spinal Column Vertebral
Deep Internal Lumbar Loin

Between hips Sacral

Body Parts and Regions Buttock Gluteal
Perineum Perineal
Head Cephalic
Forehead Frontal UPPER LIMB
Eye Orbital Point of shoulder Acromial
Nose Nasal Point of elbow Olecranon
Mouth Oral Back of hand Dorsum
Ear Otic
Cheek Buccal LOWER LIMB
Chin Mental Hollow behind knee Popliteal
Calf Sural
Neck Cervical Sole Plantar
Heel Calcaneal
TRUNK
Thoracic Thorax
Chest Pectoral Subdivisions of the Abdomen
Breastbone Sternal
Breast Mammary Right Left
Upper Upper
Abdomen Abdominal Quadrant Quadrant
Navel Umbilical Right Left
Pelvis Pelvic Lower Lower
Groin Inguinal Quadrant Quadrant
Genital Pubic

UPPER LIMBS Right Left

Epigastric
Collarbone Clavicular Hypochondriac Hypochondriac
Armpit Axillary Right Left
Umbilical
Arm Brachial Lumbar Lumbar
Front of elbow Antecubital Right Left
Hypogastric
Forearm Antebrachial Iliac Iliac

Hand Manual
Wrist Carpal
Palm Palmar
Fingers Digital

M o r a n o , M . A .
Planes

Body Cavities
Thoracic cavity – bounded by ribs and the diaphragm
" Mediastinum – partition containing the heart,
thymus, trachea, esophagus

Abdominal cavity – bounded by the diaphragm and the

abdominal mucles

Pelvic Cavity – surrounded by the pelvic bones

Pericardial cavity – surrounds the heart

Pleural cavity – surrounds the lungs

Peritoneal cavity – surrounds certain abdominal and

pelvic organs

Serous Membranes
! Line the trunk cavities and cover the organs

Visceral Serous Membrane – covers the internal organs

Parietal Serous Membrane – lines the wall of the cavity

Mesenteries – hold the abdominal organs in place and

provide a passageway for blood vessels and nerves to
organs

Pericarditis – inflammation of the pericardium

Pleurisy – inflammation of the pleura

Peritonitis – inflammation of the peritoneum

M o r a n o , M . A .
 Compound – two or more diff. types of atoms that are
CHEMICAL BASIS chemically combined

OF LIFE Dissociation
Basic Chemistry ! Separation of ions in an ionic compound by
Chemistry – concerned with atomic composition and polar water molecules
structure of substances and the reactions they undergo
Electrolytes – dissociated ions
Matter, Mass, and Weight
Matter – anything that occupies space and has mass Chemical Rxns
! Substances interact either to form or to break
Mass – amount of matter in an object; kilogram chemical bonds

Weight – gravitational force acting on an object
Elements and Atoms
Element – simplest type of matter having unique
properties
Atom – smallest particle of an element
Atomic Structure
Neutrons – no electrical charge
Protons – positive charges
Electrons – negative charges
Nucleus – formed by protons and neutrons
Electron cloud – where electrons are most likely to be
found
Reactants – substances that enter into a chemical
reaction
Products – substances that result from the chemical rxn
Classification of Chemical Rxns
1. Synthesis – combination of reactants
2. Decomposition – breakdown of larger reactants
3. Exchange – decomposition + synthesis
Anabolism – synthesis rxns that occur in the body
Catabolism – decomposition rxns that occur in the body
Metabolism – anabolic + catabolic rxns in the body
Reversible Rxns
! Reactants can form products, products can form
reactants

Atomic number – no of protons in each atom Energy and Chemical Rxns

Mass number – no. of protons + no. of neutrons
Electrons and Chemical Bonding
Chemical Bonding – electrons are transferred or shared
between atoms
Ionic Bond – electrons are transferred
Energy – capacity to do work
Potential Energy – stored energy
Kinetic Energy – energy caused by movement
Chemical Energy – form of potential energy stored in
chemical bonds

Covalent Bond – electrons are shared Rate of Chemical Rxns (RCTC)

1. Reactants
Polar covalent bond – unequal, asymmetrical sharing of 2. Concentration
electrons 3. Temperature
4. Catalysts (increases the rate of chem rxn without
Polar molecules – molecules with asymmetrical itself being permanently changed or depleted)
electrical charge
Acids and Bases
Nonpolar covalent bond – equal sharing of electrons Acid – proton donor
bet. atoms
Base – proton acceptor
Nonpolar molecules – molecules with symmetrical
electrical charge The pH Scale
! Indicates the H+ concentration of a solution
Hydrogen Bonds " Neutral – equal no. of H+ and OH-; pH of 7.0
! Weak attraction bet the oppositely charged " Acidic – H+ > OH-; pH less than 7.0
regions of polar molecules " Basic – H+ > OH-; pH greater than 7.0

Molecules and Compounds 7.35 – 7.45 – normal pH range of blood

Molecule – two or more atoms that are chemically
combined Acidosis – blood pH drops beow 7.35

M o r a n o , M . A .
Alkalosis – blood pH rises above 7.45
Salts
! Forms when an acid reacts with a base
Buffer
! Chemicals that resist changes in pH
Polyunsaturated fats – two or more double covalent
bonds; safflower, sunflower, corn, fish oils
Trans fats – unsaturated fats tha have been altered by
addition of H atoms
Phospholipids – phosphorus containing molecues

Inorganic Molecules Hydrophilic – water loving; polar end of molecules are

! Do not contain Carbon attracted to water

Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide Hydrophobic – water fearing; non polar end is repelled
Oxygen – involved with the extraction of energy from by water
food molecules
Eicosanoids – important chemicals derived form fatty
Carbon Dioxide – by-product of the breakdown of food acids; important regulatory molecules
molecules
Prostaglandins – regulates secretion of hormones, blood
Water clotting, and some reproductive functions
1. Stabilizing body temperature.
2. Protection; lubricant/cushion. Steroids – carbon atoms in four ring-like structures
3. Facilitating chemical reactions.
4. Transporting substances Cholesterol – important steroid bcos steroid molecules
are synthesized from it; important component of cell
Organic Molecules membranes
! Carbon containing
Proteins
Carbohydrates ! CHON + S
! CHO ! Regulate chemical reactions
! Serve as structural components
Monosaccharides – smallest carbohydrates; simple ! Cause muscle contraction
sugars
" Glucose – blood sugar Amino acids – building blocks of proteins; amine group
" Fructose – fruit sugar + carboxyl group; 20 basic types: 12 simple org.
molecules + 8 obtained in diet
Disaccharides – 2 monosaccharides
" Sucrose – table sugar Denaturation – change in shape caused by abnormally
high temp. or change in pH
Polysaccharides – many monosaccharides
" Glycogen – animal starch Enzymes – protein catalysts; lower the activation energy
# Plant starch
Activation energy – energy needed to start a chem rxn
# Cellulose
Lock-and-key model – the shapes of an enzyme and
Lipids
those of the reactant allow the enzymes to bind easily to
! Substances that dissolve in non polar solvents the reactants
! CHO + P + N
Nucleic Acids: DNA + RNA
Fats – important energy-storage molecules; pad and Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) – genetic material of cells
insulate the body
Ribonucleic acid (RNA) – important role in gene
Glycerol & Fatty Acids – building blocks of fats expression/protein synthesis
Triglycerides – most common type of fat molecules Nucleic acid – large molecules composed of CHONP
Saturated Fatty Acid – single covalent bond; beef, pork, Nucleotides – basic building clocks of DNA + RNA
whole milk, cheese, butter, eggs, coconut oil, palm oil
Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)
Unsaturated Fatty Acid – one of more double covalent
! Important organic molecule
bonds
! Energy currency of cells
Mono-unsaturated fats – double covalent bonds bet. ! Stores and provides energy
carbon; olive and peanut oil

M o r a n o , M . A .
CELL STRUCTURES Crenation – cell shrinking

AND FUNCTIONS Carrier-Mediated Transport Mechanisms

Carrier-mediated transport – movement of a substance
Cell Structure
Cell – basic unit of life across a membrane by means of a carrier molecule

Organelles – specialized structures Facilitated diffusion – moves substances from a higher

to lower concentration; does not require ATP
1. Nucleus – contains genetic material
Active transport – moves substances from a lower to
2. Cytoplasm – living material higher concentration; requires ATP
" Cystic fibrosis – genetic disorder that affects the
3. Plasma membrane – encloses the cytoplasm and active transport of Cl- into cells
nucleus
Secondary active transport – moving concentration
Functions of the Cell (CSCR) gradient to move another substance
1. Cell metabolism and energy use. " Cotransport – same direction
2. Synthesis of molecules. " Countertransport – opposite direction
3. Communication.
4. Reproduction and inheritance. Endocytosis and Exocytosis
Endocytosis – movement of materials into cells by
Cell Membrane formation of vesicles
! Outer boundary of the cell " Phagocytosis – cell eating; solid particles are
! Determines what enters and leaves the cell ingested
" Pinocytosis – cell drinking; smaller vesicles are
Extracellular – substances outside the cell formed and contains liquid

Intracellular – substances inside the cell Exocytosis – secretion of materials from cells

Fluid-Mosaic Model – arrangement of molecules in the Organelles

cell membrane Nucleus
Nuclear envelope – two-layered membrane that bounds
Selectively permeable – allows some substances to pass the nucleus
into or out of the cells
Nuclear pores – where materials can can pass into or out
Movement Through the Cell Membrane the nucleus
Diffusion
! Movement of a solute from an area of higher to Chromatin – loosely coiled chromosomes
lower concentration gradient
Nucleoli – consists of ribosomal RNA and proteins
Concentration gradient – difference in the concentration
of a solute in a solvent minus the concentration of the Ribosomes
solute at another point ! Site of protein synthesis

Leak channels – allow ions to pass through Endoplasmic Reticulum

! Forms tubules/sacs throughout the cell
Gated channels – limit the movement of ions across the
membrane Rough E.R. – protein synthesis and modification;
contains ribosomes
Osmosis
! Diffusion of water across a selectively Smooth E.R. – lipid synthesis, detoxification, and Ca
permeable membrane storage

Osmotic pressure – force required to prevent movement Golgi Apparatus

of water across a selectively permeable membrane ! Modifies, packages, and distributes lipids and
proteins
Hypotonic – lower concentration
Secretory vesicles
Isotonic – same concentration ! Transports and stores materials within cells

Hypertonic – higher concentration Lysosomes

! Membrane bound sacs containing hydrolytic
Lysis – when cells swell, then ruptures enzymes

M o r a n o , M . A .
Peroxisomes Two Phases of the Cell Life Cycle
! Enzymes that digest fatty acids and amino acids 1. Interphase – non-dividing phase
! Enzymes that catalyze the breakdown of 2. Cell Division – formation of daughter cells from
hydrogen peroxide a single parent cell

Proteasomes 46 Chromosomes – diploid no. of chromosomes

! Not bound by membranes
! Digest selected proteins 2 X Chromosome = Female
X + Y Chromosome = Male
Mitochondria
! Major site of ATP production Autosomes – 22 remaining pairs of chromosomes

Cytoskeleton Mitosis
! Holds organelles in place; enables the cell to 1. Prophase – chromatin condenses
change shape
2. Metaphase – chromosomes align at the center
! Microtubules – support the cytoplasm; assist in
3. Anaphase – chromatids separate at the
cell division
centromere and migrate to opposite poles
Microfilaments – involved in cell movement
4. Telophase – chromosomes unravel to become
chromatin
Intermediate filaments – provide mechanical support
Differentiation
Centrioles
Centrosome – where microtubule formation occurs ! Cells develop specialized structures and
functions
Centrioles – specialized zone of the cytoplasm
Apoptosis
Spindle fibers – involved in separation of chromosome ! Programmed cell death
during mitosis
Cellular Aspects of Aging
Cillia, Flagella, and Microvilli 1. Cellular clock.
Cilia – moves substances over the surface 2. Death genes.
3. DNA damage.
Flagella – propel sperm cells 4. Free radicals.
5. Mitochondrial damage.
Microvilli – increase the surface area of cells; aids in
absorption

Whole-Cell Activity
Gene Expression
Gene – sequence of nucleotides

Transcription – making a copy of a gene

Messenger RNA (mRNA) – the copy itself

Codons – groups of three nucleotides

Translation – converting that copied information into a

protein

Translation RNA (tRNA) – carry the amino acids

Anti-codon – series of three nucleotides of tRNA

Nucleotide Pairs

Cytosine Guanine
Thymine Adenine
Uracil Adenine

UAA – stop codon

Cell Life Cycle

M o r a n o , M . A .
TISSUES !
!
Cilia"–"propel"materials"
Goblet) Cells" –" specialized" mucusKproducing"
! A" group" of" cells" with" similar" structure" and" cells"
function" that" have" similar" extracellular" )
substances"located"between"them." Cell&Connections)
" ! Tight) Junctions) C" bind" adjacent" cells" together"
Histology) and" form" permeability" barriers;" prevent" the"
The"microscopic"study"of"tissue"structure" passage"of"materials"between"epithelial"cells"
" ! Desmosomes) –) mechanical" links" that" bind" cells"
Epithelial)Tissue" together"
! Covers"external"and"internal"surfaces;" " Hemidesmosomes)C")anchor)cells)to)the)
! Has"a"basement"membrane," basement)membrane"
! Little"EM"(extracellular"matrix)," ! Gap)Junctions)–)allow"small"molecules"and"ions"
! No"blood"vessels." to"pass)
" )
Functions)of)Epithelial)Tissues)(PAPSA)" Glands)
1. Protecting"underlying"structures." Glands"–)secrete"substances"onto"a"surface"
2. Acting"as"a"barrier." a. Exocrine"–"secrete"through"ducts)
3. Permitting"the"passage"of"substances." " Unicellular)
4. Secreting"substances." " Multicellular)
5. Absorbing"substances." # Simple)–)non"branched)
" # Compound)C)branched)
Classification)of)Epithelium" • Tubular)
Accdg.&To&Layers& o Straight)
1. Simple)E.)–)single)layered) o Coiled)
2. Stratified)E.)–)multiClayered) • Acinus) (grapelike)" or"
3. Pseudostratified) Columnar) E) –) single) layered) Alveolus"(small"cavity))
but)appears)to)be)stratified) &
4. Transitional) E) –) stratified) x) can) be) greatly) Mode&of&Secretion)
stretched) " Merocrine) –) products" are" released" but"
) no" actual" cellular" material" is" lost;"
Accdg.&To&Shape& pancreas)
1. Squamous)–)flat) " Apocrine) –) secretory" products" are"
a. Non4keratinized) C) in" the" deepest" and" released"as"fragments;"mammary"glands)
outermost"layers,"moist) " Holocrine) C) " shedding" of" entire" cells;"
b. Keratinized) C) composed" of" dead" cells" sebaceous"glands)
containing" the" protein" keratin;" durable," )
moistureKresistant,"dry"character.) b. Endocrine)C)release"hormones"that"are"absorbed"
2. Cuboidal)–)cubeKlike" directly"into"the"blood)
3. Columnar)–)tall"and"thin) )
) Connective)Tissue)
Functional)Characteristics) ! Large"amounts"of"EM)
Cell&Layers&and&Cell&Shapes& )
! Simple) E." K" diffusion," filtration," secretion," or" Functions)of)Connective)Tissue)(EC2S2PT))
absorption;)found"in"organs:"to"move"materials) 1. Enclosing"and"separating"other"tissues."
! Stratified)E.)C)protection" 2. Connecting"tissues"to"one"another."
! Squamous)Cells)C)diffusion"and"filtration) 3. Supporting"and"moving"parts"of"the"body."
! Cuboidal) and) Columnar) Cells) –) secretion" and" 4. Storing"compounds."
absorption" 5. Cushioning"and"insulating."
) 6. Transporting."
Free&Surfaces& 7. Protecting."
! Smooth)free)surface)–)reduces"friction" "
! Microvilli"–"increase"the"free"surface"are" "

M o r a n o , M . A .
Cells)of)Connective)Tissue" II. Supporting)Connective)Tissue)
! Blast)(germ))–)froms"the"matrix) 1. Cartilage)
! Cyte)(cells))–)maintains) ! Composed" of" chondrocytes," in" spaces" called"
! Clast)(break))–)breaks"down) lacunae)
) ! Flexibility"and"strength)
! Adipocytes)–)contain"large"amount"of"lipids) ! Provides"support)
! Macrophages) –) WBCs" that" move" about" and" a. Hyaline) –) most" abundant," covers" the"
ingest"foreign"substances) ends" of" bones," can" withstand" repeated"
! Mast) Cells) –) play" an" important" role" in" compressions)
inflammation" b. Fibro) –) more" collagen," able" to" resists"
! Mesenchymal) Cells) –) have" the" potential" to" pulling" or" tearing," found" in" disks"
differentiate"to"form"adult"cell"types) between" vertebrae" and" some" joints"
) (knee"and"jaw))
Extracellular)Matrix) c. Elastic) –) contains" elastic" fibers," able" to"
! Protein)Fibers) recoil" to" its" original," external" ear,"
" Collagen) Fibers) –) microscopic" ropes;) epiglottis,"auditory"tube)
flexible"but"resist"stretching) )
" Reticular) Fibers) –) fine," short" that" 2. Bone)
branch;"support"network) ! Hard"connective"tissue)
" Elastic)Fibers)–)coiled;"can"recoil"back"to" ! Consists"of"living"cells,"mineralized"matrix)
shape) ! Osteocytes" (bone" cells)," are" located" within"
! Ground) Substance) –) shapeless" background" lacunae)
where" cells" and" collagen" fibers" can" be" seen;" ! Support"and"protect"other"organs"
highly"structured"molecules) a. Spongy)
" Proteoglycans) –) pine" trees:" branches" =" b. Compact)
proteins," pine" needles" =" )
polysaccharides;"trap"large"quantities"of" III. Fluid)Connective)Tissue)
water) a. Blood) –) liquid" matrix:" enables" blood" to"
! Fluid) flow" rapidly;" carry" nutrients," oxygen,"
) waste"products)
Classification)of)Connective)Tissue) " RBCs)
Adult)Connective)Tissue) " WBCs)
I. Connective)Tissue)Proper) " Platelets)
1. Loose)Connective)Tissue) b. Hemopoietic)C)"forms"bloods"cells)
! Few"protein"fibers,"numerous"spaces) )
a. Areolar) –) EM:" collagen" fibers" and" few" Muscle)Tissue)
elastic"fibers) ! Has"the"ability"to"contract.)
b. Adipose) –) consists" of" adipocytes" (fat" ! Muscle)fibers)–)resemble"tiny"threads"
cells):"contain"large"amounts"of"lipid"(for" )
energy" storage);" EM:" loose" arranged" Types)of)Muscular)Tissue)
collagen" and" reticular" fibers," scattered" I. Skeletal)(striated"voluntary)"
elastic"fibers) ! Large,"long,"cylindrical"cells"
c. Reticular) ! Multinucleated"
) ! Attached"to"bones"
2. Dense)Connective)Tissue) ! Responsible"for"body"movement"
! Large"amount"of"protein"fibers) "
a. Collagenous)–)EM:"collagen"fibers) II. Cardiac)(striated"involuntary))
b. Elastic)–)abundant" elastic" fibers" (stretch" ! Cylindrical"cells)
and"recoil)"in"its"collagen"fibers) ! Branched" and" connected" to" one" another" by"
) intercalated)disks)
) ! Single"nucleated)
) ! Found"in"the"heart)
) ! Pumps"the"blood)

M o r a n o , M . A .
 III. Smooth)(nonstriated"involuntary)" Tissue)Damage)and)Inflammation"
! End"tapered"cells" Inflammation)–)occurs"when"tissues"are"damaged"
! Single"nucleated" "
! Found" in" hollow" organs:" stomach," intestine;" Histamine) &) Prostaglandins) –) chemical" mediators" of"
skin,"eyes" inflammation"
! Regulates" size" of" organs," forces" fluid" through" "
tubes," controls" the" amount" of" light" entering" the" Edema)C)swelling"
eye,"produces"‘goose"bumps’" )
" Neutrophil)–)phagocytic"WBC"that"fights"infection"
Nervous)Tissue" )
! Found"in"the"brain,"spinal"cord,"and"nerves) Pus)–)mixture"of"dead"neutrophils,"other"cells,"fluid"
! Responsible"for"coordinating"and"controlling) )
) Chronic)Inflammation)
Action) potentials) –) ability" of" nervous" tissue" cells" to" ! Results" when" the" agent" causing" injury" is" not"
communicate" with" one" another" by" means" of" electric" removed" or" something" else" interferes" with" the"
signals" healing"process"
" "
Neurons)–)responsible"for"conducting"action"potentials" Tissue)Repair"
" Cell)Body)–"contains"the"nucleus;"site"of"general" ! Substitution"of"viable"cells"for"dead"cells"
cell"functions" ! Can"occur"by"regeneration"or"by"fibrosis"
" Dendrites"–"receive"electric"impulses" "
" Axon)–"conduct"electric"impulses" Regeneration)–)new"cells"are"the"same"type"as"those"that"
) were"destroyed"
Membranes) "
! A"thin"layer"of"tissue"that"covers"a"structure" Fibrosis/Replacement) –) a" new" type" of" tissue" develops"
! Mostly" consists" of" epithelium" and" connective" that"eventually"causes"scar"production"
tissue" "
" Stem) Cells) –" selfKrenewing," undifferentiated" cells" that"
I. Mucous)Membrances) continue"to"divide"throughout"life"
! Consists" of" epithelium" and" loose" connective" "
tissue" Clot) –) contains" protein" fibrin" (binds" the" edges" of" a"
! Line" the" digestive," respiratory," reproductive" wound"together"and"stops"the"bleeding)"
tracts" "
! Protection,"absorption,"secretion" Scab)–)dried"surface"of"a"clot;"seals"the"wound"and"helps"
" prevent"infection"
II. Serous)Membranes) "
! Simple" squamous" epithelium" and" loose" Granulation) Tissue) –) delicate," granular" appearing"
connective"tissue" connective" tissue" that" consists" of" fibroblasts," collagen,"
! Line" the" trunk" cavities" and" cover" the" organs" capillaries"
within"it" "
! Serous"fluid"prevents"damage"from"abrasion" Effects)of)Aging)on)Tissues"
" ! Cells"divide"more)slowly."
a. Pleural)–)lungs) ! Injuries"heal)more)slowly."
b. Pericardial)–)heart) ! EM" containing" collagen" &" elastic" fibers"
c. Peritoneal)–)abdominopelvic"cavity) becomes"less"flexible"and"less"elastic."
" ! Skin"wrinkles."
III. Synovial)Membranes) ! Elasticity"in"blood"arteries"is"reduced."
! Formed"by"connective"tissue" ! Bones"break"more"easily."
! Line"the"inside"of"joint"cavities"
! Synovial)fluid)–)reduce"friction"to"allow"smooth"
movement"within"the"joints"
)
)

