v Omental bursa – a long, double fold of

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM mesentery that extends inferiorly from

§ With the help of the circulatory system, is like a the stomach before looping back to the
gigantic ‘meals on wheels’, serving 100 T transverse colon to create a
customers the nutrients they need cavity/pocket
§ Has its own quality control and waste disposal v Mesentery proper – attaches the small
methods intestine to the posterior abdominal wall

FUNCTIONS (IDEA) Retroperitoneal – abdominal organs that have no

1. Ingestion of food. mesenteries; duodenum, pancreas, ascending +
2. Digestion of food. descending colon, rectum, kidneys, adrenal glands,
3. Elimination of wastes. urinary bladder
4. Absorption of nutrients.
ORAL CAVITY, PHARYNX, AND ESOPHAGUS
ANATOMY AND HISTOLOGY Anatomy of Oral Cavity
Digestive Tract / Gastrointestinal Tract § Bounded by the lips and cheeks ++ contains the
§ Oral cavity, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small teeth and tongue
intestine, large intestine, anus
Lips – muscular structures formed by the orbicularis
Four Tunics oris muscle
1. Mucosa
§ Innermost tunic Cheeks – buccinators muscles flatten the cheeks against
§ Consists of mucous epithelium, lamina propria teeth
(loose CT), muscularis mucosae (thins SM layer)
§ Mouth, esophagus, anus; resists abrasion Mastification – begins the process of mechanical
digestion
§ Stomach, intestine; absorbs and secrets
Tongue – plays a major role in the process of
2. Submucosa
swallowing; major sensory organ for taste; one of the
§ Thick layer of loose CT, consists of nerves, blood
major organs of speech
vessels, small glands
v Frenulum – thin fold of tissue inferior to the
§ Plexus – extensive network of nerve cell
tongue
processes (innervated by the autonomic nerves)
Teeth
3. Muscularis
§ 32 teeth in normal adult mouth
§ Consists of circular SM (inner), longitudinal SM
(outer) § Located in the mandible and maxillae
§ Enteric nervous system – composed of the
1. Incisor – to cut
nerve plexuses of the submucosa and
2. Canine – to tear
muscularis; controls movement and secretion
3. Premolars
within the tract
4. Molars
5. Wisdom teeth – third molars
4. Serosa
§ Outermost layer Permanent teeth – secondary teeth
§ Consists of the peritoneum (smooth epithelial
layer + underlying CT) Primary teeth – deciduous teeth; milk or baby teeth
§ Adventitia – connective tissue; regions of the DT
not covered by the peritoneum Parts
a. Crown
Peritoneum b. Cusps
1. Visceral Peritoneum / Serosa – serous c. Neck
membrane that covers the organs d. Root
2. Parietal Peritoneum – serous membrance that Pulp cavity – center of the tooth; contains blood vessels
covers the wall of the abdominal cavity nerves, and pulp (connective tissue)
Mesenteries – CT sheets that hold the abdominal cavity Dentin – bonelike tissue that surrounds the pulp cavity
organs in place
a. Lesser omentum – connects the lesser curvature Enamel – extremely hard, acellular substance that covers
of the stomack to the liver and diaphragm the dentin of the tooth drown
b. Greater omentum – connects the greater Cementum – covers the surface of the dentin in the root;
curvature of the stomach to the transverse colon anchors the tooth in the jaw
and posterior body wall

M A V M .
Alveoli (along the alveolar process of mandible x Esophagus
maxillae) – where the teeth are rooted § Muscular tube that ransports food from the
pharynx to the stomach
Gingiva – dense fibrous CT and most stratified § Esophageal sphincters – regulate the movement
squamous epithelium that covers the alveolar processes of food into and out of the esophagus
§ Cardiac sphincter – lower ES
Periodontal ligaments – CT fibers that extend from the
alveolar walls that hold the teeth in place Swallowing / Deglutition
1. Voluntary Phase
Dental caries / Tooth decay – result of the breakdown of § Bolus (mass of food) us formed in the mouth
enamel by acids produced by bacteria on tooth surface § Bolus is pushed by the tongue forcing in into the
oropharynx
Periodontal disease – inflammation x degeneration of
the periodontal ligaments, gingiva, alveolar bone 2. Pharyngeal Phase
§ A reflex initiated when a bolus of food
Palate and Tonsils stimulates receptors in the oropharynx
Palate – roof of the oral cavity; prevents food from
§ Epiglottis – tipped posteriorly to cover the
passing into the nasal cavity during chewing and
larynx
swallowing
a. Hard palate – anterior part that contains bone
3. Esophageal Phase
b. Soft palate – posterior portion that consists of
skeletal muscle _ CT § Responsible for moving food form the pharynx
to the stomach
v Uvula – grape-like; posterior extension of the
soft palate § Peristaltic waves – muscular contractions of the
esophagus
Tonsils – protect against pathogens from entering the
STOMACH
nose and mouth
§ Functions primarily as a storage and mixing
Salivary Glands chamber for ingested food
§ Produce saliva (serous + mucous fluids)
Anatomy
3 Pairs of SG Gastroesophageal opening – opening from the
1. Parotid glands – largest; serous glands located esophagus ino the stomach
anterior to each ear
Cardiac region – region of t around the
2. Submandibular glands – produce more serous
gastroesophageal opening; near the heart
than mucous secretions
3. Sublingual glands – smallest; produce
primarily mucous secretions Fundus – most superior part of the stomach