M o r a n o , M . A .
 Melanocytes – produce melanin; irregularly shaped
INTEGUMENTARY cells; s. basale

SYSTEM Melanosomes – vesicles derived from GA where

melanin is produced
! It consists of the skin, and accessory structures
such as hair, glands, and nails.
Factors of Melanin Production
Functions of the Integumentary S. (PSVTE) a. Genetic factors
1. Protection b. Exposure to UV light
2. Sensation c. Hormones
3. Vitamin D production
4. Temperature regulation Albinism - recessive genetic trait that causes deficiency
5. Excretion / absence of melanin

Skin Cyanosis - bluish skin color; decreased blood O2

Epidermis
Carotene – yellow pigment in plants (squash, carrots);
! Most superficial layer
source of vitamin A
! Stratified squamous epithelium
! In deepest layers, mitosis occurs Birthmarks – congenital disorder of the capillaries in the
dermis
Keratinization – cells change shape and chemical
composition; cells become filed with the protein keratin Subcutaneous Tissue
(hard) ! Attaches the skin to underlying bones
– transformation of the living cells
! Also called the hypodermis
of the stratum basale into the dead squamous cells of the
stratum corneum ! Loose connective tissue
! Storage of our body’s fat (padding, insulation)
Stratum basale – deepest; cuboidal & columnar cells,
undergo mitosis every 19 days Accessory Skin Structure
Hair
Stratum corneum – most superficial stratum; dead ! Columns of dead, keratinized epithelial cells
squamous cells filled with keratin (structural strength); ! Produced in the hair bulb
lipids (prevent fluid loss); joined by desmosomes
Hair follicle – where each hair rises
Callus – thickened area Shaft – above the skin
Root – below the skin
Corn – bony prominence, thickened corn shaped Hair bulb – site of hair cell formation
structure Cortex – hard keratin
Medulla – soft central core
Dermis Cuticle – single layer of overlapping cells that holds the
! Dense collagenous connective tissue, contains hair in the hair follicle
fibroblasts, adipocytes, macrophages
! Nerves, hair follicles, smooth muscles, glands, Growth Stage
lymphatic vessels ! Hair is formed by epithelial cells within the hair
bulb
Collagen (resist stretching) & elastic fibers – structural ! Divide and undergo keratinization
strength ! Hair root + shaft = columns of dead keratinized
epithelial cells
Cleavage lines/Tension lines – collagen fibers are
oriented in some directions; skin is most resistant to Resting Stage
stretch along these lines ! Growth stops
! Hair is held in the hair follicle
Stretch marks – skin is overstretched, leaving lines that
are visible Next growth stage
! A new hair is formed
Dermal papillae – contain blood vessels that supply the ! The old hair falls out
epidermis with nutrients, remove waste products, and
regulate body temperature Eyelashes – grow for about 30 days; rest for 105 days

Skin Color Scalp hairs – grow for 3 years; rest for 1 – 2 years
Melanin – pigments responsible for skin, hair, eye color
Arrector Pili – smooth muscles; contraction = hair to
Melanin pigments – yellow (Caucasian), brown stand on end; produces goose bumps
(Asians), black (African)

M o r a n o , M . A .
Glands
I. Sebaceous Glands 3. Vitamin D Production
! Simple, branched acinar glands ! Skin exposed to UV light produces
! Connected by a duct to the superficial part of cholecalciferol (modified in the liver, then in the
the hair follicle kidneys to produce active vitamin D)
! Sebum – oily, white substance rich in lipids; ! Best sources of Vit. D = fatty fish, vit. D
released by holocrine secretion; lubricates the fortified milk
hair/surface of the skin (prevents drying and ! Small amounts of Vit D = eggs, butter, liver
protects against bacteria) ! Active Vit. D stimulates the small intestine to
absorb calcium and phosphate (normal bone
II. Sweat Glands growth, normal muscle function)
a. Eccrine Sweat Glands
" Simple, coiled, tubular glands 4. Temperature Regulation
" Release sweat by melocrine ! Normal body temp. = 37oC (98.6 oF)
secretion ! Rate of chemical rxns within the body can
" Numerous in the palms and soles increased of decreased based on the body temp.
b. Apocrine Sweat Glands ! Factors that raise body temperature
" Simple, coiled, tubular glands " Exercise
" Produce a think secretion rich in " Fever
organic substances " Increase in environmental
" Released primary by melocrine temperature
secretion; some glands demonstrate ! The skin controls heat loss from the body
holocrine secretion through dilation and constriction of blood
" Open into hair follicles, in armpits vessels
and genitalia ! Sweat glands produce sweat, which evaporates
" Become active at puberty and lowers body temperature
! Heat is lost by radiation (infrared energy),
III. Other Glands convection (air movement), conduction (direct
a. Ceruminous glands – cerumen (earwax) contact)
b. Mammary glands – milk
5. Excretion
Nails ! Skin glands remove water and salt
! Dead stratum corneum cells ! Also removes small amounts of urea, uric acid,
! Contain a very hard type of keratin ammonia

Nail body – visible part of the nail Integumentary S. as a Diagnostic Aid

Nail root – part of the nail covered by skin
Cuticle – eponychium; s. corneum that extends onto the
nail body
Nail matrix – produces the nail
Nail bed – contributes to nail formation
Lunula – white, crescent-shaped area; part of the nail
matrix visible through the nail body
Physiology of the Integumentary S.
1. Protection
! Reducing water loss
! Prevents microorganisms from entering the
body
! Protects underlying structures against abrasion
! Hair on head = insulator
! Eyebrows = keep sweat out of the eyes
! Eyelashes = protects the eyes from foreign
objects
! Hair in the nose, ears = prevents the entry of
dust
! Nails = protect the ends of the fingers, toes from
damage; can be used in defense
2. Sensation
! Sensory receptors for pain, touch, hot, cold,
pressure
Cyanosis – bluish color to the skin caused by decreased
blod O2 content
Jaundice – yellowish skin color caused by liver damage
(viral hepatitis)
Rashes & lesions - symptoms of problems elsewhere;
e.g. Scarlet fever causes reddish rash, allergic reaction to
food or drugs can develop rashes
Vitamin A Deficiency – excess keratin; sandpaper
texture characteristic
Iron Deficiency Anemia – nails become flat or concave
Lead Poisoning – high levels of lead in the hair
Burns
Burn – injury to a tissue caused by heat, cold, friction,
chemicals, electricity, and radiation
I. Partial-thickness Burns
! S. basale remains viable;
! Regeneration of the epidermis occurs within the
burn area

M o r a n o , M . A .
 a. First-degree burns II. Squamous cell carcinoma
" Epidermis ! Immediately superficial to the s. basale
" Red and painful ! Cells continue to divide as they produce keratin
" Slight edema (swelling) = nodular, keratinized tumor confined to the
epidermis
b. Second-degree burns ! Can invade the dermis, metastasize, and cause
" Epidermis, dermis death
" Epidermis regenerates from the
epithelial tissue III. Malignant melanoma
" Dermal damage is minimal; ! Rare form of skin cancer that arises from
# Redness, pain, edema, blisters melanocytes; usually from a pre-existing mole
# Healing = 2 weeks ! Mole – an aggregation or nest of melanocytes
# No scarring ! Large, flat, spreading lesion or deeply
" Deep into the dermis pigmented nodule
# Red, tan, or white ! Metastasis is common
# Takes several months to heal ! Often fatal
# Might scar
FX of Aging on the Integumentary S.
II. Full-thickness Burns ! Epidermis thins
a. Third-degree burns ! Amount of collagen in the dermis decreases
" Epidermis, dermis, and underlying ! Skin infections are most likely
tissues are completely destroyed ! Repair of skin occurs slower
" Recovery occurs from the edges of ! Decrease no. of elastic fibers in the dermis and
the burn wound loss of fat (sagging of skin, wrinkles)
" Region of the 3rd degree burn is ! Decrease of activity of sweat glands = reduced
painless (sensory receptors have ability to regulate body temp.
been destroyed) ! Decrease sebaceous gland activity = skin
" White, tan, brown, black, deep becomes drier
cherry red ! Decrease no. of melanocytes
" Take a long time to heal ! Some areas, the no. of melanocytes increase =
" Form scar tissue age spots
" Skin grafts are used to prevent ! Increased melanin production = freckles; also,
complications and to speed healing gray/white hair
! Skin that is exposed to sunlight = shows signs of
Skin Cancer aging more rapidly
! Most common type of cancer
! Exposure to UV light from the sun
! Usually on face, neck, hands
! Most like to have skin cancer = fair skinned or
older than 50
! Limiting exposure to sun, using sunscreen;
reduces the likelihood of developing skin cancer
! Ultraviolet light
" UVA
# Longer wavelength
# Causes most tanning of the skin
# Development of malignant
melanoma

" UVB
# Most burning of the skin
# Development of basal cell and
squamous cell carcinoma

I. Basal cell carcinoma

! Most frequent type
! S. basale and extends into the dermis to produce
an open ulcer
! Cure; surgical removal or radiation therapy
! Little danger of cancer to spread, metastasize

M o r a n o , M . A .
SKELETAL SYSTEM
! It consists of the bone, cartilage, tendons and
ligaments.
! Skeleton; dried (Greek)
Functions (S2PMB)
1. Support
2. Protection
3. Movement
4. Storage
5. Blood cell production
Extracellular Matrix
! Composed of connective tissues
Collagen – tough ropelike protein
Proteoglycans – large molecules consisting
polysaccharides attached to core proteins
Tendons & Ligaments – large amounts of collagen fiber
Cartilage – contains collagen & proteoglycans
Bone – contains collagen and minerals (Calcium &
Phosphate)
Hydroxyapatite – calcium phosphate crystals
General Features of Bone
! Long bones; upper and lower limbs
! Short bones; wrist and ankle
! begin to produce bone in connective tissue
! Irregular bones; vertebrae and facial bones
Long Bones
a) Diaphysis – central shaft
b) Epiphysis – ends
c) Epiphyseal plates – growth plate; where the
bone grows in length
Articular cartilage – covers the ends of the epiphyses
Epiphyseal line – bone growth stops and the epiphyseal
plate is replaced by bone
Medullary Cavity – large cavity in the diaphysis;
contains the marrow
Marrow – soft tissue within the cavity
Yellow Marrow – consists of adipose tissue (fat)
Red Marrow – consists of bone forming cells; site of
blood formation
Layers of a Bone
a. Periosteum – outermost layer; surround the
diaphysis; contain blood vessels, nerves,
osteoblasts
b. Endosteum – innermost layer; lines the
medullary cavity (thinner connective tissue)
c. Bone substance – EM and cells
Histology of Bone
Osteoblasts – bone-forming cells; repair and remodeling
of bone
Osteocytes – bone cells located between the lamellae
(thins sheets of EM)
Lacunae – spaces within the lamellae
Canaliculi – tiny canals within the lamellae
Types of Bone Tissue
a. Compact bone
! Forms most of the diaphysis of long bones
! Central Canal / Haversian Canal – concentric
of rings that contains blood vessels; ‘bull’s eye’
! Osteon / Haversian System – central canal +
lamellae + osteocytes
b. Spongy bone
! Located mainly in the epiphyses of long bones
! Forms the interior of all other bones
! Consists of trabeculae (interconnecting rods,
plates of bone) without central canals
Bone Ossification
Ossification – formation of bone by osteoblasts
Types of Ossification
a. Intramembranous ossification – osteoblasts
" Ossification centers – where
intramembranous ossification begins
b. Endochondral ossification – bone formation
occurs inside the cartilage; bones at the base of
the skull and remaining skeletal system are
formed
" Chondrocytes – cartilage cells; increase
in no., enlarge, and die
Primary ossification center – where bone first begins to
appear
Osteoclasts – cells that remove calcified cartilage matrix
Secondary ossification center – form in the epiphyses
Bone Growth
! Deposition of new bone lamellae onto existing
bone
! Bone elongation occurs at the epiphyseal plate;
leads to increase in height (endochondral
ossification)
! Chondrocytes proliferate, enlarge, die, and are
replaced by bone
Appositional growth – increase in bone width or
diameter
M o r a n o , M . A .
Bone Remodeling
! Removal of existing bone by osteoclasts
! Deposition of new bone by osteoblasts
! Responsible for change in bone shape, bone
adjustment, repair, and calcium ion regulation
Bone Repair
! Clot is formed in the damaged area
! Blood vessels and cells invade the clot and form
a callus (network of fibers and islets of cartilage)
! Osteoblasts enter the callus and from a spongy
bone
! Bone is slowly remodeled to compact bone
Bone and Calcium Homeostasis
! Osteoclasts remove calcium = blood calcium
levels increases
! Osteoblasts deposit calcium = blood calcium
levels decrease
Hormones that maintain Calcium Homeostasis
1. Parathyroid hormone (PTH)
! Parathyroid gland;
! Increase bone breakdown & increase blood
calcium levels;
! Stimulates the kidneys to from active vitamin D
2. Calcitonin
! Thyroid gland
! Decrease bone breakdown and decrease blood
calcium levels
General Considerations of Bone Anatomy
! 206 bones = adult
! 276 bones = newborn baby
Foramen – hole in a bone
Canal / Meatus – elongated hole in a tunnel like body
Fossa – depression in a bone
Tubercle / Tuberosity – lump on a bone
Process – projection from a bone
Condyle – end of a bine that forms a joint with another
bone
Facet – small flattened articular surface
Crest – prominent ridge
Trochanter – tuberosity found only on proximal femur
Fissure – cleft
Sinus – cavity
Suture – a joint uniting the bones of the skull
AXIAL SKELETON
! Composed of the skull, vertebral column, and
thoracic cage
! Form the longitudinal axis of the body
I. Skull
! 22 bones
Braincase
! 8 bones
! Covers and protects the fragile brain tissue
1. Frontal Bone – forehead, bony projections
under the eyebrow, part of the eye’s orbit
!
2 - 3. Parietal Bone (paired) – the superior and
lateral walls of the cranium; coronal suture
4 - 5. Temporal Bone (paired) – lies inferior to
the parietal bone; squamous suture
" External Auditory Meatus (EAM) – a
canal that leads to the eardrum and the
middle ear
" Styloid process – a sharp, needlelike
structure located inferior to the EAM
" Zygomatic process – a bridge of bone
that joins with the cheekbone anteriorly
" Mastoid Process – a rough projection
posterior and inferior to the EAM
6. Occipital Bone – inferior and posterior bone
of the cranium; lambdoid suture
" Foramen magnum – where the spinal
cord joins the brain
" Occipital condyles –rests on the first
vertebra of the vertebral column
" Foramen ovale – allows the fiber of
cranial nerve 5 to pass
7. Sphenoid Bone – butterfly-shaped bone that
spans the width of the skull
" Sella Turtica – saddle-shaped structure
at the central region; contains the
pituitary gand
8. Ethmoid Bone –! irregularly shaped bone that
lies anterior to the sphenoid bone
Facial bones
! 14 bones; 13 solidly connected, 1 movable
(mandible)
! Holds the facial muscles in place
! Joined together by sutures (interlocking,
immovable)
1-2. Maxillae – main bones of the face; carries
the upper teeth
3-4. Palatine Bones – lies posterior to the
palatine processes of the maxilla
5-6. Zygomatic Bones – cheekbones
M o r a n o , M . A .
 7-8. Lacrimal Bones – bones forming part of the
medial wall of each orbit
9-10. Nasal Bones – bones forming the bridge
of the bone
11-12. Inferior Nasal Conchae – thin curved
bones projecting from the lateral wall of the
nasal cavity
13. Vomer Bone – single bone in the median of
the nasal cavity
14. Mandible – lower jaw; only freely movable
joint of the face
Hyoid Bone – U-shaped bone; provides attachment to
tongue muscles; elevates the larynx during speech and
swallowing
II. Vertebral Column
!
Central axis of the skeleton
!
26 individual bones;
" 7 cervical vertebrae
" 12 thoracic vertebrae
" 5 lumbar vertebrae
" 1 sacral bone
" 1 coccyx bone
Functions
1. Supports the weight of the head and the trunk.
2. Protects the spinal cord.
3. Allows the spinal nerves to exit the spinal cord.
4. Site for muscle attachment.
5. Permits movement of the head and trunk.
Kyphosis – posterior curvature; hunchback
Lordosis – anterior curvature; swayback condition
Scoliosis – lateral curvature
General Plan of the Vertebral Column
Body – weight-bearing portion
" Intervertebral disks body – separates the
vertebral bodies
" Vertebral arch – surrounds the vertebral
foramen
# 2 Pedicles – extends from the body to
the transverse process
# 2 Laminae – extends from the transverse
to the spinous process
# Provides attachment sites for the muscles
that move the vertebral column;
• Transverse process – extends
laterally bet. the lamina and
pedicle
• Spinous process – projects
dorsally where the two laminae
meet
" Vertebral foramen – a large opening
" Vertebral canal – where the spinal cord is
located; protects the spinal cord from injury
" Intervertebral foramina – where spnal nerves
exit the spinal cord
" Articular process – where the vertebra articulate
with each other
" Articular facet – smooth ‘little face’
Regional Differences in Vertebrae
1. Cervical Vertebrae – very small bodies,
dislocation and fractures are common int his
area
" Atlas – 1st CV; holds up the head; ‘yes’ shaking
" Axis – 2nd CV; considerable amount of rotation;
‘no’ shaking
# Dens – where the rotation occurs
2. Thoracic vertebrae – long, thin spinous
processes; articulate the ribs
3. Lumbar vertebrae – large, thick bodies; heavy,
rectangular transverse + spinous processes;
carry large amount of weight; ruptured
intervertebral disks are common
4. Sacrum – five sacral vertebrae fused in one
" Median Sacral Crest – spinous process of the 1st
four SV
" Sacral Hiatus – inferior end of the sacrum; the
5th process of the SV that does not form;
common side of caudal anesthetic injections
" Sacral Promontory – anterior edge of the 1sy SV
that bulges; landmark felt during vaginal
examination; reference point in vaginal delivery
of a baby
5. Coccyx – tailbone; fusion of 4 or more/less
fused vertebrae; easily broken
III. Rib Cage
! Also called the thoracic cage
! Protects the vital organs
! Prevents thorax collapse during respiration
1. Rib Cage
! 12 pair of ribs
" 1 – 7 true ribs (attached directly to the sternum)
" 8 – 12 false ribs (do not attach directly to the
sternum)
# 11 – 12 floating ribs (do not attach to
the sternum)
2. Sternum
! Also called the breastbone
" Jugular notch – a depression bet. the ends of the
clavicles where they articulate with the sternum
" Sternal angle – a slight elevation felt at the
junction of the manubrium and the sternum;
important landmark bcos it identifies the 2nd rib
M o r a n o , M . A .
 " Xiphoid process – important landmark of the
sternum during CPR
APPENDICULAR SKELETON
! 126 bones
! Consists of the bones of the upper and lower
limbs, as well as the girdles
I. Pectoral Girdle
! Also called the shoulder girdle
! Consists of 4 bones; 2 scapulae + 2 clavicles
1. Scapula – shoulder blade; where muscles
extending to the arm are attached
2. Glenoid cavity – 4th fossa; where the head of the
humerus connects to the scapula
" Spine – a ridge that runs across the posterior
surface fo the scapula
3. Acromion process – extends from the scapular
spine to form the point of the shoulder
4. Hand – 5 metacarpal bones are attached to the
carpal bones
" Phalanges – 3 small bones on each finger
III. Pelvic Girdle
! Where lower limbs attach to the body
Coxal bones – hip bones; join each other anteriorly and
the sacrum posteriorly to form a ring of bone called the
pelvic girdle
" Ilium – most superior
" Ischium – inferior and posterior; sit down bone
" Pubis – inferior and anterior
Iliac crest – seen along the superior margin of each ilim
" Anterior Superior Iliac Spine – important hip
landmark; anterior end of the iliac crest
Pubic symphysis – where coxal bones join anteriorly
" Sacroiliac joints – joins the sacrum posteriorly
Acetabulum – socket of the hip joint

4. Clavicle – collarbone; articulates with the Obturator foramen – large hole in each coxal bone
scapula art the acromion process
Pelvic inlet – formed by the pelvic brim and the sacral
5. Coracoid process – provides for the attachment promontory
of arm and chest muscles
Pelvic outlet – bounded by the ischial spines, pubic
II. Upper Limb symphysis, and coccyx
1. Arm – region bet, the shoulder and the elbow;
contains the humerus; has two tubercles: greater Male pelvis: larger and massive; Female pelvis; broader
tubercle and lesser tubercle
" Deltoid Tuberosity – where the deltoid muscle IV. Lower Limbs
attaches 1. Thigh – region bet. the hip and the knee;
" Epicondyles – provide attachment sites for contains the femur
forearm muscles " Head of the femur – articulates with the
acetabulum of the coxal bone
2. Forearm " Condyles – articulates with the tibia
" Radius – lateral to the thumb " Epidondyles – points of ligaments attachments
# Radial tuberosity – where the arm " Trochanters – lateral to the head after the neck
muscles (biceps brachii) attaches " Patella – knee cap; enables the tendon to bend
" Ulna – medial to the little finger over the knee
# Trochlear notch – forms most of the
elbow joint 2. Leg – region bet. the knee and the ankle
# Coronoid process – helps complete the " Tibia – shinbone; larger; major weight-bearing
grip of the ulna bone of the leg; medial malleolus
# Olecranon process – extension of the " Fibula – thin and sticklike that forms the lateral
ulna side of the leg; lateral malleolus
# Styloid process – articulates with the
bones of the wrist 3. Ankle – 7 tarsla bones
" Talus – ankle bone
3. Wrist – short region bet. the forearm and the " Calcaneus – heel bone
hand; 8 carpal bones (SLTPHCTT) " Cuboid
" Scaphiod " Navicular
" Lunate " Cuneiforms; medial, intermediate, lateral
" Triquetrum
" Pisiform 4. Foot
" Hamate " Metatarsal bones and phalanges – arranged
" Capitate and numbered in a similar manner to the hand
" Trapezoi " Has 3 primary arches
" Trapezium

M o r a n o , M . A .
JOINTS
! Also called an articulation
! Where two bones come together
a. Synarthrosis joints – non-movable
b. Amphiarthrosis joints – slight movable
c. Diarthrosis – freely movable
I. Fibrous Joints
! 2 bones that are united by fibrous tissue
! Exhibit little or no movement
1. Sutures – bet. the bones of the skull; squamous,
lambdoid, coronal
" Fontanels – sutures that are quite wide in a
newborn
2. Syndesmoses – bones are separated by some
distance and held together by ligaments; FB
connecting the radius and ulna
3. Gomphoses – consists of pegs fitted into sockets
and held in place by ligaments; joint bet. a tooth
and its socket
Types of Movement
II. Cartilaginous Joints
! Unites two bones by means of cartilage
! Slight movement can occur
! Epiphyseal plates of growing long bones
! Cartilage bet. the ribs and the sternum
! Fibrocartilage forms joints such as the
intervertebral disks
III. Synovial Joints
! Freely movable joints
! Contains fluid in a cavity surrounding the ends
of articulating bones
Articulating cartilage – thin layer that covers the
articular surfaces of bones w/in the synovial joints
Joint cavity – filled with fluid
Joint capsule – encloses the cavity that helps hold the
bones together and allows for movement
Synovial membrane – lines the joint cavity everywhere
Synovial fluid – produced by the SM; covers the
surfaces of the joint
Bursa – a pocket or sac; located bet. Structures that rub
together
Bursitis – inflammation of the bursa; often results to
abrasion
Tendon Sheath – extension of SM along some tendons
Types
1. Plane/Gliding Joints – two opposed flat
surfaces that glide over each other
2. Saddle Joints – two saddle shaped articulating
surfaces oriented at right angles; joint bet. the
metacarpal bone and the carpal bone of the
thumb
3. Hinge Joints – permit movement in one plane
only; elbow and knee joints
" Menisci – shock-absorbing fibrocartilage pads
4. Pivot Joints – restrict movement to rotation
around a single axis; rotation that occurs bet. the
axis and atlas; articulation bet. the ulna and
radius
5. Ball and socket Joints – consist of a ball (head)
and a socket; shoulder and hip joints
6. Ellipsoid/Condyloid Joints – elongated ball and
socket joints; joint bet. the occipital condyles
(skull) and the atlas (vertebral column); joints
bet. the metacarpals and phalanges
1. Flexion – movement that takes place in a
frontal/coronal plane
" Plantar flexion – when standing on the toes
" Dorsiflexion – movement of the foot toward the
shin (walking on heels)
2. Extension – movement that takes place in a
posterior direction
3. Lateral Flexion – movement of the trunk in the
coronal plane
4. Abduction – movement away from the median
plane
5. Adduction – movement toward the median
plane
6. Pronation – rotation of the forearm so that the
palm is down
7. Supination – rotation of the forearm so that the
palm faces up
8. Eversion – opposite movement of the foot so
that the sole faces in a lateral direction
9. Inversion – movement of the foot so that the
sole faces medially
10. Rotation – movement of a part of the body
around its long axis
11. Circumduction – combination in sequence of
the flexion, extension, abduction, adduction
12. Protraction – to move forward
13. Retraction – to move backward
14. Hyperextension – abnormal, forced extension of
a joint beyond its normal range of motion
M o r a n o , M . A .

MUSCULAR SYSTEM
Functions (M2RPC3)
1. Movement of the body.
2. Maintenance of posture.
3. Respiration
4. Production of body heat
5. Communication
6. Constriction of organs and vessels
7. Contraction of the heart
Characteristics of the Skeletal Muscle
Skeletal Muscle
! Constitutes approx. 40% of body weight
! Muscles are attached to the skeletal system
! Also called Striated Muscle; transverse bands or
striations
Major Functional Characteristics of Skeletal Muscle
1. Contractility – ability to shorten with force
2. Excitability – capacity to respond to a stimulus
3. Extensibility – ability to be stretched to their
normal resting length
4. Elasticity – ability to recoil to their original
resting length
Skeletal Muscle Structure
Connective Tissue Coverings of Muscle
Epimysium/Muscular fascia – connective tissue sheath
that surrounds a skeletal muscle
Muscle fasciculi – numerous visible bundles that make
up the muscle
Perimysium – loose connective tissue that surrounds the
muscle fasciculi
Muscle fibers – several muscle cells that composes a
fasciculus
Endomysium – loose connective tissue that surrounds a
muscle fiber
Muscle Fiber Structure
Sarcolemma – cell membrane of the muscle fiber
Transverse tubules (T tubules) – tube-like invaginations
w/c occur at regular intervals along the muscle fiber
Sarcoplasmic reticulum – highly organized smooth E.R.;
has a relatively high concentration of Ca2+ (muscle
contraction)
Sarcoplasm – cytoplasm of a muscle fiber
Myofibrils – threadlike structures composed of:
" Actin Myofilaments (thin filaments; purple)
" Myosin Myofilaments (thick filaments; green)
Sarcomere – highly ordered, repeating units of actin +
myosin myofilaments; joined end to end to form the
myofibril
Actin and Myosin Myofilaments
Troponin molecules – binding sites for Ca2+; attached at
specific intervals along the actin myofilaments
Tropomyosin filaments – cover the attachment sites on
the actin myofilaments; located along the grove bet. the
twisted strands of actin myofilaments
Myosin heads – resemble golf club heads;
" Bind to attachment sites
" Bend and straighten
" Break down ATP
Sarcomere
! Basic structural and functional unit of skeletal
muscle
Z disk – network of protein fibers forming an
attachment site for actin myofilaments
I band – consists of actin myofilaments; spans each Z
disk
A band – darker, central region that extends the length
of the myosin of myofilaments
H zone – second light zone that consists of myosin
myofilaments
M line – dark-staining bands
The arrangement of the actin and myosin filaments in
sacromeres gives the myofibrils a banded appearance.
The alternating I bands and A bands of the sacromeres
are responsible for the striations in the skeletal muscle
fibers.
Excitability of Muscle Fibers
Resting membrane potential – cell membranes have a
negative charge on the inside relative to a positive
charge outside; occurs bcos there is an uneven
distribution of ions
1. Concentration of K+ inside the cell CM >
outside the CM
2. Concentration of Na+ outside the CM > inside
the CM
Different types of Ion Channels
" Nongated/Leak channels – always open
" Chemically gated channels – closed until a
chemical binds them and stimulates them to
open
Depolarization – the inside of the CM membrane comes
more positive than the outside of the cell; Na+ ions
move into cells
Repolarization – the change back to the resting
membrane potential; K+ ions moves out of cells
Action Potentials – the rapid depolarization and
repolarization of the CM; results in muscle contraction
M o r a n o , M . A .
Nerve Supply
Motor neurons – specialized nerve cells that stimulate
muscles to contract
Neuromuscular junction – a branch that forms a
junction with a muscle fiber
Synapse – cell-to-cell junction bet. a nerve cell and
another nerve cell/effector cell
Motor unit – a single motor neuron and all the skeletal
muscle fibers it innervates
Presynaptic terminal – enlarged axon terminal
Synaptic cleft – the space bet. the presynaptic terminal
and the muscle fiber membrane
Postsynaptic membrane – the muscle fiber membrane
Synaptic vesicles – presynaptic terminal that contains
small vesicles
Acetylcholine (ACh) – neurotransmitter contained in
the vesicles; a molecule released by a presynaptic nerve
cell that stimulates/inhibits a postsynaptic cell
Acetylcholinesterase – an enzyme that rapidly breaks
down the synaptic cleft bet. the neuron and the muscle
fiber
Muscle Contraction
Sliding filament model – sliding of actin myofilaments
past myosin myofilaments during contraction
Cross-bridges – myosin heads attach to the myosin
attachment sites on the actin myofilaments
Muscle Twitch, Summation, Tetanus, Recruitment
Muscle Twitch – contraction of a muscle fiber in
reponse to a stimulus
1. Lag/Latent Phase – time bet. the application of a
stimulus and the beginning of contraction
2. Contraction Phase – time during which the
muscle contract
3. Relaxation Phase – time during which the
muscle relaxes
Summation – the force of contraction of an individual
muscle fiber is increased by rapidly stimulating them
Tetanus – convulsive tension; a sustained contraction
that occurs when the frequency of stimulus is so rapid
that no relaxation occurs
" Caused by Ca+ build up in the myofibrils
Recruitment – the no. of muscle fibers contraction is
increased by the increasing no. of motor units stimulated
+ muscle contracts with more force
Stimulus frequency – no. of times a motor neuron is
stimulated per second
Energy Requirement for Muscle Contraction
Aerobic Respiration – requires O2; breaks down glucose
to produce ATP, CO2, H2O
Anaerobic respiration – doesn’t require O2; breaks
down glucose to yield ATP and lactic acid
Creatine phosphate – high-energy molecule that can be
stored in muscle fibers
Fatigue
! A state of reduced work capacity
Muscular Fatigue – when muscle fibers use ATP faster
than they are produced; when the effectiveness of Ca+ to
stimulate actin + myosin is reduced
Physiological contracture – muscles may become
incapable of either contracting or relaxing
Psychological fatigue – involves the CNS; an individual
perceives that continued muscle contraction is
impossible
Type of Muscle Contractions
Isometric contractions – equal distance; length of the
muscle does not change; the amount of tension increases
during the contraction process
Isotonic contraction – equal tension; the amount of
tension produced by the muscle is constant during
contraction; length of the muscle decreases
" Cocentric contractions – isotonic; muscle
tension increases as the muscle shortens
" Eccentric contractions – isotonic; tension is
maintained in a muscle; the opposing resistance
causes the muscle to lengthen
Muscle Tone
! Constant tension produced by body muscles
over long periods of time
! Responsible for keeping the back and legs
straight, the head in an upright position, and the
abdomen from bulging
Slow-Twitch and Fast-Twitch Fibers
Classification of Muscle Fiber
1. Slow Twitch – contains type I myosin; contracts
slowly and resistant to fatigue respiration
2.Fast Twitch
a. Type IIa – intermediate speed; more
fatigue resistant than type IIb
b. Type IIb – contract 10x faster than type
I
Myglobin – stores oxygen temporarily
Hypertrophy – enlarging of muscle fibers
Satellite cells – undifferentiated cells just below the
endomysium
Smooth and Cardiac Muscle
Autorhythmicity – resulting periodic spontaneous
contraction of smooth muscle
M o r a n o , M . A .
Intercalated disks – specialized structures that facilitate
action potential conduction bet. cells
Skeletal Muscle Anatomy
General Principles
Tendon – muscle connected to a bone
Aponeuroses – broad, sheet like tendons
Retinaculum – a band of CT that holds down the
tendons at each wrist and ankle
Origin – head; most stationary end of the muscle
Insertion – end of the muscle attached to the bone
undergoing the greatest movement
Belly – part of the muscle bet. the origin & the insertion
Agonist – muscle that accomplishes a certain movement
Antagonist – muscle acting in opposition to an agonist
Synergists – a group of muscles working together to
produce a movement
Prime Mover – muscle that plays the major role in
accomplishing desired movement
Fixators – muscles that hold one bone in place relative to
the body
Nomenclature
1. Accdg. To Location – temporalis, frontalis,
pectoralis, brachialis
2. Accdg. To Origin and Insertion – sterno
(sternum), cleido (clavicle), mastoid (mastoid
process), brachio (arm), radialis (radius)
3. Accdg. To Number of Origin – biceps (2),
triceps, quadriceps
4. Accdg. To Function – flexor (flexion)
5. Accdg. To Size – maximus (largest), minimus
(smallest), vastus (large)
6. Accdg. To Shape – deltoid (triangle), orbicularis
(circular)
7. Orientation of Fasciculi – rectus (straight)
I. Muscles of the Head and Neck
Facial Expression
Occipitofrontalis – raises the eyebrows
Orbicularis oculi – encircle the eyes, tightly close the
eyelids, and causes crow’s feet wrinkles
Orbicularis oris – encircles the mouth
Buccinator – kissing muscles; pucker the mouth; flattens
the cheeks I whistling/blowing
Zygomaticus – elevate the upper lip and corner of the
mouth
Levator labile superioris – sneering; elevates one side of
the upper lip
Depressor anguli oris – frowning & pouting; depresses
the corner of the mouth
Mastification (for chewing)
Temporalis – fan-shaped muscle
Masseter – seen & felt on the side of the head
Pterygoid (paired) – protraction, excursion, elevation of
mandible
Tongue and Swallowing Muscles
Intrinsic muscles – located within the tongue and
change its shape
Extrinsic muscles – attached to and move the tongue
Hyoid muscles – hold the hyoid bone; elevate the larynx
Pharyngeal elevators – elevate the pharynx
Pharyngeal constrictors – constrict the pharynx from
superior to inferior (forcing food into the esophagus);
also open the auditory tube
Neck Muscles
Sternocleidomastoid – prime mover of the lateral
muscle group; rotates the head; flexes the neck or
extends the head; prayer muscle
Torticollis – wryneck; injury to the sternocleidomastoid
Deep neck muscles – flexes/extends head and neck
Trapezius – extends and laterally flexes neck
II. Trunk Muscles
Muscles Moving the Vertebral Column
Erector spinae – responsible for keeping the back
straight and the body erect
Deep back muscles – responsible for several movements
of the vertebral column
External intercostal – elevate the ribs during inspiration
Internal intercostal – contract during forced expiration,
depressing the ribs
Diaphragm – major movement produced in the thorax
during quiet breathing
Scalenes – inspiration and rib elevation
Abdominal Wall Muscles
Linea alba – tendinous area of the abdominal wall that
consists of white connective tissue
Rectus abdominis – located on each side of the linea
alba
Tendinous intersections – causes the abdominal wall of
a lean, well-muscled person to appear segmented
M o r a n o , M . A .
External/Internal abdominal oblique & Transversus
abdominis – flex and rotate the vertebral column or
compress the abdominal contents
Pelvic Floor and Perineal Muscles
Pelvic Floor – pelvic diaphragm
Levator ani – muscle that forms the pelvic floor
Perineum – associated with the male/female
reproductive structures
Perineum bulbospongiosus – constricts the urethra;
erects the penis, clitoris
Perineum ischiocavernosus – compresses the base of
penis/clitoris
Perineum external anal sphincter – keeps the orifice of
the anal canal closed
III. Upper Limb Muscles
Scapular Movements
! Attach the scapula to the thorax and move the
scapula
! Acts as fixators to hold the scapula firmly in
position when the muscle of the arm contract
! Move the scapula into different positions
# Trapezius
# Levator scapulae
# Rhomboids
# Serratus anterior
# Pectoralis minor
Arm Movements
Pectoralis major – adducts the arm and flexes the
shoulder; extend the shoulder from a flexed position
Latissimus dorsi – swimmer’s muscle; medially rotates
and adducts the arm and powerfully extends the
shoulder
Rotator cuff muscles – attached the humerus to the
scapula and forms a cuff/cap over the proximal
humerus
Deltoid – attaches the humerus to the scapula and
clavicle; major abductor of the upper limb
Forearm Movements
Triceps brachii – primary extensor of the elbow
Biceps brachii & brachialis – primary flexors of the
elbow
Brachioradialis – posterior forearm muscle; helps flex
the elbow
Supination and Pronation
Supinator – supination of the forearm or turning the
flexed forearm so that the palm is up
Pronator – pronation, turning other forearm so that the
palm is down
Wrist and Finger Movements
Retinaculum – fibrous connective tissue that covers the
flexor & extensor tendons and holds them in place
around the wrist
Flexor carpi – flex the wrist
Extensor carpi – extend the wrist
Flexor digitorum – flexor of the digits/fingers
Extensor digitorum – extension of the fingers
Intrinsic hand muscles – 19 muscles located within the
hand
Interossei – responsible for abduction and adduction of
the fingers
Tennis elbow – inflammation and pain due to forceful,
repeated contraction of the wrist extensor muscles
Palmus longus – tightens palm skin
IV. Lower Limb Muscles
Thigh Movements
Iliopsoas – flexes the hip
Tensor fasciae latae – helps steady the femur on the tibi
when a person is standing
Gluteus maximus – extends the hip; adducts and
laterally rottes the thigh; contributes most of the mass
Gluteus medius – extends the hop when the thigh is
flexed at a 45O angle; common site for injections in the
buttocks (sciatic nerve lies deep to the g. maximus)
Leg Movements
Quadriceps femoris – primary extensors of the knee
Sartorius – tailor’s muscle; longest muscle in the body;
flexes the hip and knee; rotates the thigh laterally for
sitting cross legged
Hamstring muscles – flexing the knee
Adductor muscles – adducting the thigh
Ankle and Toe Movements
Gastrocnemius & Soleus – form the bulge of the calf
Calcaneal tendon – Achilles tendon; flexors and are
involved in plantar flexion of the foot
Fibularis muscles – primary everters of the foot; aid in
plantar flexion
Intrinsic foot muscles – flex, extend, abduct, and adduct
the toes
Extensor digitorum longus – extends 4 lateral toes,
everts foot
M o r a n o , M . A .
Extensor halluces longus – extends great toe; inverts
foot

Tibialis anterior – inverts foot

Fibularis tertius – everts foot

Flexor digitorum longus – flexes 4 lateral toes, inverts

foot

Flexor halluces longus – flexes great toe, inverts foot

Tibialis posterior – inverts foot

Fibularis brevis – everts foot

Fibularis longus – everts foot

Effects of Aging on Skeletal Muscle

! Decreased muscle mass
! Slower reaction time
! Reduced stamina
! Increased recovery time

Types of Muscular Tissue

I. Skeletal (striated voluntary)
! Large, long, cylindrical cells
! Multinucleated
! Attached to bones
! Responsible for body movement

II. Cardiac (striated involuntary)

! Cylindrical cells
! Branched and connected to one another by
intercalated disks
! Single nucleated
! Found in the heart
! Pumps the blood

III. Smooth (nonstriated involuntary)

! End tapered cells
! Single nucleated
! Found in hollow organs: stomach, intestine;
skin, eyes
! Regulates size of organs, forces fluid through
tubes, controls the amount of light entering the
eye, produces ‘goose bumps’

M o r a n o , M . A .

Nervous System
Functions (CRIME)
1. Controlling muscles and glands.
2. Receiving sensory input.
3. Integrating information.
4. Maintaining homeostasis.
5. Establishing and maintaining mental activity.
Divisions of the Nervous System
I. Central Nervous System
! Brain and spinal cord
II. Peripheral Nervous System
! Nerves and ganglia
a. Sensory Division – afferent (toward)
division; conducts action potentials
from sensory receptors to the CNS
• Sensory neurons – neurons
that transmit action potentials
from the periphery to the CNS
i. Somatic Sensory Fibers – carry
info from stimuli coming from
the skin, skeletal, muscles,
joints
ii. Visceral Sensory Fibers –
transmits impulses coming from
the visceral organs
b. Motor Division – efferent (away)
division; conducts action potentials
from the CNS to effector organs
• Motor neurons – neurons that
transmit action potentials
from the CNS toward the
periphery
i. Somatic Motor Nervous
System / Voluntary – divides into 2 processes: extends to the
transmits action potentials
form the CNS to the skeletal
muscles
ii. Autonomic Motor Nervous
System / Involuntary –
transmits action potentials
from the CNS to cardiac,
smooth muscles and glands
1. Sympathetic – figth-or-
flight system
2. Parasympathetic – toxic substances in the blood; allows
resting and digesting
system
iii. Enteric Nervous System –
unique subdivision; both
sensory and motor neurons
contained within the digestive
tract
Cells of the Nervous System
Neurons
! Also called nerve cells
! Receive stimuli, conduct action potentials,
transmit signals
Cell body – contains a single nucleus; source of
information for gene expression n
Dendrites – extensions of the cell body; receive
information from other neurons; transmit the info
toward the neuron cell body
Axon – single long cell process; conduct action
potentials from one part of the brain or spinal cord to
another part
" Axon of sensory neurons – conduct action
potentials towards the CNS
" Axon of motor neurons – conduct action
potentials away from the CNS
Axon hillock – where the axon leaves the neuron cell
body
Nissl bodies – rough ER found in the cell body of a
neuron
Schwann cells – form a myelin sheath (increases speed
of impulse transmission)
Collateral axons – branches of axons
Types of Neurons
1. Multipolar neurons – many dendrites + a single
axon
2. Bipolar neurons – two processes: 1 dendrite + 1
axon
3. Pseudo-unipolar neurons – single process that
periphery + extends to the CNS
Neuroglia
! Non-neuronal cells of the CNS + PNS
! More numerous than neurons
! Retain the ability to divide
1. Astrocytes – major supporting cells in the CNS;
stimulate/inhibit the signaling activity of nearby
neurons; help limit damage to neural tissue
# Blood brain barrier – protects neurons from
exchange of waster products + nutrients
2. Ependymal cells – produce cerebrospinal fluid;
help move the cerebrospinal fluid through the CNS
3. Microglia – act as immune cells of the CNS’
protect the brain by removing bacteria and cell
debris
M o r a n o , M . A .
 4 – 5. Oligodendrocytes (CNS) and Schwann cells
(PNS) – provide an insulating material that
surrounds axons
Neural Signaling
! Communication among neurons
1. Reception – stimuli received by visual receptors
in the eye
2. Transmission – sensory neurons transmit info to
CNS
3. Integration – info given is interpreted and an
appropriate response is determined
4. Transmission – the CNS transmits info to motor
neurons
5. Actual response – muscle/glands receive info
and instruction from motor neurons
Myelin Sheaths
! Highly specialized insulating layer of cells
Unmyelinated axons – action potentials are conducted
slowly bcos in travels along the entire axon
Myelinating axons – action potentials are conducted
rapidly by salutatory conduction
Nodes of Ranvier – gaps in the myelin sheath; where
ion movement can occur
Organization of Nervous Tissue
Gray Matter – groups of neuron cell bodies + their
dendrites; very little myelin
" In the CNS;
# Cortex – GM on the surface of the brain
# Nuclei – GM located deeper within the
brain
" In the PNS;
# Ganglion – a cluster of neuron cell
bodies
White Matter – bundles of parallel axons + myelin
sheaths
" In the CNS
# Nerve tracts – conduction pathways;
propagate action potentials from one
area of the CNS to another
" In the PNS;
# Nerves – bundles of axons + connective
tissue sheaths
Electrical Signals and Neural Pathways
Resting Membrane Potential
Polarized cell membrane – uneven distribution of
charge
Resting membrane potential – uneven charge
distribution in an unstimulated/resting cell; polarized
" Higher concentration of K+ inside CM
" Higher concentration of Na+ outside CM
" Greater permeability of CM to K+ than to Na+
Leak channels – always open
Gated channels – closed until opened by specific signals
Chemically gated channels – opened by
neurotransmitters
Voltage gated channels – opened by a change in
membrane potential
Sodium potassium pump – required to maintain the
greater concentration of Na+ outside the CM and K+
inside
Action Potentials
Excitable cells – RMP changes in response to stimuli
that activate gated ion channels
Local current – Na+ diffuses quickly into cell
Depolarization – a change that causes the inside of the
CM to become positive
Local potential – result of depolarization
Threshold value – attainable local potential (critical pt.)
Action potential – constitution of depolarization and
repolarization
Hyperpolarization – the charge on the CM briefly
becomes more negative than the RMP
All-or-none fashion – threshold is reached = action
potential occurs; if the threshold is not reached = action
potential doesn’t occur
Continuous conduction – the action potential is
conducted along the entire axon CM
Saltatory conduction – action potentials jump from one
node of Ranbier to the next
The Synapse
Synapse – a junction where the axon of one neuron
interacts with another
Presynaptic terminal – end of the axon
Postsynaptic membrane – membrane of the dendrite or
effector cell
Synaptic cleft – space separating the presynaptic &
postsynaptic membrane
M o r a n o , M . A .
Neurotransmitters – chemical messengers

Synaptic vesicles – where neurotransmitters are stored

Hyperpolarized – the inside of the postsynaptic cell

tends to become more negative

Substance Effect Clinical Example

Acetylcholine Excitatory or Alzheimer disease
inhibitory
Norepinephrine Excitatory Cocaine and
amphetamines
Serotonin Generally Mood, anxiety, and
inhibitory sleep induction
Dopamine Excitatory or Parkinson disease
inhibitory
Gamma- Inhibitory Treatment of
aminobutyric epilepsy
acid
Glycine Inhibitory Poison strychnine
Endorphins Inhibitory Opiates morphine
and heroin

Reflexes
Reflex – an involuntary reaction in response to a
stimulus applied to the periphery and transmitted to the
CNS

Reflex arc – neuronal pathway by which a reflex occurs

" Sensory receptor
" Sensory neuron
" Interneurons
" Motor neuron
" Effector organ (muscle or glands)

Neuronal Pathways
Converging pathway – two or more neurons synapse
with the same neuron

Diverging pathway – the axon from one neuron divides

and synapses with more than one other neuron

Summation – allows integration of multiple sub

threshold local potentials; brings the membrane
potential to threshold and trigger an action potential

Spatial summation – local potentials originate from diff.

locations on the postsynaptic neuron

Temporal summation – local potentials overlap in time

M o r a n o , M . A .
 Spinothalamic tract – transmits pain, light touch, and
Spinal cord deep pressure
! Extends from the foramen magnum to the 2nd
lumbar vertebra Dorsal column – transmission of proprioception, touch,
! Provides a two-way conduction pathway to and deep pressure, vibration
from the brain
Spinocerebellar tracts – proprioception to cerebellum
Cauda equina – inferior end of the SC; spinal nerves
exiting there resemble a horse’s tail Descending Tracts
! Pathways that carry impulses from the brain to
2 Main Functions the periphery
1. Transmits info to and from the brain.
2. Controls many reflex activities of the body. Lateral corticospinal – muscle tone and skilled
movements (hand)
White Matter of the SC
1. Dorsal (posterior) Anterior corticospinal – muscle tone and movement of
2. Ventral (anterior) trunk muscles
3. Lateral Columns
a. Ascending tracts – conduct action Rubrospinal – movement coordination
potentials toward the brain
b. Descending tracts – conduct action Reticulospinal – posture adjustment
potentials away from the brain
Vestibulospinal – posture & balance
Gray Matter of the SC (shaped like the letter H)
1. Posterior horns Tectospinal – movement in response to visual reflexes
2. Anterior horns
3. Small lateral horns Cranial Nerves
! Transmit info to the brain form the sensory
Central canal – fluid filled space in the center of the cord receptors
! 12 pairs
Ventral root – formed by ventral rootlets;
Name Specific Function
Dorsal root – formed by dorsal rootlets I. Olfactory S S: smell
II. Optic S S: vision
Dorsal root ganglion – ganglion in a dorsal root M: 4-6 extrinsic eye
III. Oculomotor M muscles; P: constricts
Relfex Action pupils
! Predictable, automatic response to a specific IV. Trochlear M M: 1 extrinsic eye muscle
stimulus S: face + teeth; M: muscles
V. Trigeminal B
of mastification
1. Reception of the stimulus. VI. Abducens M M: 1 extrinsic eye muscle
2. Transmission of info to the CNS. S: taste; M: facial muscles;
3. Integration (interpretation and determination of VII. Facial B
P: salivary + tear glands
an appropriate response). Acoustic /
4. Transmission of info from the CNS to a muscle. VIII. Vestibulococh- S S: hearing + balance
5. Actual response. lear
S: taste + touch to back of
Spinal Cord Reflexes Glossopharyng
IX. B tongue; M: pharyngeal
Knee-Jerk Reflex -eal
muscles; P: salivary glands
Stretch flex – simplest reflex; muscles contract in S: pharynx, larynx, viscera;
response to a stretching force applied to them M: palate, pharynx, larynx;
X. Vagus B
P: viscera of thorax +
Knee-jerk reflex – patellar reflex; used to determine if abdomen
the higher CNS centers that normally influence this M: 2 neck + upper back
reflex are functional XI. Accessory M
muscles
XII. Hypoglossal M M: tongue muscles
Withdrawal Reflex
Withdrawal Reflex – flexor reflex; to remove a limb Spinal Nerves
from a painful stimulus
! Arise along the spinal cord; contains mixed
nerves
Ascending Tracts
! 31 pairs
! Pathways that carry impulses form the
periphery to various parts of the brain # 8 Cervical
# 12 Thoracic
# 5 Lumbar

M o r a n o , M . A .
 # 5 Sacral Autonomic Nervous System
# 1 Coccygeal ! Preganglionic neuron
! Postganglionic neuron
Mixed nerves – contains both sensory and somatic ! Maintain internal homeostasis
motor neurons
Autonomic ganglia – where preganglionic neurons
Plexuses – where nerves come together and then synapse with postganglionic neurons
separate
" Cervical plexus I. Sympathetic ANS
" Brachial plexus ! ‘Fight-or-flight’
" Lumbosacral plexus ! Prepares the body for action
! Most active during stressful situations
Cervical Plexus ! Norepinephrine (main neurotransmitter)
! Originates from spinal nerves C1 to C4
II. Parasympathetic ANS
Phrenic nerve – most important branc of the CP; ! Activities result in conserving and restoring
innervates the diaphragm (responsible for our ability to energy
breathe) ! Helps return the body to resting conditions
! Active during periods of calm and rest
Brachial Plexus ! PS fibers are in the vagus nerve
! Originates from the spinal nerves C5 to T1
Autonomic Neurotransmitters
1. Axillary nerve – innervates 2 shoulder muscles Acetylcholine – neurotransmitters of the
+ the skin over part of it parasympathetic division
2. Median nerve – innervates the anterior forearm Norepinephrine – postganglionic neurons of the
and intrinsic muscles sympathetic division
3. Radial nerve – innervates all the muscles in the Functions of the Autonomic Nervous System
posterior arm and forearm + skin over the Sympathetic Division
posterior surface of the arm, forearm, hand ! Prepares a person for action by increasing HR,
BP, respiration, release of glucose
4. Musculocutaneous nerve – innervates the
anterior muscles of the arm + skin over the Parasympathetic Division
radial surface of the forearm ! Involuntary activities at rest: digestion of food,
defecation, urination
5. Ulnar nerve – innervates most of the anterior
forearm muscles and some of the intrinsic hand Enteric Nervous System
muscles + skin over the radial side of the hand
! Consists of plexus within the wall of the
digestive tract
Lumbosacral Plexus
! Originates from spinal nerves L1 to S4 1. Sensory neurons – connect the digestive tract to
the CNS
1. Obturator nerve – innervates the muscles of the 2. Sympathetic & parasympathetic neurons –
medial thigh + skin over it connect the CNS to the digestive tract
3. Enteric neurons – located entirely within enteric
2. Femoral nerve – innervates the anterior thigh plexus
muscles + skin over it & medial side of the leg
# Capable of monitoring and controlling
the digestive tract independently of the
3. Tibial nerve – innervates the posterior thigh
CNS
muscles, the anterior & posterior leg muscles,
most of the intrinsic foot muscles + skin over the
sole of the foot

4. Common fibular nerve – innervates the muscles

of the lateral thigh & leg, some intrinsic foot
muscles + skin over the anterior & lateral leg,
dorsal surface of the foot

Sciatic nerve – CT sheath that bounds the tibial and

common fibular nerve

M o r a n o , M . A .

Brain
! Soft, wrinkled mass of tissue that is highly
complex and adaptive; 3 pounds
! 25 billion neurons
! Requires a continuous supply of oxygen and
glucose
I. Brainstem
! Connects the spinal cord to the remainder of the
brain
! Controls the heart rate, blood pressure, and
breathing
! Damage can cause death
1. Medulla Oblongata
! Most inferior portion of the brainstem
! Important reflex actions like vomiting, sneezing,
coughing, swallowing
! Gray matter consists of various nuclei that serve
as vital centers
# Cardiac centers – control HR
# Vasomotor centers – regulates BP bu
controlling blood vessel diameter
# Respiratory centers – initiates and
regulates breathing
! Pyramids – two prominent enalargements
2. Pons (bridge)
! Relay information bet. the cerebrum and the
cerebellum
! Resembles an arched footbridge
! Regulates respiration, swallowing, sleep
3. Midbrain
! Smallest region of the brainstem
! 4 mounds called the colliculi
# 2 inferior; major relay centers for the
auditory nerve pathways in the CNS
# 2 superior; visual reflexes and receive
touch and auditory input
4. Reticular Formation
! A group of nuclei scattered throughout the
brainstem
! Regulating cyclical motor functions; respiration,
walking, chewing
! Damage can result in coma
! Reticular activating system – plays an
important role in arousing and maintaining
consciousness
II. Diencephalon
! Part bet. the brainstem and the cerebrum
1. Thalamus
! Largest part of the diencephalon
! Major relay center for all sensory info (except
smell) to the cerebrum; plays a gating rol
! Influences mood and registers an uncomfortable
perception of pain
! Interthalamic adhesion – connects the two
large, lateral parts of the thalamus
2. Epithalamus
! Smallest area superior + posterior to the
thalamus
! Consists of few small nuclei (emotional and
visceral response to odors) + pineal gland
Pineal gland – an endocrine gland that may influence
the onset of puberty; role in controlling some long term
cycles
3. Hypothalamus
! Most inferior part
! Consists of several small nuclei; maintaining
homeostasis
! Control of body temp., hunger, and thirst
! Sensations such as sexual pleasure, rage, fear,
and relaxation
Important Homeostatic Mechanisms
1. Control center of the ANS.
2. The link bet. the nervous and endocrine
systems.
3. Helps maintain fluid balance.
# Anti-diuretic hormone (ADH) –
regulates water excretion by the kidneys
4. Regulates body temperature.
5. Regulates food intake (appetite and satiety
centers).
6. Regulates sleep-wake cycles.
7. Influences sexual behavior and emotional
aspects of sensory input.
Infundibulum – controlling the secretion of hormones
from the pituitary gland
Mammillary bodies – involved in emotional responses
to odors and in memory
III. Cerebellum
! Second largest part of the brain; 2 hemispheres
! Responsible for coordination of movements
! Comparator – a sensing device that compares
data from two sources
! Proprioceptive neurons – innervate joints,
tendons, muscles; provide info about the
position of body parts
1. Helps in smooth and coordinated body
movements (comparator function).
2. Maintains muscle tone posture.
3. Maintain balance and equilibrium
4. Important in learning motor skills.
IV. Cerebrum
! Largest and most prominent part of the brain
1. Sensory Function – receives info from sensory
receptors and interprets it
2. Motor Function – responsible for all voluntary
movement and some involuntary ones
3. Association Function – responsible for all of the
intellectual activities of brain
M o r a n o , M . A .
4 Lobes Right and Left Hemispheres
1. Frontal Lobe Right hemisphere – three dimensional or spatial
! Control of voluntary motor functions, perception, musical ability
motivation, aggression, mood, olfactory
reception Left Hemisphere – analytical hemisphere; mathematics
! Primary motor area: consciously move our and speech
skeletal muscles
! Broca’s area – speech center Memory
! Prefrontal area – reposible for executive Working memory – stores info required for the
functions immediate performance of a task; 7 digit phone no.

2. Parietal Lobe Short-term memory – last longer; can be retained for a

! General Sensory Area – receives info from the
sensory receptors in the skin and joints
! Wernicke’s area – sensory speech area
3. Occipital Lobe
! Receiving and perceiving visual input
! Primary visual area – receives visual info
! Visual association area – portion where visual
info is integrated
4. Temporal Lobe
! Primary auditory area – center for reception of
auditory messages
! Auditory association area – where auditory
messages are integrated
! Psychic cortex – abstract thoughts and
judgments
Gyri – folds and convolutions; increase the surface area
of the cortex and intervening grooves (sulci)
Sulci – shallow grooves
Fissures – deep groves
Longitudinal fissure – divides the cerebrum into left
and right hemispheres
Cerebral cortex – outermost layer of the cerebrum;
consists of gray matter
Corpus callosum – connects the right and left
hemispheres
Central sulcus – separates the frontal and parietal lobes
Lateral fissure – separates the temporal love from the
rest
Insula – fifth lobe; deep within the fissure
Basal Nuclei
! Group of functionally related nuclei
Corpus striatum – located deep within the cerebrum
Substantia nigra – darkly pigmented cells in the
midbrain
few mins. to a few days
Long-term memory – stored for only a few minutes or
become permanent by consolidation
Consolidation – a gradual process involving the
formation of new and stronger synaptic connections
Declarative memory – explicit memory; retains facts and
related emotional undertones
Procedural memory – reflexive memory; development
of motor skills
Memory engrams – memory traces; long-term retention
of a thought/idea
Limbic System
! A group of interconnected nuclei involved in
memory and regulation of emotion
Hippocampus – formation and retrieval of memories
Amygdala – filter sensory info and evaluates it in terms
of emotional needs
Meninges, Ventricles, and Cerebrospinal Fluid
Meninges
! Surround and protect the brain and spinal cord
1. Dura mater – most superficial and thickest
meninges
# Epidural space – bet. the dura mater &
the vertebrae
# Epidural anesthesia – clinically
important as the injection site of spinal
nerves; given to women during
childbirth
2. Arachnoid mater – thin, wispy, 2nd meningeal
membrane
# Subdural space – space bet. the dura
mater and the arachnoid mater; contains
small amt. of serous fluid
# Spinal block – to inject anesthetic into
the area
# Spinal tap – to take a sample of CSF
3. Pia mater – 3rd meningeal membrane; very
tightly bound to the surface of the brain and
spinal cord; filled with CSF and contains blood
vessels

M o r a n o , M . A .
 # Subarachnoid space – bet. the Aphasia – absent/defective speech/language
arachnoid and pia matter comprehension

Ventricles Brain Waves and Consciousness

! Fluid filled cavities Electroencephalogram (EEG) -

Lateral ventricle – relatively large cavity in each cerebral Brain waves – wave like patterns
hemisphere
Alpha waves – awake but in a quiet, resting state with
Third ventricle – a smaller, midline cavity eyes close

Fourth ventricle – located at the base of the cerebellum Beta waves – occur during intense mental activity

Cerebral aqueduct – a narrow canal that connects the 3rd Delta waves – occur during deep sleep in infants and in
and 4th ventricle patients

Cerebrospinal fluid Theta waves – observed in children; also in adults who

! Provides a protective cushion around the CNS are frustrated or have brain disorders

Choroid plexus – produces CSF; specialized structures
made of ependymal cells
Arachnoid villi – structures that project from the
arachnoid layer; where blood is reabsorbed
Effects of Aging on the Nervous System
! Motor functions decline
! Mental functions (memory) decline

Hydrocephalus – accumulation of CSF in the ventricles

Motor Functions
Involuntary movements – occur without a conscious
thought

Voluntary movements – consciously activated to

achieve a specific goal; walking, typing

Upper motor neurons – have cell bodies in the cerebral

cortex

Lower motor neurons – have cell bodies in the anterior

horn

Motor Areas of the Cerebral Cortex

Primary motor cortex – control voluntary movements of
skeletal muscles

Premotor area – where motor functions are organized

before they are actually initiated in the primary motor
cortex

Pre-frontal area – where planning and initiating

movements occur

Other Brain Functions

Communication bet. the Right & Left Hemispheres
Commissures – connection bet. the two hemispheres

Corpus callosum – largest commissure

Speech
Sensory speech area – Wernicke area; a portion of the
parietal lobe

Motor speech area – Broca area; inferior portion of the

frontal lobe

M o r a n o , M . A .

SENSES
! Ability to perceive stimuli
Sensation/Perception – conscious awareness of stimuli
received
GENERAL SENSES
! Have receptors distributed over the body
! Senses for touch, pressure, pain, temp.,
vibration, itch, proprioception
1. Somatic Senses – provide sensory info about the
body and the environment
2. Visceral Senses – provide info about various
internal organs (pain & pressure)
Transduction – a receptor absorbs energy from stimulus
Sensory Receptors – sensory nerve endings capable of
responding to stimuli by developing action potentials
2. Deep/Visceral Pain – diffuse; action potentials
are propagated more slowly
Local anesthesia – injected near a sensory
receptor/nerve resulting in reduced pain
General anesthesia – loss of consciousness is produced;
affects reticular formation
Gate control theory – inhibits action potentials carried
to the brain by the spinothalamic tract
Referred Pain
! Originate in a region of the body that is not the
source of the pain stimulus
! Clinically useful in diagnosing the actual cause
of the painful stimulus
! Occurs bcos the sensory neurons (from the
superficial area) to which the pain is referred,
and the neurons (from the deeper, visceral area)
where the pain stimulation originates, converge
onto the same ascending neurons in the spinal
cord; thus the brain can’t distinguish

1. Mechanoreceptors – mechanical stimuli

SPECIAL SENSES
2. Chemoreceptors – chemicals (odor molecules) ! Localized to specific parts of the body
! Smell, taste, sight, hearing, balance
3. Photoreceptors – light

4. Thermoreceptors – temperature changes OLFACTION

! Sense of smell
5. Nociceptors – sensation of pain ! Occurs in response to airborne molecules
6. Free nerve endings – simplest and most Odorants – airborne molecules
common receptors
" Cold receptors – decreasing temp.; stop Olfactory neurons – bipolar neurons
responding at below 12OC
" Warm receptors – increasing temp.; stop Olfactory epithelium – lines the superior part of the
responding above 47 OC nasal cavity

7. Touch receptors – structurally more complex; Neuronal Pathways for Olfaction

enclosed by capsules
8. Merkel disks – light touch and superficial
pressure
9. Hair follicle receptors – light touch
10. Meissner corpuscles – fine, discriminative
touch; localizing tactile sensations
11. Ruffini corpuscles – continuous pressure in
skin
! Axons of the olfactory neurons form the
olfactory nerves, which enter the olfactory
bulb. Olfactory tracts carry action potentials
from the olfactory bulbs to the olfactory cortex
of the brain.
Olfactory bulb – where olfactory neurons synapse with
interneurons
Olfactory tracts – relays action potentials to the brain
Olfactory cortex – where each olfactory tract terminates

12. Pacinian corpuscles – deepest receptors; deep Adaptation – feedback + temporary decreased
pressure, vibration, position sensitivity

Pain
! Unpleasant perceptual and emotional TASTE
experiences Taste buds – detect taste stimuli
1. Superficial Pain – localized; rapidly conducted Papillae – enlargements on the surfaced of the tongue
action potentials

M o r a n o , M . A .
Taste cells – 40 specialized epithelial cells " Medial rectus – turns eye inward
# Oblique muscles – two muscles to the long axis;
Taste hairs – hair-like processes superior and inferior
" Superior oblique – rotates counterclock
Taste pore – tiny opening in the surrounding stratified " Inferior oblique – rotates clockwise
epithelium
Anatomy of the Eye
Taste sensations Eyeball – hollow, fluid-filled sphere
1. Sour
2. Salty Tunics – 3 layered wall of the eye
3. Bitter # Fibrous tunic – sclera + cornea
4. Sweet " Sclera – firm, white, outer connective
5. Umami (savory) tissue; maintains the shape of the eye
" Cornea – transparent, permits light to
Neuronal Pathways for Taste
enter; refracts the entering light;
1. Facial Nerve (7) – transmits taste sensations
‘window of the eye’
from the anterior of the tongue

2. Glossopharyngeal nerve (9) – carries taste # Vascular tunic – contains most of the blood
vessels of the eye
sensations from the posterior of the tongue
" Choroid – thin structure that consists of
3. Vagus nerve (10) – carries some taste sensations melanin containing pigment cells
form the root of the tongue (causing black appearance); absorbs
light so that it is not reflected inside
4. Gustatory portion of the brainstem nuclei " Ciliary body – responsible for
accommodation; near objects = CM
5. Thalamus contracts + lens become rounder; far
objects = CM relaxes + lens become
6. Taste area (Insula) ovoid
• Ciliary muscles – smooth muscles

VISION • Suspensory ligaments – attached

the perimeter of the lens
Orbits – bony cavities where the eyes are housed • Lens – flexible, biconvex,
transparent disc
Accessory Structures of the Eye o Cataract – opacity of lens
! Protect, lubricate, and move the eye " Iris – colored part of the eye; regulates
diameter of the pupil
Eyebrows – protect the eyes by preventing perspiration • Pupil – controls the amt. of light
from running down entering the eyes
o Parasympathetic – light
Eyelids – protect the eyes form foreign objects intensity increases; pupillary
# Blinking – occurs about 20 times/min.; keeps constriction
the eyes lubricated o Sympathetic – light intensity
decreases; pupillary dilation
Conjunctiva – thin, transparent mucous membrane
covering the inner surface of the eyelids; lubricate the # Nervous tunic – innermost tunic
surface of the eye " Retina – covers the posterior 5/6 of the
# Conjunctivitis – inflammation of the eye
conjunctiva • Pigmented retina – keeps light from
reflecting back into the eye
Lacrimal Apparatus
• Sensory retina – contains rods &
# Lacrimal gland – produces tears cones (photoreceptors) which
" Lacrimal canaliculi – small ducts where respond to light
excess tears are collected a. Rods – can function in very dim
" Lacrimal duct – enlargement of light; doesn’t provide color
nasolacrimal duct vision
# Nasolacrimal duct – opens into the nasal cavity o Rhodopsin – photosensitive
pigment; breaks down into:
Extrinsic Eye Muscles – 6 skeletal muscles that ! Opsin – colorless
accomplish movement of each eyeball protein
# Rectus muscles ! Retinal – yellow
" Superior rectus – rolls eye upwards pigment
" Inferior rectus – rolls eye downward
" Lateral rectus – turns eye outward

M o r a n o , M . A .
 o Night blindness – difficulty
seeing in dims light; caused
by vit. A deficiency
b. Cones – require more light;
provide color vision
o Red, Blue, Green – major
types of color sensitive
opsin
o Color blindness – caused
by lack of three cone types
o Partial color blindness –
lack of one cone type
o Retinal detachment – thalamus
separation of sensory retina
from the pigmented retina
Regions of the Retina
1. Macula lutea – small, yellow spot near the
center of the posterior retina
" Fovea centralis – region of sharpest
vision; where light is most focused
2. Optic disc – white spot through which a no. of
blood vessels enter the eye;
" Blind spot of the eye – contains no
photoreceptor cells and doesn’t respond
to light
Chambers of the Eye
# Anterior chamber
Posterior chamber
" Bet. the cornea and lens
" Aqueous humor – watery fluid; helps
maintain pressure within the eye,
refracts light, provides nutrients
" Glaucoma – increase in the intraocular
pressure due to blockage of AH flow
# Vitreous chamber
" Posterior to the lens
" Vitreous humor – transparent, jelly-like
substance; helps maintain pressure
within the eye, holds the lens and retina
in place; does not circulate
Functions of the Eye
1. Light Refraction
" Focal point – crossing point
" Focusing – causes light to converge
2. Focusing Images on the Retina
" Accommodation – causes greater
refraction of light; enables the eye to
focus on images
Neuronal Pathways for Vision
! Light passes through cornea, through the
aqueous humor, through the lens, through the
vitreous humor, image forms on photoreceptors
in retina, breakdown of rhodopsin, signals
bipolar cells.
! Axons pass though the optic nerves to the optic
chiasm, where some cross. Axons from the nasal
retina cross, and those from the temporal retina
do not.
! Optic tracts from the chiasm lead to the
thalamus.
! Optic radiations extend from the thalamus to
the visual cortex in the occipital lobe.
Optic nerve – leaves the eye and exits the orbit
Optic chiams – where two optic nerves connect
Optic tracts – the route of the ganglionic axons
Optic radiations – formed by neurons from the
Visual cortex – where vision is perceived
Visual field – image seen by each eye
HEARING & BALANCE
Anatomy and Function of the Ear
1. External Ear – outer part we see
a. Auricle – fleshy part; collects sound
waves & directs them toward the EAC
b. External auditory canal – passageway
that leads to the eardrum
c. Ceruminous glands – lines the auditory
canal
• Cerumen/earwax – modified
sebum; protects the lining of the
canal
d. Tympanic membrane/Eardrum – thin
membrane that separates the external
from the middle ear; sound waves
causes it to vibrate
2. Middle Ear – air filled chamber
a. Oval and Round window – connects
the middle to the inner
b. Auditory Ossicles – amplify vibrations
i. Malleus (hammer) – medial surface
of the tympanic m.
ii. Incus (anvil) – connects malleus to
stapes
iii. Stapes – its base is seated in the oval
window
c. Auditory/Eustachian tube – enables
pressure to be equalized
3. Inner Ear – fluid filled chamber; for sound
waves, balance, equilibrium
a. Bony labyrinth – interconnecting
tunnels and chambers
i. Cochlea – hearing
ii. Vestibule – balance
iii. Semicircular canal – balance
b. Membranous labyrinth – smaller set of
membranous tunnels and chambers
• Endolymph – clear fluid
c. Perilymph – fluid bet. membranous and
bony labyrinths
M o r a n o , M . A .
Cochlea Inferior colliculus – where neurons in the cochlear
! Contains receptors for hearing nucleus project to the other areas of the brainstem
! Snail shell shape
Balance
Spiral lamina – threads of the screw (base) Static equilibrium – vestibule; evaluating the position of
head relative to gravity
Scala vestibuli – extends from the oval window to the
apex of the cochlea Dynamic equilibrium – semi-circular canals; evaluating
changes in the direction and rate of head movements
Scala tympani – extends in parallel with the scala v.
from the apex Vestibule
# Utricle
Vestibular membrane – wall of the ML that lines the # Saccule
scala vestibuli
Maculae – specialized patches of epithelium
Basilar membrane – wall of the ML that lines the scala
tympani Otolithic membrane – gelatinous mass

Cochlear duct – space bet. the VM and the BM; filled Otoliths – gravity detectors composed of protein and
with endolymph calcium carbonate

Spiral organ/Organ of Corti – specialized structure; Semicircular canals – involved in dynamic equilibrium;
contains hair cells enables a person to detect movements in any direction
# Ampulla – expanded base of each SC
Hair cells – specialized sensory cells; contain microvilli # Crista ampullaris – specialized epithelium
formed within each ampulla
Tectorial membrane – acellular gelatinous shelf # Cupula – curved, gelatinous mass contained in
each crista
Cochlear/Spiral ganglion – contains cell bodies of hair
cells Motion sickness – caused by continuous stimulation of
the SC; characterized by nausea & weakness
Cochlear nerve – formed by axons of sensory neurons
Neuronal Pathways for Balance
Vestibulocochlear nerve (CN 8) – formed by cochlear ! Axons in the vestibular portion of the
nerve + vestibular nerve vestibulocochlear nerve project to the
vestibular nucleus and on to the cerebral
Glutamate – neurotransmitter for hearing cortex.
Hearing Vestibulocochlear nerve (8) – project to the vestibular
Higher pitches – causes max. distortion of the BM nucleus in the brainstem
Sound volume – function of sound wave amplitude Balance – a complex sensation involving sensory input
Conduction deafness – results from mechanical Effects of Aging on the Senses
deficiencies Presbyopia – lenses’ ability to change shape initially
declines and is eventually lost
Sensorineural hearing loss – caused by deficiencies in
the spiral organ/nerves Presbyacusis – age-related sensorineural hearing loss
Neuronal Pathways for Hearing
! Soundwaves enter external auditory meatus,
causing the tympanic membrane to vibrate.
! Malleus, incus, stapes amplify the vibrations,
causing the oval window to vibrate.
! Vibrations are conducted through perilymph,
and transmitted to the endolymph, causing the
basilar membrane to vibrate.
! Hair cells in the organ of Corti are stimulated.
! From the vestibulocochlear nerve, action
potentials travel to the cochlear nucleus and on
the cerebral cortex.

Cochlear nucleus – where the cochlear nerve sends

axons

M o r a n o , M . A .

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
Principles of Chemical Communication
Chemical messengers – allow cells to communicate with
each other
Secretion – controlled release of chemicals from a cell
Classes of Chemical Messengers
1. Autocrine – stimulates the cell that originally
secreted it; WBCs during an infection
2. Paracrine – act locally on nearby cells; WBCs
during allergic reactions
3. Neurotransmitter – activate an adjacent cell
4. Endocrine – secreted into the bloodstream by
certain glands and cells
Functions of the Endocrine System (MC3 I2WHUT)
1. Metabolism.
2. Control of blood glucose and other nutrients.
3. Control of reproductive functions.
4. Control of food intake and digestion.
5. Ion regulation.
6. Immune system regulation.
7. Water balance.
8. Heart rate and blood pressure regulation.
9. Uterine contraction and milk release.
10. Tissue development.
Characteristics of the Endocrine System
Endocrine System – composed of endocrine glands +
endocrine specialized cells
Hormones – chemical messenger that is secreted into the
blood
Target tissues – effectors; specific site
Endocrine – Greek word; endo (within) + krino (secrete)
Exocrine glands – have ducts that carry their secretions
to the outside of the body
Endocrinology – study of the endocrine system
Hormones
! Greek word; hormone (to set into motion)
Chemical Nature of Hormones
1. Lipid-Soluble
2. Water-Soluble
Control of Hormone Secretion
Stimulation/Inhibition of Hormone Release
1. Humoral Stimuli – blood levels of chemicals
2. Neural Stimuli – nervous system
3. Hormonal Stimuli - hormones
Regulation of Hormone Levels in the Blood
A. Negative feedback
" Blood conc. of hormone declines
" More hormone is secreted
" If max. set point is exceeded
" Hormone production is halted
B. Positive feedback
" Tropic hormones stimulate the release
of other hormones
Hormone Receptors and Mechanisms of Action
Receptors – where hormones exert action by binding to
proteins
Receptor site – the portion of each receptor molecule
where a hormone binds
Specificity – tendency of hormones to bind to one type
of receptor
Target tissue – the responding tissue based on the
hormone released
Classes of Receptors
1. LSH bind to nuclear receptors.
" Interaction with cell DNA to regulate
transcription.
2. WSH bind to membrane bound receptors.
" Hormone receptor complex initiates a
response inside the cell (G proteins,
cAMP, protein kinase).
Endocrine Glands and their Hormones
Pituitary and Hypothalamus
Pituitary Gland/Hypophysis
! A small gland about the size of a pea
! Controls the functions of many other glands
! Secrets hormones that influence growth, kidney
function, birth, milk prod.
Hypothalamus
! An important ANS and endocrine control center
of the brain
! Controls the PG by hormonal control and direct
innervation
Infundibulum – a stalk that connects the pituitary gland
and the hypothalamus
Anterior pituitary – made up of epithelial cells derived
from embryonic oral cavity
Posterior pituitary – an extension of the brain;
composed of nerve cells
Hormonal Control of A. Pituitary
Hypothalamic-pituitary portal system – capillary beds
and veins that transport the releasing and inhibiting
hormones
M o r a n o , M . A .
ANTERIOR PITUITARY THYROID GLAND
1. Growth hormone (GH) 1. Calcitonin
! Affects body growth by stimulating protein ! Decreases rate of bone breakdown
synthesis by increasing gene expression ! Prevents large increase in blood Ca2+ levels
! Breakdown of lipids
! Release of fatty acids from cells 2. Thyroid hormones
! Increases blood glucose levels ! Increases metabolic rates
! Essential for normal process of growth
Pituitary dwarf – deficiency in GH although
normally proportioned Thyroxine / Tetraiodothyronine - contains four
iodine atoms
Gigantism – excess GH; exaggerated bone
growth occurs Triiodothyronine – contains three iodine atoms

Acromegaly – abnormally large facial features & Isthmus – narrow band that connects the two
hands lobes of the thyroid gland

Insulin-like growth factors (IGFs)
2. Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)
! Promotes synthesis and secretion of thyroid
hormone
3. Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
! Increases secretion of glucocorticoid hormones
! Increases skin pigmentation
Thyroid follicles – where thyroid hormones are
synthesized and stored
Goiter – excess TSH; low in iodine diet
Hypothyroidism – lack of thyroid hormones
Cretinism – congenital absence of thyroxine in
infants

4. Melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH) Myxedema – accumulation of fluid and other

! Increases melanin prod. in melanocytes molecules in subcutaneous tissue in adults

5. Luteinizing hormone (LH) Hyperthyroidism – elevated rate of thyroid

! Promotes ovulation and progesterone hormone secretion
production on ovary
Graves disease – hyperthyroidism that results
Interstitial cell-stimulating hormone (ICSH) when the immune system produces abnormal
! Promotes testosterone synthesis and support for proteins
sperm cell prod. in testis
Exophthalmia – bulging of the eyes
6. Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
! Promotes follicle maturation and
secretion in ovary
estrogen PARATHYROID GLAND
! Promotes sperm cell prod. in testis 1. Parathyroid hormone
! Increase Ca+ levels in the blood
7. Prolactin ! Increases rate of bone breakdown by osteoclasts
! Promote development of breast during ! Increases vit. D synthesis (essential for
pregnancy maintenance of normal blood calcium levels)
! Stimulates milk prod. and prolongs
progesterone secretion Hyperparathyroidism (Hypercalcemia) –
! Increases sensitivity to LH in males abnormally high rate of PTH secretion
# Tumor
# Muscle weakness
PITUITARY GLAND # Soft, easily deformed bones
1. Antidiuretic hormone # Prone to kidney stone formation
! Conserves water
! Constricts blood vessels Hypoparathyroidism (Hypocalcemia) –
abnormally low rate of PTH; surgery
! Syndrome of Inappropriate ADH (SIADH)
# Surgery
! Diabetes Inspidus – large prod. of dilute urine
# Frequent muscle cramps or tetanus
2. Oxytocin # Respiratory arrest
! Swift birth # CHVOSTEK’s sign & TROSSEAU sign
! Increases uterine contractions
! Increases milk letdown

M o r a n o , M . A .
ADRENAL MEDULLA PANCREAS
1. Epinephrine (Adrenalin) & Norepinephrine 1. Insulin
! Fight-or-flight hormones ! Secreted by beta cells
! Increases cardiac output ! Increases uptake and use of glucose and amino
! Increases blood flow to skeletal muscles & heart acids
! Increases release of glucose and fatty acids into ! Released in response to elevated blood glucose
blood level & parasympathetic stimulation
! Prepares body for physical activity
2. Glucagon
! Secreted by alpha cells
ADRENAL CORTEX ! Increases breakdown of glycogen and release of
1. Aldosterone (Mineralocorticoids) glucose into the circulatory system
! Regulates water balance ! Released in response to low blood glucose level
! Increases rate of Na transport into body
! Increase rate of K excretion Glycogen – stored glucose in muscles & liver

Renin – protein molecule that acts as an enzyme Acidosis – reduced pH of body fluids

Renin Angiotensin Aldosterone System Satiety center – area of the hypothalamus that
(RAAS) – helps the body to address decreasing controls apetite
blood volume
Diabetes mellitus – much urine + sweetened
2. Cortisol (Glucocorticoids) " Type 1 – occurs when too little insulin is
! Increase fat & protein breakdown secreted from pancreas
! Increase glucose synthesis from amino acids " Type 2 – caused by insufficient no. of
! Increase blood nutrient levels insulin receptors
! Inhibit inflammation & immune response
Hyperglycemia – high blood glucose levels
! Helps the body in stressful situations by
providing energy sources
Polyphagia – increased appetite/eating
Cortisone – artificial cortisol; anti-inflammatory
Polyuria – increased eating
effect
Polydipsia – excessive thirst
3. Androgens
! Male sex hormone; stimulates the dev’t of male

!
characteristics
Increases female sex drive
TESTES
1. Testosterone
Addison’s disease – hyposecretion of adrenal ! Aids in sperm cell prod.
cortex hormones ! Maintenance of functional reproductive organs,
secondary sexual characteristics, sexual behavior
Cushing’s disease – tumor in middle cortex

Hyperaldosteronism – hyperactivity of outer OVARIES

cortex 1. Estrogen & Progesterone
! Aid in uterine and mammary gland
Hirsutism – masculinization (inner cortex) development and function, external genitalia
structure, secondary sexual characteristics,
sexual behavior, menstrual cycle
THYMUS
1. Thymosin 2. Prostaglandins
! Promotes immune system development and ! Mediate inflammatory responses
function ! Increase uterine contractions and ovulations
! Helps the dev’t of certain WBC (T-cells)
OTHER HORMONES
PINEAL GLAND 1. Erythropoietin
1. Melatonin ! Acts on bone marrow to increase the prod. of
! Inhibits secretion of gonadotropin-releasing RBCs
hormone (thus inhibits reproduction)
! Biological clock (day & night cycle) 2. Human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG)
Stimulated prod. of estrogen & progesterone

M o r a n o , M . A .
BLOOD Formed Elements
! A type of connective tissue that consists of a Production of Formed Elements
liquid matrix Hematopoiesis – process of blood cell production;
confined primarily to red bone marrow
I. Plasma
A. Plasma Proteins Stem cells / Hemocytoblasts – where all formed
1. Albumin elements of blood are derived from
2. Globulin
3. Fibrinogen I. Red Blood Cells / Erythrocytes
B. Serum ! Disk-shaped x biconcave (increases the cell’s
surface area)
II. Formed Elements ! Anucleate (without nucleus & organelles)
A. Platelts ! Transports O2 form the lungs to the various
B. RBCs tissues of the body
C. WBCs ! Helps transport CO2 from the tissues to the
1. Granular lungs
i. Neutrophils
ii. Basophils Hemoglobin – main component of RBCs;
iii. Eosinophils pigmented protein responsible for its red color
2. Agranular
i. Lymphocytes Oxygen transport – accomplished by the
ii. Monocytes hemoglobin

Functions Globin – each protein

1. Transport of gases, nutrients, & waste products.
2. Transport of processed molecules. Heme – red-pigmented molecules that
3. Transport of regulatory molecules. composes a globin
4. Regulation of pH and osmosis.
5. Maintenance of body temperature. Bright red hemoglobin – bound to O2
6. Protection against foreign substances.
7. Clot formation. Darker red hemoglobin – without bound to O2

Composition of Blood Iron – necessary for O2 transport

! Plasma – liquid matrix
! Formed elements – cells & cell fragments Carbonic anhydrase – an enzyme that catalyzes
! 4 – 5 L in females; 5 – 6 L in males a reaction that converts CO2 and H2O into a
! 8% of total body weight hydrogen ion and a bicarbonate ion

Plasma Proerythroblasts – give rise to the RBCs line

! Pale yellow fluid
a. 91% water, 7% proteins, 2% ions/gases B vitamins folate & B12 – required for cell
division; necessary for the synthesis of DNA
Plasma Proteins
1. Albumin – water balance bet. the blood and Iron – required for the production of
tissues hemoglobin

2. Globulins – part of the immune system; RBC production – stimulated by low blood O2
function as transport molecules; a clotting factor level
" Alpha globulins – transport hormones,
prothrombin, high density lipoprotein Erythropoietin – glycoprotein released by the
(HDL/healthy cholesterol) kidneys; stimulates red bone marrow to produce
more RBC
" Beta globulins – transport vitamins,
minerals, and other lipoproteins
Iron recycling
(LDL/bad cholesterol)
! When RBCs become old, abnormal and
" Gamma globulins – antibodies that
damaged, they are removed from the
provide imuunity
blood by macrophages.
3. Fibrinogen – a clotting factor ! Within the macrophage, the globin is
broken down into amino acids that are
" Fibrin – threadlike protein that forms
reused to produce other proteins.
blood clots
! Iron released from the heme is transported
Serum to the red bone marrow and used to
produce new hemoglobin.
! Plasma without the clotting factors

M o r a n o , M . A .
 ! The heme molecules are converted into b. Monocyte
bilubrin. • Largest of the WBCs
! Bilubrin – yellow pigment molecule; • Macrophages – enlarged
brown color monocytes; phagocytize bacteria,
! If the liver is not functioning normally, or dead cells, cell fragments; can break
flow of bile is hindered = bilubrin builds down phagocytized foreign
up and produces jaundice substances
! Jaundice – yellowish color to the skin
! Converted bilubrin into other pigments = III. Platelets / Thrombocytes
brown color in feces + yellow color in ! Produced in the red bone marrow from
urine megakaryocytes (large cells)
! Play an important role in preventing blood loss
II. White Blood Cells / Leukocytes
! Spherical cells that lack hemoglobin Preventing Blood Loss
! Thin, white later of cells + has a nucleus A. Vascular Spasm
! Protects the body against invading ! An immediate but temporary constriction of
microorganisms blood vessels
! Removes dead cells and debris form the tissues ! Constriction can close small vessels completely
by phagocytes and stop the flow of blood through them
! Thromboxanes – derived from certain
Ameboid movement – like an ameba; cell prostaglandins
projects a cystoplasmic extension that attaches to ! Endothelin- endothelial cells lining blood
an object vessels

A. Granulocytes – large cytoplasmic granules B. Platelet Plug Formation

a. Neutrophil ! An accumulation of platelets that can seal up a
• Most common type of WBCs small break in blood vessels
• Stains with both acidic & basic dyes ! Maintains the integrity of the circulatory system
• Commonly lobed (2 – 4)
• Phagocytize microorganism and i. Platelet adhesion – platelets stick to the
other foreign substances collagen exposed by blood vessel
damage
• Pus – dead neutrophils, cell debris
" Von Willebrand factor – protein
and fluid that accumulates at sites
produced and secreted by blood vessel
of infections
endothelial cells; forms a bridge bet.
collagen and platelets by binding to
b. Basophil
platelet surface receptors and collagen
• Least common of all WBCs
• Stain blue/purple with basic dyes ii. Platelet release reaction – platelets
• Release histamine and other release chemicals (ADP and
chemicals that promote thromboxane) that activate other
inflammation platelets
• Release heparin which prevents the " Fibrinogen receptors – surface receptors
formation of clots that bind to fibrinogen

c. Eosinophil iii. Platelet aggregation – fibrinogen forms

• Stain bright red with an acidic stain bridges be. The fibrinogen receptors of
(eosin) numerous platelets
• Two lobed nucleus
C. Blood Clotting / Coagulation
• Involved in inflammatory responses
! (A) Inactive clotting factors activate or (B)
associated with allergies and asthma
Thromboplastin causes activation.
• Involved in destroying certain ! Series of activation of clotting factors
worm parasites occurs.
! Prothrombinase / Prothrombin activator
B. Agranulocytes – very small granules
is formed.
a. Lymphocyte
! Prothrombinase converts prothrombin
• Smallest of the WBCs (inactive CF) to thrombin (active CF).
• Play an important role in body’s ! Thrombin converts fibrinogen (inactive
immune response CF) to fibrin (active CF).
• Production of anti-bodies and other ! Each CF activates many additional CF
chemicals that destroy resulting in formation of a clot.
microorganisms

M o r a n o , M . A .
 Clot – traps blood cells, platelets, and fluid
Fibrin – a network of threadlike protein fibers
Vitamin K & Ca – required for clot formation
Sources of vit. K – diet + bacteria within the
large intestine
Anticoagulants – prevent CF from forming clots
under normal conditions
Antithrombin & Heparin – inactivate thrombin
Clot retraction – a clot begins to condense into a
more compact structure
Fibrinolysis – process wherein clots
dissolved
Plasminogen – inactive plasma protein
Plasmin – active plasma protein
Tissue plasminogen activator (t-PA) – stimulate
the conversion of plasminogen to plasmin
Heart attack – results when a clot blocks blood
vessels that supply the heart
Aspirin & Anticoagulant therapies – prevent
heart attacks
Plasmin activators – quickly dissolve the clot
and restore blood flow to cardiac muscle
Streptokinase – a bacterial enzyme used to
dissolve clots
Blood Grouping
Transfusion – transfer of blood/blood components form
one individual to another
Infusion – introduction of fluids other than blood
(saline, glucose) into the blood
Transfusion reactions – clumping/rupture of blood
cells and clotting within blood vessels
Antigen – molecules on the surfaces of RBCs
Antibodies – proteins in plasma
Agglutination – clumping of cells
Hemolysis – rupture of blood cells; caused by the
combination of the antibodies with the antigens
ABO and Rh blood groups – most important in
transfusion reactions
A. ABO Blood Group
! ABO antigens appear on the surface of the RBCs
! Antigens on bacteria/food in the digestive tract
stimulate formation of antibodies against
antigens that are different from the body’s own
antigens
Blood Type Antigen Antibody
A A B
B B A
AB AB N/A
O N/A AB
Donor – person who gives blood
Recipient – person who receives blood
are Universal Donor = type O blood – misleading
! Mismatching other blood groups can
cause transfusion reactions
! Antibodies in the donor’s blood can react
with antigens on the recipient’s RBCs
B. Rh Blood Group
! First studied in the rhesus monkey
! Can occur through
" Transfusion
" Transfer of blood across the placenta to
a mother from her fetus
Rh-positive – have Rh antigens on the surface of
RBCs
Rh-negative – don’t have Rh antigens
Hemolytic Disease of the Newborn (HDN) /
Erythroblastosis fetalis
! Mother produces anti-Rh antibodies that
cross the placenta and cause agglutination
and hemolysis of fetal RBCs
! Doesn’t occur in first pregnancy
! Arises in later pregnancies
Rho (D) immune globulin (RhoGAM) –
prevention of HDN that contains antibodies
against Rh antigens; inactivates the fetal Rh
antigens and prevents sensitization of the
mother
M o r a n o , M . A .
Diagnostic Blood Tests
A. Type and Crossmatch
Blood typing – determines the ABO and Rh blood
groups of a blood sample
Crossmatch – donor’s blood cells are mixed with the
recipient’s serum + donor’s serum is moxed with the
recipient’s cells; safe = no agglutination occurs in both
A. Complete Blood Count (CBC)
! Analysis of blood that provides useful info
! Consists of RBC count, hemoglobin + hematocrit
measurements, WBC count
1. Red Blood Count
! Male – 4.6-6.2 M RBCs/microliter of blood
! Female – 4.2-5.4 M/microliter
! Erythrocytosis – overabundance of RBCs
! Erythrocytopenia – deficiency of RBCs
2. Prothrombin Time Measurement
! How long it takes for the blood to start clotting
! Normally is 9-12 s
! Prothrombin time – determined by adding
thromboplastin to whole plasma
! Thromboplastin – released from injured tissues
that starts the process of clotting
! International Normalized Ratio (INR) –
standardizes time it takes to clot
D. Blood Chemistry
! High blood glucose levels – pancreas is not
producing enough insulin
! High blood urea nitrogen (BUN) – reduced
kidney function
! Increased bilirubin – liver dysfunction
! High cholesterol levels – risk of cardiovascular
disease

2. Hemoglobin Measurement
! Male – 14-18 g/100 mL of blood
! Female – 12-16 g/100 mL
! Anemia – abnormally low hemoglobin
measurement
" Aplastic Anemia – inability of red bone
marrow to produce RBCs
" Iron-deficiency Anemia – deficiency
intake or excessive loss
" Folate deficiency – fewer cell division;
neural tube defects
" Pernicious Anemia – inadequate vit.
B12 or intrinsic function

3. Hematocrit Measurement
! Hematocrit – total blood volume that is
composed of RBCs
! Buffy coat – thin, whitish layer bet. the plasma
and RBCs
! Hematocrit measurement – affected by no. and
size of RBCs

4. White Blood Count

! 5000-9000 white cells per/microliter of blood
! Leukopenia – lower than normal WBC
! Leukocytosis – abnormally high WBC
! Leukemia – cancer of the red marrow; abnormal
production of one/more WBC types

B. Differential Blood Count

! Determines % of each of the 5 kinds of WBCs
! 60-70% Neutrophils
! 20-25% Lymphocytes
! 3-8% Monocytes
! 2-4% Eosinophils
! 0.5-1% Basophils

C. Clotting
1. Platelet count
! 250K – 400K platelets/microliter of blood
! Thrombocytopenia – platelet count is freatly
reduced; caused by decreased platelet prod.

M o r a n o , M . A .
HEART
! A muscular organ that pumps blood through
the body
! Pumps approx. 5L/min of blood
! Approx. the size of a closed fist
Cardiovascular system – the heart + blood vessels +
blood
Pulmonary circulation – right side of the heart pumps
blood to the lungs; then back to the left side
Systemic circulation – left side of the heart pumps
blood to all other tissues of the body; then back to the
right side
Functions
1. Generating blood pressure.
2. Routing blood.
3. Ensuring one-way blood flow.
4. Regulating blood supply.
Size, Form, and Location of the Heart
Apex – blunt, rounded point of the heart
Base – larger, flat part at the opposite end of the heart
Mediastinum – midline partition
Pericardial cavity – surrounding cavity of the heart
Importance of location and shape of the Heart
! To accurately place a stethoscope
! To place chest leads for ECG
! To administer CPR
Anatomy of the Heart
Pericardium
Pericardial cavity – where the heart lies
Pericardium/Pericardial sac – surrounds the heart and
anchors it within the mediastinum
Fibrous pericardium – tough, fibrous connective tissue
outer layer
Serous pericardium – thin layer of connective tissue
Parietal pericardium – serous pericardium ling the
fibrous pericardium
Visceral pericardium/Epicardium – portion covering
the heart surface
Pericardial fluid – produced by the SP; reduces friction
as the heart moves
External Anatomy
Atria – entrance chamber
Ventricles – cavities
Coronary sulcus – separates the atria from the ventricles
" Anterior interventricular sulcus
" Posterior interventricular sulcus
Superior & Inferior vena cava – carry blood to the RA
Pulmonary veins – carry blood form the lungs to the LA
Pulmonary trunk & aorta – exit the heart
Pulmonary arteries – carry blood to the lungs
Aorta – carries blood to the rest of the body
Heart Chambers and Internal Anatomy
A. Right and Left Atria
! Receives blood from the veins
! Function as reservoirs; where blood returning
from veins collects before it enter the ventricles
! Interatrial septum – separator of the two atria
B. Right and Left Ventricle
! Major pumping chambers
! Ejects blood into the arteries and forces it to flow
through the CS
! Interventricular septum – separator of the two
ventricles
Heart Valves
Atrioventricular valves
! Allows blood to flow from the atria into the
ventricles;
! Prevents it from flowing back into the atria
1. Tricuspid valve – bet. the RA and the RV
2. Bicuspid/Mital valve – bet. the LA and the LV
Papillary muscles – cone-shaped, muscular pillars;
prevents the valves from opening into the atria
Chordae tendineae – thin, strong, connective tissue
strings
Aortic & Pulmonary semilunar valves – blocks blood
from flowing back into the ventricles
Cardiac skeleton – a plate of connective tissue; electrical
insulation bet. the atria and the ventricles; provides rigid
attachment site for cardiac muscle
M o r a n o , M . A .

Route of Blood Flow Through the Heart
1. Superior & Inferior vena cava
2. Right Atrium (RA)
3. Tricuspid Valve (TV)
4. Right Ventricle (RV)
5. Pulmonary semilunar valves
6. Pulmonary trunk
7. Pulmonary arteries
8. Lung tissue (Pulmonary circulation)
9. Pulmonary veins
10. Left Atrium (LA)
11. Biscupid Valve (BV)
12. Left Ventricle (LV)
13. Aortic semilunar valves
14. Aorta
15. Body tissues (Systemic Circulation)
Blood Supply to the Heart
Coronary arteries – supply blood to the wall of the heart
" Left coronary artery
" Anterior interventricular artery
" Circumflex artery
" Left marginal artery
" Right coronary artery
" Right marginal artery
Cardiac veins
" Cardiac veins
" Coronary sinus
Histology of the Heart
Heart Wall
1. Epicardium/Visceral pericardium
! Thin, serous membrane forming the smooth
outer surface
! Consists of simple squamous epithelium
overlaying a layer of loose connective tissue +
adipose tissue
2. Myocardium
! Composed of cardiac muscles
! Responsible for contraction of
chambers
3. Endocardium
! Simple squamous epithelium over a layer of
connective tissue
! Allows blood to move easily
! Forms the heart valves
Trabeculae carneae – ridges and columns of cardiac
muscle
Cardiac Muscle
! Relies on Ca2+ and ATP for contraction
Cardiac muscle cells
! Elongated, branching cells
! Two, centrally located nuclei
! Contains actin and myosin myofilaments that
form sarcomeres
! Rich in mitochondria (produce ATP at rapid
rate)
Actin & Myosin myofilaments – responsible for muscle
contraction
Organization of A&M myofilaments – gives the cardiac
muscle a striated (banded) appearance
Intercalated disks – specialized cell-to-cell contacts;
greatly increase contact in between; prevents cells form
pulling apart
Gap junctions – specialized cell membrane structures;
allow cytoplasm to flow freely bet. cells
Electrical Activity of the Heart
Action Potentials in Cardiac Muscle
1. Depolarization phase
2. Plateau phase – period of slow repolarization
3. Repolarization phase – achieves its maximum
degree of polarization; returns to the resting
membrane potential
Refractory period
! Allows cardiac muscle to contract and relax
almost completely before another action
potential can be produced
! Prevents tetanic contractions from occurring
Conduction System of the Heart
! Specialized cardiac muscle cells in the heart wall
Sinoatrial node (SA) – heart’s pacemaker; initiates the
contraction of the heart
Atrioventricular node (AV) – spreads action potential
slowly
Atrioventricular bundle – a bundle of specialized
cardiac muscle
Left & Right bundle branches – two branches of
conducting tissue
the heart
Purkinje fibers – conduct action potentials more rapidly
than do other cardiac muscle fibers
M o r a n o , M . A .
Ectopic beat – action potentials originate in an area of Regulation of Heart Function
the heart than the SA node Cardiac output (CO) – vol. of blood pumped; 5 L/min

Electrocardiogram (ECG) Stroke volume (SV) – vol. of blood pumped per

! An extremely valuable tool for diagnosing a ventricle per contraction; 70 mL/beat
number of cardiac abnormalities
Heart rate (HR) – no. of times the heart contracts per
P wave – depolarization of the atrial myocardium minute; 72 beats/min

QRS complex – depolarization of the ventricles CO = SV x HR

T wave – repolarization of ventricles Intrinsic Regulation of the Heart

PQ interval – time bet. the beginning of the P wave and
the beginning of the QRS complex; atria contracts and
begins to relax
" PR interval – common name bcos the Q wave is
very small
! Mechanisms contained within the heart itself
Venous return – amt. of blood that returns to the heart
Preload – degree to which the ventricular walls are
stretched at the end of diastole

QT interval – represents the time req. for ventricular Starling’s Law of the Heart – relationship bet. preload
depolarization and repolarization and stroke volume

Cardiac Cycle Afterload – pressure against which the ventricles must

! Repetitive pumping process of cardiac muscle pump blood
contractions
Extrinsic Regulation of the Heart
Major events ! Mechanisms external to the heart
1. Atrial systole
2. Ventricular contraction A. Nervous Regulation: Baroreceptor Reflex
3. Ejection ! A mechanism of the nervous system in
4. Ventricular relaxation regulating heart function
5. Passive ventricular filling
Baroreceptors – stretch receptors that monitor
blood pressure
Atrium – primer pump; complete the filling of ventricles
with blood Cardioregulatory center – receives and
integrates action potentials form the
Ventricle – power pump; produce the major force that baroreceptors
causes blood to flow
B. Chemical Regulation: Chemoreceptor Reflex
Atrial systole – contraction of two atria Epinephrine & Norepinephrine – causes
increased HR and SV
Ventricular systole – contraction of two ventricles

Atrial diastole – relaxation of the two atria

Ventricular diastole – relaxation of the two ventricles

Systole & Diastole – ventricular contraction or

relaxation

Heart Sounds
Stethoscope – used to listen to the sounds of the lungs
and the heart

Lubb – closure of the AV valves

Dupp – closure of the semilunar valves

Murmurs – abnormal heart sounds; result of a faulty

valve

Stenosed – when opening of a valve is narrowed;

swishing sound precedes

M o r a n o , M . A .
 BLOOD VESSELS OF THE PULMONARY
BLOOD VESSELS CIRCULATION
FUNCTIONS: • Pulmonary Trunk
1. Carries blood • Right and Left pulmonary arteries
2. Exchanges nutrients, wastes and gases • Pulmonary veins
3. Transports substances
4. Helps regulate blood pressure BLOOD VESSELS OF THE SYSTEMIC
5. Directs blood flow to tissues CIRCULATION – ARTERIES
AORTA – where all arteries of the systemic circulation
SYSTEMIC VESSELS – from LV and back to the RA branch directly or indirectly
PULMONARY VESSELS – from RV to lungs to LA 3 PARTS:
1. ASCENDING AORTA – passes superiorly from
PERIPHERAL CIRCULATION LV; where R and L coronary arteries arise from
GENERAL FEATURES OF BLOOD VESSEL its base
STRUCTURE
ARTERIES 2. AORTIC ARCH – aorta arches posteriorly and
- carry blood AWAY from the heart to the left
- Oxygenated blood 3 major arteries that carry blood to the head
and upper limbs:
CLASSIFICATION:
• BRACHIOCEPHALIC ARTERY
1. ELASTIC – largest diameter and have the
thickest walls • L COMMON CAROTID ARTERY
• L SUBCLAVIAN ARTERY
2. MUSCULAR – medium-sized and small
diameter 3. DESCENDING AORTA – longest part
- called DISTRIBUTING ARTERY because it • THORACIC AORTA – extends through the
can control blood flow to diff. regions of the thorax and diaphragm
body • ABDOMINAL AORTA – extends through the
diaphragm
3. ARTERIOLES – smallest artery; transport blood • ARTERIAL ANEURYSM – localized dilation
from small artery to capillary of an artery that usually develops in response
to trauma or a congenital weakness of the
- Site where exchange occurs between blood and tissue artery wall
fluids; has thinner walls
ARTERIES OF THE HEAD AND NECK
ENDOTHELIUM – makes up capillary walls BRACHIOCEPHALIC ARTERY – first vessel to branch
from the aortic arch
PRECAPILLARY SPHINCTERS – regulates blood flow
• R Common carotid artery and R Subclavian
artery; L Common carotid artery and L
VEINS
Subclavian artery – 2nd and 3rd branches
- Carry blood TOWARD the heart
- Deoxygenated blood
COMMON CAROTID ARTERY – internal and external
- From capillaries; thinner walls & has less elastic tissue
CA
CLASSIFICATION:
VERTEBRAL ARTERY – supply blood to the brain
1. VENULES – tubes with a diameter slightly
larger than that of capillary
BASILAR ARTERY – supply blood to the pons,
cerebellum and midbrain
2. SMALL VEINS – slightly larger than venules;
has 3 tunics
ARTERIES OF THE UPPER LIMBS
1. AXILLARY ARTERY – axilla (armpit)
3. MEDIUM-SIZED VEINS – collect blood from
small veins and deliver it to large veins
2. BRACHIAL ARTERY – arm
3 TUNICS OF BLOOD VESSELS
3. ULNAR AND RADIAL ARTERY – forearm
1. TUNICA INTIMA – innermost; basement
and arm
membrane; composed of Endothelium
a. RADIAL A – commonly used for taking a
pulse
2. TUNICA MEDIA – middle layer; smooth
muscles arranged circularly

3. TUNICA ADVENTITIA – outer portion

ACPS.
THORACIC AORTA AND ITS BRANCHES
1. VESCERAL ARTERY – supply the THORACIC
ORGANS
2. PARIETAL ARTERY – supply the THORACIC
WALL
MAJOR PARIETAL ARTERIES:
• POSTERIOR INTERCOSTAL ARTERY – from
thoracic aorta and extend bet the ribs
• SUPERIOR PHRENIC ARTERY – supply the
diaphragm
• INTERNAL THORACIC ARTERY – descend
along the internal surface of the anterior thoracic
wall
• ANTERIOR INTERCOSTAL ARTERY –
extend bet ribs to supply the anterior chest wall
ABDOMINAL AORTA AND ITS BRANCHES
1. VISCERAL
a. PAIRED BRANCHES
i. RENAL ARTERIES – kidneys
ii. SUPRARENAL A. – adrenal glands
iii. TESTICULAR and OVARIAN A. – testes
and ovaries
b. UNPAIRED BRANCHES
i. CELIAC TRUNK – supply blood to stomach,
pancreas, spleen, upper duodenum and liver
ii. SUPERIOR MESENTRIC A. – small
intestines and upper portion of the large
intestines
iii. INFERIOR MESENTRIC A. – remainder of
the large intestines
2. PARIETAL
a. INFERIOR PHRENIC A. – diaphragm
b. LUMBAR A – lumbar vertebrae and back
muscles
c. MEDIAN SACRAL – inferior vertebrae
ARTERIES OF THE PELVIS
1. EXTERNAL ILIAC A – enters lower limbs
2. INTERNAL ILIAC A – supplies the pelvic area
a. VISCERAL BRANCHES – supply
urinary bladder, rectum, uterus, vagina
b. PARIETAL BRANCHES – walls and
floor of the pelvis; lumbar, gluteal and
proximal thigh muscles; external
genitalia
ARTERIES OF THE LOWER LIMBS
1. FEMORAL ARTERY – thigh
2. POLITEAL ARTERY – popliteal space, posterior
region of the knee
a. ANTERIOR TIBIAL A. – dorsalis pedis A.
(ankle)
b. POSTERIOR TIBIAL A. – fibular/peroneal A.
(supply blood to the leg and foot)
BLOOD VESSELS OF THE SYSTEMIC
CIRCULATION – VEINS
SUPERIOR VENA CAVA – head, neck, thorax, upper
limbs
INFERIOR VENA CAVA – abdomen, pelvis, lower
limbs
VEINS OF HEAD AND NECK
EXTERNAL AND INTERNAL JUGULAR VEINS – 2
major veins that drain blood from head and neck
1. EXTERNAL – more superficial
2. INTERNAL – larger and deeper
VEINS OF THE UPPER LIMBS
1. DEEP VEINS – drain deep structure of upper limbs
• BRACHIAL VEIN – only noteworthy deep vein
which accompany the brachial artery and
empties the axillary vein
2. SUPERFICIAL VEIN – drain the superficial
structure of the upper limbs
MAJOR SUPERFICIAL VEINS:
• CEPHALIC VEIN – empties in the axillary vein
• BASILIC VEIN – becomes the axillary vein
• MEDIAN CUBITAL VEIN – connects the
Cephalic w/ Basilic vein
o CUBITAL FOSSA – site for draining
blood
VEINS OF THE THORAX
1 – 2. R and L BRACHIOCEPHALIC VEINS
3. AZYGOS VEIN
VEINS OF THE ABDOMEN AND PELVIS
INTERNAL ILIAC VEINS – drain the pelvis
EXTERNAL ILIAC VEINS – from lower limbs
COMMON ILIAC VEINS – combine to form the IVC
PORTAL SYSTEM – Vascular system; has no pumping
mechanism
HEPATIC PORTAL SYSTEM – begins w/ capillaries in
the viscera and ends w/ capillaries in the liver
• MAJOR TRIBUTARIES:
1. SPLENIC VEIN
2. SUPERIOR MESENTRIC VEIN
a. SUPERIOR AND INFERIOR MV – carry
blood from intestines
b. SPLENIC AND SUPERIOR MV – enters the
liver
OTHER VEINS:
• RENAL VEINS – drain the kidneys
• SUPRARENAL VEINS – adrenal gland
• TESTICULAR AND OVARIAN VEINS –
testes and ovaries
ACPS.
VEINS OF THE LOWER LIMBS
SUPERFICIAL VEINS: EFFECTS OF AGING ON THE BLOOD VESSELS
• GREAT SAPHENOUS VEIN – dorsal and ARTERIOSCLEROSIS – arteries become narrowed and
medial side of foot blood flow decreases
• SMALL SAPHENOUS VEIN – lateral side of
foot ATHEROSCLEROSIS – type of arteriosclerosis

PHYSIOLOGY OF CIRCULATION
FUNCTION OF CIRCULATORY SYSTEM:
- To maintain adequate blood flow
- Blood flows through arterial system primarily as a
result of the pressure produced by the contraction of the
heart.

BLOOD PRESSURE – measure of the force of blood !

exerted against the blood vessel walls
• SYSTOLIC PRESSURE – maximum value
• DIASTOLIC PRESSURE – minimum value
• mmHg – standard unit for BP
• KOROTKOFF SOUNDS – can be heard through a
stethoscope

PRESSURE AND RESISTANCE – if blood vessels

constrict, resistance to blood flow increases and blood
flow decreases

PULSE PRESSURE – can be detected on large arteries

near body surface

CAPILLARY EXCHANGE – most exchange across the

wall of the capillary occurs by DIFFUSION

CONTROL OF BLOOD FLOW IN TISSUES

LOCAL CONTROL – periodic contraction and
relaxation of pre-capillary sphincters

NERVOUS CONTROL
• SYMPATHETIC NERVE FIBERS – innervate most
blood vessels of the body
• VASOMOTOR CENTER – controls blood vessel
diameter
• VASOMOTOR TONE – state of partial constriction
of blood vessels

REGULATION OF ARTERIAL PRESSURE

MEAN ARTERIAL PRESSURE – controlled by min. to
min. basis by changes in heart rate, stoke vol and pulse
rate
BARORECEPTOR REFLEXES – respond to stretch in
arteries caused by an increased in pressure

CHEMORECEPTOR REFLEXES – respond to changes

in blood oxygen and CO2 concentration and pH

HORMONAL MECHANISM
• ADRENAL MEDULLARY MECHANISM
• RENIN-ANGIOTENSIN-ALDOSTERONE
MECHANISM
• VASO PRESSIN MECHANISM
• ARTRIAL NATRIURETIC MECHANISM

ACPS.

LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
FUNCTIONS:
1. Fluid Balance
2. Fat absorption
3. Defense
ANATOMY OF THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
LYMPHATIC CAPILLARIES AND VESSELS
LYMPHATIC CAPILLARIES – tiny, closed-ended
vessels consisting of simple squamous epithelium
LYMPHATIC VESSELS – resemble small veins; formed
when lymphatic capillaries join together
RIGHT LYMPHATIC DUCT – lymphatic vessels from
the right upper limb and the right half of the head, neck
and chest; empties into the right subclavian vein
THORACIC DUCT – lymphatic vessels from the rest of
the body; empties into the left subclavian vein
LYMPHATIC ORGANS
LYMPHATIC TISSUE – consists of many lymphocytes
and other cells, such as macrophages; found within
lymphatic organs
TONSILS
1. PALATINE TONSILS – located on each side of the
posterior opening of the oral cavity
! Usually referred to as “the tonsils”
2. PHARYNGEAL TONSILS – located near the
internal opening of the nasal cavity
! Adenoid – enlarged pharyngeal tonsil
3. LINGUAL TONSIL – on the posterior surface of the
tongue
LYMPH NODES
! Rounded structures, varying from the size of a small
seed to that of a shelled almond
CAPSULE – dense CT that surrounds each lymph node
TRABECULAE – extensions of the capsule
LYMPHATIC NODULES – dense aggregations of tissue
form from lymphocytes and other cells
LYMPHATIC SINUSES – spaces between the lymphatic
tissues that contain macrophages on a network of fibers
GERMINAL CENTERS – lymphatic nodules containing
the rapidly dividing lymphocytes
SPLEEN
! Roughly the size of a clenched fist and is located in
the left, superior corner of the abdominal cavity
! Has an outer capsule of dense CT and a small
amount of smooth muscle
TRABECULAE – divide the spleen into small,
interconnected compartments containing 2 specialized
types of lymphatic tissue
WHITE PULP – surrounds the arteries within the spleen
RED PULP – associated with the veins
THYMUS
! Bilobed gland roughly triangular in shape
! Site for maturation of lymphocytes
CAPSULE – thin CT that surrounds each lobe
TRABECULAE – divide each lobe into lobules
CORTEX – dark-staining areas where lymphocytes are
numerous
MEDULLA – lighter-staining, central portion of the
lobules; has fewer lymphocytes
OVERVIEW OF THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
! The lymphatic system removes fluid from tissues,
absorbs fats from the small intestine, and produces
B cells and T cells, which are responsible for much
of immunity.
IMMUNITY
! The ability to resist damage from foreign
substances – such as microorganisms, harmful
chemicals, and internal threats
INNATE IMMUNITY – nonspecific resistance; the body
recognizes and destroys certain foreign substances, but
the response to them is the same each time the body is
exposed.
ADAPTIVE IMMUNITY – specific immunity; the body
recognizes and destroys certain foreign substances, but
the response to them improves each time the foreign
substance is encountered.
! SPECIFICITY – ability of adaptive immunity to
recognize a particular substance
! MEMORY – ability of the adaptive immunity to
“remember” previous encounters with a particular
substance
INNATE IMMUNITY
PHYSICAL BARRIERS
! Prevent microorganisms and chemicals from entering
the body in two ways:
1. Skin and mucous membranes form barriers that
prevent their entry
2. Tears, saliva, and urine wash these substances
from body surfaces
!
!
A c p s .
CHEMICAL MEDIATORS
! Are molecules responsible for many aspects of
innate immunity
COMPLEMENT – group of approximately 20 proteins
found in plasma
INTERFERONS – are proteins that protect the body
against viral infections
WHITE BLOOD CELLS
! Most important cellular components of immunity
! Important chemicals known to attract WBC:
Complement, Leukotrienes, Kinins, Histamine
CHEMOTAXIS – movement of WBC toward these
chemicals
PHAGOCYTIC CELLS
PHAGOCYTOSIS – the ingestion and destruction of
particles by cells called phagocytes
NEUTROPHILS – small phagocytic cells that are
usually the first cells to enter infected tissues
• PUS – accumulation of fluid, dead neutrophils,
and other cells at a site of infection
MACROPHAGES – monocytes that leave the blood,
enter tissues, and enlarge about fivefold
MONONUCLEAR PHAGOCYTIC SYSTEM
phagocytes ith a single (mono), unlobed nucleus
! Dust cells – macrophages in the lungs
! Kupffer cells – liver
! Microglia – central nervous system
CELLS OF INFLAMMATION
BASOPHILS – motile WBCs that can leave the blood
and enter infected tissues
MAST CELLS – nonmotile cells in CT, esp. near
capillaries
EOSINOPHILS – produced in red bone marrow; enter
the blood, and within a few minutes enter tissues
NATURAL KILLER CELLS
! Type of lymphocyte produced in RBM, account up to
15% of lymphocytes
! Recognize classes of cells, such as tumor cells or
virus-infected cells in general; causes these cells to
lyse
INFLAMMATORY RESPONSE
LOCAL INFLAMMATION – confined to a specific area
of the body
! SYMPTOMS: redness, heat, swelling, pain, and
loss of function
SYSTEMIC INFLAMMATION – generally distributed
throughout the body
! SYMPTOMS: increase in neutrophil numbers,
fever, and shock.
! PYROGENS – stimulate fever production
ADAPTIVE IMMUNITY
ANTIGENS – substances that stimulate adaptive
immune responses
1. FOREIGN ANTIGENS – introduced from outside
the body (Ex: bacteria, viruses, chemicals released by
microorganisms)
! ALLERGIC REACTION – caused by foreign
antigens that produce an overreaction of the
immune system
2. SELF-ANTIGENS – molecules of the body produces
to stimulate and immune system response
! AUTOIMMUNE DISEASE – results when self-
antigens stimulate unwanted destruction of
normal tissue
ANTIBODY-MEDIATED IMMUNITY – involves
proteins called antibodies, which are found in the
plasma
B CELLS – lymphocyte that produces antibodies
CELL-MEDIATED IMMUNITY – involves the actions
of a second type of lymphocyte, called T cells
– CYTOTOXIC T CELLS – lyse virus-infected cells, tumor
cells, and tissue transplants
! CYTOKINES – promote inflammation and
phagocytosis
HELPER T CELLS – inhibit the activities of both AMI
and CMI
ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF LYMPHOCYTES
STEM CELLS – Give rise to all the blood cells
CLONES – small groups of identical B cells or T cells
that are form during embryonic development
ACTIVATION AND MULTIPLICATION OF
LYMPHOCYTES
ANTIGEN RECOGNITION
ANTIGEN RECEPTORS – proteins of the lymphocytes
! B-CELL RECEPTORS – antigen receptors on B cells
! T-CELL RECEPTORS – antigen receptors on T cells
MAJOR HISTOCOMPATIBILITY COMPLEX (MHC)
MOLECULES – are glycoproteins that have binding
sites for antigens
COSTIMULATION – achieved by cytokines (regulator
of neighboring cells)
! INTERLEUKIN-1 – is a cytokine released by
macrophages that can stimulate helper T cells
A c p s .
LYMPHOCYTE PROLIFERATION
INTERLEUKIN-2 – binds to interleukin-2 receptors
and stimulates the helper T cells to divide
B CELL PROLIFERATION – when helper T cells
stimulate B cells to divide and differentiate into cells that
produce antibodies
ANTIBODY-MEDIATED IMMUNITY
STRUCTURES OF ANTIBODIES
ANTIBODIES – proteins produced in response to an
antigen
PASSIVE ARTIFICIAL IMMUNITY
! Transfer of antibodies from an animal to a person
OVERVIEW OF IMMUNE INTERACTIONS
! Innate immunity, antibody-mediated immunity, and
cell-mediated immunity can function together to
eliminate an antigen
IMMUNOTHERAPY
! Treats disease by altering immune system function
or by directly attacking harmful cells

VARIABLE REGION – part of the antibody that

combines with the antigen

CONSTANT REGION – the rest of the antibody

GAMMA GLOBULINS – other name for antibodies

IMMUNOGLOBULINS (Ig) – part of the plasma where

antibodies and found

EFFECTS OF ANTIBODIES
! Directly inactivate antigens or cause them to clump
together
! Indirectly destroy antigens by promoting
phagocytosis and inflammation

ANTIBODY PRODUCTION
PRIMARY RESPONSE – results from the first exposure
of a B cell to an antigen

PLASMA CELLS – produce antibodies

MEMORY B CELLS – responsible of the secondary

response

SECONDARY RESPONSE / MEMORY RESPONSE –

occurs when the immune system is exposed to an
antigen against which it has already produced a primary
response

CELL – MEDIATED IMMUNITY

! A function of cytotoxic T cells and is most effective
against microorganisms inside body cells

ACQUIRED IMMUNITY
ACTIVE NATURAL IMMUNITY
! Results from natural exposure to an antigen

ACTIVE ARTIFICIAL IMMUNITY

! An antigen is deliberately introduced into an
individual to stimulate the immune system
! Vaccination // Vaccine (antigen introduced)

PASSIVE NATURAL IMMUNITY

! Results hen antibodies are transferred from a mother
to a child across the placenta before birth

A c p s .

Respiratory System
Functions (GRVOI)
1. Gas Exchange
2. Regulation of blood pH
3. Voice production
4. Olfaction
5. Innate immunity
Anatomy
UPPER RESPIRATORY TRACT
- External nose, nasal cavity, pharynx
LOWER RESPIRATORY TRACT
- Larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs
NOSE
- Consists of the external nose and nasal cavity
EXTERNAL NOSE – visible structure that forms a
prominent feature of the face
NARES (nostrils) – external openings of the nose
CHOANAE – openings into the pharynx
NASAL CAVITY –extends from the nares to the
choanae
NASAL SEPTUM – a partition dividing the nasal cavity
into right and left parts
• DEVIATED NASAL SEPTUM – occurs when
the septum bulges to one side
HARD PALATE – floor of the nasal cavity; separates the
nasal and oral cavity
CONCHAE – three prominent bony ridges on the lateral
walls on each side of the nasal cavity; increase the
surface area of the nasal cavity and cause air to churn
PARANASAL SINUSES – air-filled spaces within bone
NASOLACRIMAL DUCTS – carry tears from the eyes
SNEEZE REFLEX – dislodges foreign substances from
the nasal cavity
PHARYNX
- Common passageway for both the respiratory and
digestive systems.
THREE REGIONS:
1. NASOPHARYNX – superior part
a. SOFT PALATE – an incomplete muscles and
connective tissue partition separating the
nasopharynx from the oropharynx
b. UVULA – posterior extension of the soft palate
c. PHARYNGEAL TONSIL – helps defend the
body against infection
2. OROPHARYNX – extends from the uvula to the
epiglottis
a. PALATINE TONSILS – located in the lateral
walls near the border of the oral cavity and the
oropharynx
b. LINGUAL TONSIL – located on the surface of
the posterior part of the tongue
3. LARYNGOPHARYNX – passes posterior to the
larynx and extends from the tip of the epiglottis to
the esophagus; lined with stratified squamous epith.
and ciliated columnar epith.
LARYNX
- Voice box
- Passageway for air between the pharynx and trachea
- Has 3 unpaired cartilages and 6 paired cartilages
UNPAIRED (3):
1. THYROID CARTILAGE – Adam’s apple; largest
cartilage
2. CRICOID CARTILAGE – most inferior, forms the
base of the larynx
3. EPIGLOTTIS – 3rd unpaired cartilage; consist of
elastic cartilage
PAIRED (6): they form an attachment site for the vocal folds
1. CUNEIFORM CARTILAGE – Top
2. CORNICULATE CARTILAGE – Middle
3. ARYTENOID CARTILAGE – Bottom
4. VESTIBULAR FOLDS – false vocal cords; superior
5. VOCAL CORDS – true vocal cords; inferior
6. LARYNGITIS – inflammation of the mucous epith.
of the vocal folds
TRACHEA
- Windpipe
- Membranous tube attached to the larynx
- Consists of CT and smooth muscle; Reinforced with 16-
20 C-shaped pieces of hyaline cartilage
C-SHAPED CARTILAGES – form the anterior and
lateral sides of the trachea; protect the trachea and
maintain an open passageway for air
COUGH REFLEX – dislodges foreign substances from
the trachea
• SMOKER’S COUGH – results from constant
irritation and inflammation of the respiratory
passages by cigarette smoke
BRONCHI
- The trachea divides into the left and right main
bronchi or primary bronchi, each of which connects to a
lung
LEFT MAIN BRONCHUS – more horizontal because it
is displaced by the heard
RIGHT MAIN BRONCHUS – where foreign objects
that enter the trachea usually lodge; more vertical
ACPS.
 LUNGS
- Principal organs of respiration
RIGHT LUNG – has 3 lobes (superior, middle,
inferior)
LEFT LUNG – has 2 lobes (superior, inferior)
- The lobes of the lungs are separated by deep,
prominent fissures on the lung surface.
- Each lobe is divided into Bronchopulmonary segments
separated from one another by CT septa.
- The main bronchi branch many times to form the
TRACHEOBRONCHIAL TREE.
• MAIN BRONCHI
• LOBAR BRONCHI – Secondary bronchi
o SEGMENTAL BRONCHI – Tertiary bronchi
! BRONCHIOLES
• TERMINAL BRONCHIOLES
o RESPIRATORY BRONCHIOLES
! ALVEOLAR DUCTS – long, branching
hallways with many open doorways
• ALVEOLI – Small air sacs
RESPIRATORY MEMBRANE OF THE LUNGS –
where gas exchange between the air and blood takes
place
- It is very thin to facilitate the diffusion of gases
- Consists of 6 LAYERS:
1. Thin layer of fluid lining the alveolus
2. Alveolar epithelium – composed of simple squamous
epithelium
3. Basement membrane of the alveolar epith.
4. Thin interstitial space
5. Basement membrane of the capillary endothelium
6. Capillary endothelium – simple squamous epith.
PLEURAL CAVITIES
- surround the lungs and provide protection against
friction
PLEURA – serous membrane lining the pleural cavity
• PARIETAL PLEURA – lines the walls of the
thorax, diaphragm and mediastinum
• VISCERAL PLEURA – covers the surface of the
lung
PLEURAL FLUID – acts as a lubricant and helps hold
the pleural membranes together
LYMPHATIC SUPPLY
SUPERFICIAL LYMPHATIC VESSELS – are deep to
the visceral pleura; they drain lymph from the
superficial lung tissue and the visceral pleura
DEEP LYMPHATIC VESSELS – follow the bronchi;
they drain lymph from the bronchi and associated CTs
!
VENTILATION AND RESP. VOLUMES
VENTILATION (breathing) – the process of moving air
into and out of the lungs.
2 PHASES:
1. INSPIRATION – inhalation; movement of air into
the lungs
2. EXPIRATION – exhalation; movement of air out of
the lungs
CHANGING THORACIC VOLUME
MUSCLES OF INSPIRATION – include the diaphragm
and the muscles that elevate the ribs and sternum, such
as the external intercostals
• DIAPHRAGM – a large dome of skeletal
muscle that separates the thoracic cavity from
abdominal cavity
MUSCLES OF EXPIRATION – internal intercostals;
depress the ribs and sternum.
PRESSURE CHANGES AND AIRFLOW
Two physical principles that govern the airflow:
1. Changes in volume result in changes in pressure.
2. Air flows from an area of higher pressure to an area of
lower pressure
- During INSPIRATION, air flows into the alveoli
because atmospheric pressure is greater than the
alveolar pressure.
- During EXPIRATION, air flows out of the alveoli
because alveolar pressure is greater than atmospheric
pressure.
LUNG RECOIL
- The tendency for an expanded lung to decrease in size.
- When thoracic volume and lung volume decrease
during quiet expiration.
- Two factors keep the lungs from collapsing:
SURFACTANT and PLEURAL PRESSURE.
SURFACTANT – reduces the surface tension of the
fluid lining the alveoli (surface acting agent).
PLEURAL PRESSURE – lower than alveolar pressure,
which causes the alveoli to expand.
CHANGING ALVEOLAR VOLUME
- Increasing thoracic volume results in decreased
pleural pressure, increased alveolar volume, decreased
alveolar pressure, and air movement into the lungs
(inspiration).
- Decreasing thoracic volume results in increased
pleural pressure, decreased alveolar volume, increased
alveolar pressure, and air movement out of the lungs
(expiration).
ACPS.
RESPIRATORY VOLUMES & CAPACITIES
SPIROMETRY – is the process of measuring volumes of
air that move into and out of the respiratory system.
SPIROMETER – device that measures the resp. volumes
DIFFUSION OF GASES IN THE TISSUES
- O2 diffuses from a higher pp in the tissue capillaries to
a lower pp in the tissue spaces.
- CO2 diffuses from a higher pp in the tissues to a lower
pp in the tissue capillaries.

RESPIRATORY VOLUMES – are measures of the GAS TRANSPORT IN THE BLOOD

amount of air movement during different portions of OXYGEN TRANSPORT
ventilation OXYHEMOGLOBIN – hemoglobin with oxygen bound
to its heme groups
RESPIRATORY CAPACITIES – are sums of two or
more respiratory volumes MORE OXYGEN IS RELEASED FROM
HEMOGLOBIN IF (FOUR FACTORS):
RESPIRATORY VOLUMES: 1. Partial pressure for O2 is low
1. TIDAL VOLUME – air inspired or expired with each 2. Partial pressure for CO2 is high
breath (at rest, quiet breathing = 500mL) 3. pH is low
2. INSPIRATORY RESERVE VOLUME – air that can 4. Temperature is high
be inspired forcefully beyond the resting TV
(3000mL) CO2 TRANSPORT AND BLOOD pH
3. EXPIRATORY RESERVE VOLUME – air that can be CARBONIC ANHYDRASE – enzyme that promotes the
expired forcefully (1100mL) uptake of CO2 by RBCs
4. RESIDUAL VOLUME – air still remaining in the
respiratory passages and lungs after maximum - As CO2 levels increase, blood pH decreases (becomes
expiration (1200mL) more acidic)
- As CO2 levels decrease, blood pH increases (becomes
RESPIRATORY CAPACITIES: more basic)
1. FUNCTIONAL RESIDUAL CAPACITY – ERV + RV
" Amount of air remaining in the lungs at the end of RHYTHMIC BREATHING
a normal expiration (2300mL) RESPIRATORY AREAS IN THE BRAINSTEM
2. INSPIRATORY CAPACITY – TV + IRV MEDULLARY RESPIRATORY CENTER – establishes
" Amount of air a person can inspire maximally after rhythmic breathing
a normal expiration (3500mL)
3. VITAL CAPACITY – IRV + TV + ERV " DORSAL RESPIRATORY GROUPS (2) – primarily
" It is the maximum volume of air that a person can responsible for stimulating contraction of the
expel from the resp. tract after maximum diaphragm.
inspiration (4600mL) " VENTRAL RESPIRATORY GROUPS (2) – primarily
4. TOTAL LUNG CAPACITY – IRV + ERV + TV +RV responsible for stimulating the external and internal
" Also equal to the VC + RV (5800mL) intercostal, and abdominal muscles.
o PRE-BOTZINGER COMPLEX – establish the
GAS EXCHANGE basic rhythm of breathing
- Gas exchange bet. air and blood occurs in the
respiratory membrane PONTINE RESPIRATORY GROUP – is a collection of
neurons in the pons.
DEAD SPACE – the parts of the resp. passageways - It plays a role in switching between inspiration and
where gas exchange bet. air and blood does not occur. expiration.

RESPIRATORY MEMBRANE THICKNESS GENERATION OF RHYTHMIC BREATHING

- Increases in the thickness of the respiratory membrane - involves the integration of stimuli that start and stop
result in decreased gas exchange. inspiration
1. Starting inspiration
SURFACE AREA 2. Increasing inspiration
- Small decreases in surface area adversely affect gas 3. Stopping inspiration
exchange during strenuous exercise. When the surface
area is decreased to 1/3 or 1/4 of normal, gas exchange NERVOUS CONTROL OF BREATHING
is restricted under resting conditions. HIGHER BRAIN CENTERS – allow voluntary control
of breathing.
PARTIAL PRESSURE
- is the pressure exerted by a specific gas in a mixture of HERING-BREUER REFLEX – supports rhythmic
gases, such as air. respiratory movements by limiting the extent of
inspiration
DIFFUSION OF GASES IN THE LUNGS
- O2 diffuses from a higher partial pressure in the alveoli TOUCH, THERMAL, PAIN RECEPTORS – can
to a lower pp in the pulmonary capillaries. stimulate breathing
- CO2 diffuses from a higher partial pressure in the
pulmonary capillaries to a lower pp in the alveoli.

ACPS.
CHEMICAL CONTROL OF BREATHING
HYPERCAPNIA – a greater than normal amount of CO2
in the blood

CARBON DIOXIDE – major chemical regulator of

breathing

CHEMORECEPTORS (in medulla oblongata) –

respond to changes in blood pH

CHEMORECEPTORS (in carotid and aortic bodies) –

respond to changes in blood O2.

HYPOXIA – a condition when blood O2 declines to a

low level

EFFECT OF EXERCISE ON BREATHING

1. Breathing increases abruptly
2. Breathing increases gradually

ANAEROBIC THRESHOLD – the highest level of

exercise that can be performed without causing a
significant change in blood pH

RESPIRATORY ADAPTATIONS TO EXERCISE

- Training results in increased minute volume at
maximal exercise because of increased TV and
respiratory rate.

EFFECTS OF AGING ON THE RESP. SYSTEM

1. VC and Maximum min. ventilation decrease
2. RV and dead space increase
3. Increase in resting TV compensates for increased
dead space, loss of alveolar walls, and thickening of
alveolar walls
4. The ability to remove mucus from respiratory
passageways decreases with age

ACPS.
 " Omental bursa – a long, double fold of
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM mesentery that extends inferiorly from
! With the help of the circulatory system, is like a the stomach before looping back to the
gigantic ‘meals on wheels’, serving 100 T transverse colon to create a
customers the nutrients they need cavity/pocket
! Has its own quality control and waste disposal " Mesentery proper – attaches the small
methods intestine to the posterior abdominal wall

FUNCTIONS (IDEA) Retroperitoneal – abdominal organs that have no

1. Ingestion of food. mesenteries; duodenum, pancreas, ascending +
2. Digestion of food. descending colon, rectum, kidneys, adrenal glands,
3. Elimination of wastes. urinary bladder
4. Absorption of nutrients.
ORAL CAVITY, PHARYNX, AND ESOPHAGUS
ANATOMY AND HISTOLOGY Anatomy of Oral Cavity
Digestive Tract / Gastrointestinal Tract ! Bounded by the lips and cheeks ++ contains the
! Oral cavity, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small teeth and tongue
intestine, large intestine, anus
Lips – muscular structures formed by the orbicularis
Four Tunics oris muscle
1. Mucosa
! Innermost tunic Cheeks – buccinators muscles flatten the cheeks against
! Consists of mucous epithelium, lamina propria teeth
(loose CT), muscularis mucosae (thins SM layer)
! Mouth, esophagus, anus; resists abrasion Mastification – begins the process of mechanical
digestion
! Stomach, intestine; absorbs and secrets
Tongue – plays a major role in the process of
2. Submucosa
swallowing; major sensory organ for taste; one of the
! Thick layer of loose CT, consists of nerves, blood
major organs of speech
vessels, small glands
" Frenulum – thin fold of tissue inferior to the
! Plexus – extensive network of nerve cell
tongue
processes (innervated by the autonomic nerves)
Teeth
3. Muscularis
! 32 teeth in normal adult mouth
! Consists of circular SM (inner), longitudinal SM
(outer) ! Located in the mandible and maxillae
! Enteric nervous system – composed of the
1. Incisor – to cut
nerve plexuses of the submucosa and
2. Canine – to tear
muscularis; controls movement and secretion
3. Premolars
within the tract
4. Molars
5. Wisdom teeth – third molars
4. Serosa
! Outermost layer Permanent teeth – secondary teeth
! Consists of the peritoneum (smooth epithelial
layer + underlying CT) Primary teeth – deciduous teeth; milk or baby teeth
! Adventitia – connective tissue; regions of the DT
not covered by the peritoneum Parts
a. Crown
Peritoneum b. Cusps
1. Visceral Peritoneum / Serosa – serous c. Neck
membrane that covers the organs d. Root
2. Parietal Peritoneum – serous membrance that Pulp cavity – center of the tooth; contains blood vessels
covers the wall of the abdominal cavity nerves, and pulp (connective tissue)
Mesenteries – CT sheets that hold the abdominal cavity Dentin – bonelike tissue that surrounds the pulp cavity
organs in place
a. Lesser omentum – connects the lesser curvature Enamel – extremely hard, acellular substance that covers
of the stomack to the liver and diaphragm the dentin of the tooth drown
b. Greater omentum – connects the greater Cementum – covers the surface of the dentin in the root;
curvature of the stomach to the transverse colon anchors the tooth in the jaw
and posterior body wall

M A V M .
Alveoli (along the alveolar process of mandible x Esophagus
maxillae) – where the teeth are rooted ! Muscular tube that ransports food from the
pharynx to the stomach
Gingiva – dense fibrous CT and most stratified ! Esophageal sphincters – regulate the movement
squamous epithelium that covers the alveolar processes of food into and out of the esophagus
! Cardiac sphincter – lower ES
Periodontal ligaments – CT fibers that extend from the
alveolar walls that hold the teeth in place Swallowing / Deglutition
1. Voluntary Phase
Dental caries / Tooth decay – result of the breakdown of ! Bolus (mass of food) us formed in the mouth
enamel by acids produced by bacteria on tooth surface ! Bolus is pushed by the tongue forcing in into the
oropharynx
Periodontal disease – inflammation x degeneration of
the periodontal ligaments, gingiva, alveolar bone 2. Pharyngeal Phase
! A reflex initiated when a bolus of food
Palate and Tonsils stimulates receptors in the oropharynx
Palate – roof of the oral cavity; prevents food from
! Epiglottis – tipped posteriorly to cover the
passing into the nasal cavity during chewing and
larynx
swallowing
a. Hard palate – anterior part that contains bone
3. Esophageal Phase
b. Soft palate – posterior portion that consists of
skeletal muscle _ CT ! Responsible for moving food form the pharynx
to the stomach
" Uvula – grape-like; posterior extension of the
soft palate ! Peristaltic waves – muscular contractions of the
esophagus
Tonsils – protect against pathogens from entering the
STOMACH
nose and mouth
! Functions primarily as a storage and mixing
Salivary Glands chamber for ingested food
! Produce saliva (serous + mucous fluids)
Anatomy
3 Pairs of SG Gastroesophageal opening – opening from the
1. Parotid glands – largest; serous glands located esophagus ino the stomach
anterior to each ear
Cardiac region – region of t around the
2. Submandibular glands – produce more serous
gastroesophageal opening; near the heart
than mucous secretions
3. Sublingual glands – smallest; produce
primarily mucous secretions Fundus – most superior part of the stomach

Mumps – inflammation of the parotid gland caused by
viral infection
Saliva
! Helps keep the oral cavity moist
! Contains enzymes that begin the process of
digestion
Salivary amylase – a digestive enzyme that breaks the
covalent bonds bet. glucose molecules (starch) and other
polysaccharides; enhances the sweet taste of food
Lysozyme – enzyme that has weak antibacterial action
Body – largest part of the stomach
" Greater curvature
" Lesser curvature
Pyloric opening – opening from the stomach into the
small intestine
Pyloric sphincter – thick ring of smooth muscle
Pyloric region – region near the pyloric opening
Outer longitudinal, middle circular, and inner obique
layer – produce a churning action in the stomach

Mastification Rugae – large folds where the submucosa and mucosa

! Breaks large food particles into many small ones
! Increases the efficiency of digestion
Pharynx
! Throat
! Connects the mouth with the esophagus
! Oropharynx + laryngopharynx – transmit food
! Contains pharyngeal constrictor muscles
are thrown into when the stomach is empty
Gastric pits – openings for the gastric glands; formed by
simple columnar epithelium
Epithelial cells of the Stomach
1. Surface mucous cells – inner surface of stomach
& lining the gastric pits; coats and protects the
stomach lining
2. Mucous neck cells – produce mucus

M A V M .
 3. Parietal cells – produce hydrochloric acid &
intrinsic factor
4. Endocrine cells – produce regulatory chemicals
5. Chief cells – produce pepsinogen (precursor of
the protein digesting enzyme pepsin)
Secretions of the Stomach
Chyme – semifluid mixture (food + stomach secretions)
1. Hydrochloric acid kills microorganisms and
activates pepsin
2. Pepsin breaks covalent bond of proteins to form
smaller peptide chains.
3. Mucus lubricates and protects epithelial cells
from the damaging effect of acidic chime +
pepsin
4. Intrinsic factor binds with vit. B12 (DNA
synthesis and RBC prod.) and makes it more
readily absorbed in the small intestine
Regulation of Stomach Secretions
1. Cephalic phase – stomach secretions are
initiated by the sight, smell, taste, or thought of
food
2. Gastric phase – partially digested proteins and
distention of the stomach promote secretion
# Gastrin – hormone that enters the
circulation and is carried back to the
stomach
3. Intestinal phase – acidic chime in the
duodenum stimulates neuronal reflexes and the
secretion of hormones that inhibit gastric
secretions by negative feedback loops
# Secretin – hormone that inhibits gastric
secretions; released from the duodenum
in response to low pH
# Cholecystokinin – major inhibitor of
gastric motility; released from the
duodenum initiated by fatty acids and
peptides
Movement in the Stomach
! Increased motility = increases emptying
! Distention of stomach = increases gastric
motility
A. Mixing waves – thoroughly mix ingested food
with stomach secretions to form chime
# Fluid part of chime – pushed toward
the pyloric sphincter
# Solid center – moves back toward the
body of the stomach
B. Peristaltic waves – force the chime toward and
through the pyloric sphincter
SMALL INTESTINE
! Major site of digestion and absorption of food
! Major function is the absorption of nutrients
Anatomy
1. Duodenum – 12 in. long
2. Jejunum – 2.5 m long; makes up 2/5
3. Ileum – 3.5 m long; makes up 3/5
Common bile duct (liver) and pancreatic duct
(pancreas) – join and empty into the duodenum
Increased surface area
1. Circular folds – formed by mucosa and
submucosa that run perpendicular to the long
axis of the digestive tract
2. Villi – formed by tiny, fingerlike projections of
the mucosa
3. Microvilli – numerous cytoplasmic extensions
on the surface of the villi
Lacteal – lymphatic capillary
Simple Columnar Epithelium
1. Absorptive cells – have microvilli, produce
digestive enzymes, absorb digested food
2. Goblet cells – produce a protective mucus
3. Granular cells – help protect the intestinal
epithelium from bacteria
4. Endocrine cells – produce regulatory hormones
Intestinal glands – epithelial cells produced within
tubular galnds of mucosa
Duodenal glands – mucous glands in the submucosa of
the duodenum
Peyer patches – clusters of lymphatic nodules along the
digestive tract
Ileocecal junction – where the ileum connects to the
large intestine
Ileocecal sphincter – ring of smooth muscle
Ileocecal valve – allow intestinal contents to move from
the ileum to the large intestine; but not in opposite
direction
Secretions of the Small Intestine
1. Peptidases – break peptide bonds in proteins to
form amino acids
2. Disaccharidases – break down disaccharides
(maltose) into monosaccharides (glucose)
Movement of the Small Intestine
A. Peristaltic contractions – proceed along the
length of the intestine for variable distances;
causes the chime to move along the small
intestine
B. Segmental contractions – propagate for shot
distances; mix intestinal contents
LIVER AND PANCREAS
Anatomy of Liver
Major Lobes
1. Right lobe
2. Left lobe
Falciform ligament – CT septum that separates the right
and left lobe of the liver
M A V M .
Smaller Lobes Pancreatic islet / Islets of Langerhans – endocrine part;
1. Caudate lobe produce insulin and glucagon
2. Quadrate lobe
Compound acinar gland – exocrine part
Porta – gate through which blood vessels, ducts, and
nerves enter and exit the liver Acini – produce digestive enymes

Sources of Blood in the Liver Pancreatic duct – formed by larger ducts from clusters
1. Hepatic artery – takes oxygen-rich blood to the of acini
liver; supplies liver with oxygen
2. Hepatic portal vein – oxygen-poor blood but Functions of the Pancreas
rich in nutrients Major Proteolytic enzymes – continue protein digestion
that began in the stomach
Hepatic veins – where blood exits the liver and empty 1. Trypsin
into the inferior vena cava 2. Chymotrypsin
3. Carboxypeptidase
Portal Triads
1. Hepatic artery Pancreatic amylase – continues polysaccharide digestion
2. Hepatic portal vein that began in the oral cavity
3. Hepatic duct
Lipase – lipid-digesting enzyme
Hepatic cords – located bet. the center and margins of
each lobule Nucleases – enzymes that degrade DNA and RNA to
their component nucleotides
Hepatocytes – platelike groups that form the hepatic
cords LARGE INTESTINE
Anatomy
Hepatic sinusoids – blood channels that separates the Cecum
hepatic cords from one another ! Proximal end of the large intestine

Central vein – where mixed blood flows toward the Appendix – 9 cm tube attached to the cecum
center of each lobule
Colon
Bile canaliculus – a cleftlike lumen bet. the cells of each 1. Ascending colon
hepatic cord 2. Transverse colon
3. Descending colon
Common hepatic duct – right + left hepatic ducts 4. Sigmoid colon

Common bile duct – common hepatic duct + cystic duct Crypts – straight, tubular glands in the mucosal lining of
the colon
Gallbladder – stores and concentrates bile
Teniae coli – three bands
Duodenal papilla – where the common bile duct joind
the pancreatic duct and opens into the duodenum Rectum
! Straight, muscular tube that begins at the
Functions of the Liver termination of sigmoid colon & ends at the anal
1. Digestion canal
2. Excretion
3. Nutrient storage Anal Canal
4. Nutrient conversion ! Begins at the inferior end of the rectum and ends
5. Detoxification of harmful chemicals at the anus (external digestive tract opening)
6. Synthesis of new molecules
Internal anal sphincter – smooth muscle layer at
Bile – dilutes and neutralizes stomach acid; dramatically superior end
increases the efficiency of fat digestion and absorption;
stimulated by secretin External anal sphincter – skeletal muscle at inferior end
Bile salts – emulsify fats Hemorrhoids – enlarged or inflamed rectal or
hemorrhoidal, veins that supply the anal canal; may
Bilirubin – bile pigment that results from the cause pain, itching, bleeding around anus
breakdown of hemoglobin
Functions of Large Intestine
Anatomy of Pancreas 1. Feces production
1. Head – near the midline of the body 2. Water absorption
2. Tail – extends to the left

M A V M .
Feces – converted chyme Lipase – secreted by pancreas; digests lipid molecules

Defecation – elimination of feces from the colon
Mass movements – strong contractions in the large parts
of the colon; propel the colon contents a considerable
distance towards the anys
Micelles – aggregated bile salts around small droplets of
digested lipids
Chylomicrons – packaged lipid-protein complexes
(lipoproteins)

Defecation reflex – local (weak contractions) + Chyle – lymph containing late amounts of absorbed
parasympathetic (strong contractions) reflexes lipid

DIGESTION, ABSORPTION, AND TRANSPORT Proteins

Digestion – breakdown of food to molecules tha are
small enough to be absorbed into the circulation
a. Mechanical digestion – breaks large good
particles into smaller ones
b. Chemical digestion – breaking of covalent
chemical bonds in organic molecules by
digestive enzymes
Absorption – begin in stomach; lipid-soluble molecules
diffuse through the stomach epithelium into the
circulation
Transport – requires carrier molecules and includes
facilitated diffusion, cotransport, and active transport
Carbohydrates
! Consist primarily of starches, cellulose, sucrose
(table sugar), small amounts of fructose (fruit
sugar), and lactose (milk sugar)
Polysaccharides – large carbohydrates that consist of
many sugars linked by chemical bonds
! Chains of amino acids
Pepsin – enzyme secreted by stomach that breaks down
proteins
Polypeptides – shorter amino acid chains
Trypsin, Chymotrypsin, Carboxypeptidase – enzymes
produced by pancreas that continue the digestive
process
Peptidases – small peptides
Water and Minerals
! Approximately 9 L of water enters the digestive
tract
! Approximately 2 L from food & drink &
remaining 7 liters is from digestive secretions
!

Salivary amylase – begins the digestion of

carbohydrates in the mouth

Pancreatic amylase – continues digestion of

carbohydrates

Disaccharides – two sugars; broken down

polysaccharide

Disaccharidase – group of enzymes that break the

disaccharides to monosaccharides

Monosaccharides – single sugars; glucose, galactose,

and fructose

Lipids
! Molecules which are insoluble or slightly
soluble in water

Triglycerides – most common type of lipid; 3 fatty acids

bound to glycerol

Saturated – fatty acids have only single bonds

Unsaturated – fatty acids have one or more double

bonds

Emulsification – large lipid droplets are transformed

into much smaller droplets

M A V M .
URINARY SYSTEM
! Consists of 2 kidneys, 2 ureters, urinary
bladder, and the urethra.
FUNCTIONS
1. Excretion
2. Regulation of blood volume + pressure.
3. Regulation of the concentration of solutes in
the blood.
4. Regulation of RBC synthesis.
5. Regulation of vit. D synthesis.
ANATOMY OF THE KIDNEYS
Kidneys – bean-shaped organs; size of a tightly clenched
fist
Renal capsule – CT that surround each kidney
Hilum – where the renal artery and nerves enter
Renal sinus – cavity that contains blood vessels
Cortex (outer) Medulla (inner) – surround the renal
sinus
Renal pyramids – located bet. the cortex & medulla
Calyx – funnel-shaped structure that surround the tip of
each pyramid
Renal pelvis – formed by calyces into a larger funnel
Ureter – exits the kidney and connects to the urinary
bladder
Nephron – functional unit of the kidney
" Renal corpuscle
" Proximal convoluted tubule
" Loop of Henle
" Distal convoluted tubule
Collecting duct – carries the fluid from the cortex
through the medulla
Papillary duct – empty their contents into a calyx
Juxtamedullary nephrons (15%) – have loops of Henle
that extend deep into the medulla
Cortical nephrons (85%) – have loops of Henle that do
not extend deep into the medulla
Bowman’s capsule – consists of the enlarged end of the
nephron
Glomerulus – tuft of capillaries that resembles a ball of
yarn; lies within the indentation of Bowman’s capsule
Podocytes – inner layer of Bowman’s capsule that
consists of specialized cells
Filtration membrane – formed by glomerular
capillaries, basement membrane, and podocytes of BC
Filtrate – the fluid that passes across the filtration
membrane
Arteries and Veins
Renal arteries – branch off the abdominal aorta and
enter the kidneys
Interlobar arteries – pass bet. the renal pyramids
Arcuate arteries – arch bet. the cortex and the medulla
Interlobular arteries – branch off the arcuate arteries
and project into the cortex
Afferent arterioles – arise form branches of the
interlobular arteries and extend to the glomerular
capillaries
Efferent arterioles – extend from the glomerular
capillaries
Peritubular capillaries – surround the proximal
convoluted and distal convoluted tubules and the loops
of Henle
Vasa recta – specialized portions of the peritubular
capillaries that extend deep into the medulla
Juxtaglomerular apparatus – formed where the distal
convoluted tubule comes in contact with the afferent
arteriole next to BC
URINE FORMATION
1. FILTRATION
! Movement of water, ions, and small molecules
through the FM into the BC
Filtration pressure – forces fluid from the glomerular
capillary across the FM into the BC
Glomerular capillary pressure – BP in the glomerular
capillary
Capsular pressure – pressure of filtrate already inside
the BC
Colloid osmotic pressure – pressure of filtrate within
the glomerular capillary
Regulation of Filtration
Cardiovascular shock – the filtration pressure and
filtrate formation fall dramatically
2. TUBULAR REABSORPTION
! Movement of substances from the filtrate across
the wall of the nephrons back into the blood of
the peritubular capillaries
3. TUBULAR SECRETION
! Active transport of solutes across the nephron
walls into the filtrate
A x 2 .
REGULATION OF URINE REGULATION OF EXTRACELLULAR FLUID
CONCENTRATION AND VOLUME COMPOSITION
Hormonal Mechanism Thirst Regulation
Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone-Mechanism ! Blood concentration increases = thirst center
! Renin is secreted from the kidney when blood initiates sensation of thirst
pressure decreases ! When water is consumed, blood concentration
! Renin converts angiotensinogen to angiotensin increases = thirst sensation decreases
I; then converted to angiotensinogen II; which ! Blood pressure decreases = thirst sensation is
stimulates aldosterone triggered
! Aldosterone increases Na+ and Cl+ ! Consumption of water = increases blood volume
reabsorption from the nephron + allows blood pressure to increase

Antidiuretic Hormone Mechanism Thirst center – neurons in the hypothalamus that control
! Secreted from the posterior pituitary when water intake
blood concentration increases / blood pressure
decreases Thirst – one of the important means of regulating ECF
! Increases the permeability to water of the distal volume and concentration
convoluted tubules and collecting ducts
! Increases water reabsorption by the kidney Ion Concentration Regulation
! Sodium ions are dominant extracellular ions
Atrial Natriuretic Hormone # Aldosterone increases Na+
! Secreted from the RA in response to increased reabsorption from filtrate
blood pressure # ADH increases water reabsorption
! Acts on the kidney to increase Na+ & water loss from the nephron
in the urine # ANH increases Na+ loss in urine

URINE MOVEMENT ! Aldosterone increases K+ secretion in urine

Anatomy and Histology of the Ureters, Urinary # Increased blood levels of K+ stimulate
Bladder, and Urethra # Decreased blood levels of K+ inhibit
Ureters – small tubes that carry urine
! PTH increases extracellular Ca2+ levels
Urinary bladder – hollow muscular container that stores # Causes bone resorption
urine # Increases Ca2+ uptake in the kidney
Urethra – tube that carries urine form the urinary
! PTH increases vit. D synthesis
bladder to the outside of the body

Internal urinary sphincter (males) – smooth muscle at ! Calcitonin (thyroid gland)

the junction of the urinary bladder and urethra # Inhibits bone resorption
# Lowers blood Ca2+ levels
External urinary sphincter (males + females) – skeletal
muscle that surrounds the urethra ! Phosphate + Sulfate Ions
# When levels are low in the filtrate = ions
Micturition Reflex are reabsorbed
! Activated by stretch of the urinary bladder wall # When levels are high = excess is lost in
the urine
BODY FLUID COMPARTMENTS
Intracellular fluid compartment – fluid inside all the REGULATION OF ACID-BASE BALANCE
cells in the body Buffers
! Resist changes in the pH;
Extracellular fluid compartment – fluid outside all the ! Proteins, phosphate buffer system, bicarbonate
cells in the body buffer system

Composition of the Fluid in the BFC Respiratory System

Intracellular fluid – contains more K, Mg, PO4, SO4, ! Increase respiratory rate raises pH = rate of
protein, CO2 elimination is increased
! Reduced respiratory rate = reduces pH (CO2
Extracellular fluid – contains more Na, Ca, Cl, HCO3 elimination is reduced)

Exchange bet. BFC Kidneys

! Water moves continually bet. compartments I ! Excrete H+ in response to decreasing blood pH
response to hydrostatic pressure differences ! Reabsorb H+ in response to an increasing
and osmotic differences bet. the compartments blood pH

A x 2 .
Acidosis and Alkalosis
Acidosis – occurs when blood pH falls below 7.35
" Respiratory acidosis – respiratory is unable to
eliminate adequate amounts of CO2
" Metabolic acidosis – excess production of acidic
substances (lactic acid + ketone bodies)

Alkalosis – occurs when blood pH increases above 7.45

" Respiratory alkalosis – results from
hyperventilation in response to stress
" Metabolic alkalosis – results from rapid
elimination of H+ from body

A x 2 .