Mumps – inflammation of the parotid gland caused by
viral infection
Saliva
§ Helps keep the oral cavity moist
§ Contains enzymes that begin the process of
digestion
Salivary amylase – a digestive enzyme that breaks the
covalent bonds bet. glucose molecules (starch) and other
polysaccharides; enhances the sweet taste of food
Lysozyme – enzyme that has weak antibacterial action
Body – largest part of the stomach
v Greater curvature
v Lesser curvature
Pyloric opening – opening from the stomach into the
small intestine
Pyloric sphincter – thick ring of smooth muscle
Pyloric region – region near the pyloric opening
Outer longitudinal, middle circular, and inner obique
layer – produce a churning action in the stomach

Mastification Rugae – large folds where the submucosa and mucosa

§ Breaks large food particles into many small ones
§ Increases the efficiency of digestion
Pharynx
§ Throat
§ Connects the mouth with the esophagus
§ Oropharynx + laryngopharynx – transmit food
§ Contains pharyngeal constrictor muscles
are thrown into when the stomach is empty
Gastric pits – openings for the gastric glands; formed by
simple columnar epithelium
Epithelial cells of the Stomach
1. Surface mucous cells – inner surface of stomach
& lining the gastric pits; coats and protects the
stomach lining
2. Mucous neck cells – produce mucus

M A V M .
 3. Parietal cells – produce hydrochloric acid &
intrinsic factor
4. Endocrine cells – produce regulatory chemicals
5. Chief cells – produce pepsinogen (precursor of
the protein digesting enzyme pepsin)
Secretions of the Stomach
Chyme – semifluid mixture (food + stomach secretions)
1. Hydrochloric acid kills microorganisms and
activates pepsin
2. Pepsin breaks covalent bond of proteins to form
smaller peptide chains.
3. Mucus lubricates and protects epithelial cells
from the damaging effect of acidic chime +
pepsin
4. Intrinsic factor binds with vit. B12 (DNA
synthesis and RBC prod.) and makes it more
readily absorbed in the small intestine
Regulation of Stomach Secretions
1. Cephalic phase – stomach secretions are
initiated by the sight, smell, taste, or thought of
food
2. Gastric phase – partially digested proteins and
distention of the stomach promote secretion
Ø Gastrin – hormone that enters the
circulation and is carried back to the
stomach
3. Intestinal phase – acidic chime in the
duodenum stimulates neuronal reflexes and the
secretion of hormones that inhibit gastric
secretions by negative feedback loops
Ø Secretin – hormone that inhibits gastric
secretions; released from the duodenum
in response to low pH
Ø Cholecystokinin – major inhibitor of
gastric motility; released from the
duodenum initiated by fatty acids and
peptides
Movement in the Stomach
§ Increased motility = increases emptying
§ Distention of stomach = increases gastric
motility
A. Mixing waves – thoroughly mix ingested food
with stomach secretions to form chime
Ø Fluid part of chime – pushed toward
the pyloric sphincter
Ø Solid center – moves back toward the
body of the stomach
B. Peristaltic waves – force the chime toward and
through the pyloric sphincter
SMALL INTESTINE
§ Major site of digestion and absorption of food
§ Major function is the absorption of nutrients
Anatomy
1. Duodenum – 12 in. long
2. Jejunum – 2.5 m long; makes up 2/5
3. Ileum – 3.5 m long; makes up 3/5
Common bile duct (liver) and pancreatic duct
(pancreas) – join and empty into the duodenum
Increased surface area
1. Circular folds – formed by mucosa and
submucosa that run perpendicular to the long
axis of the digestive tract
2. Villi – formed by tiny, fingerlike projections of
the mucosa
3. Microvilli – numerous cytoplasmic extensions
on the surface of the villi
Lacteal – lymphatic capillary
Simple Columnar Epithelium
1. Absorptive cells – have microvilli, produce
digestive enzymes, absorb digested food
2. Goblet cells – produce a protective mucus
3. Granular cells – help protect the intestinal
epithelium from bacteria
4. Endocrine cells – produce regulatory hormones
Intestinal glands – epithelial cells produced within
tubular galnds of mucosa
Duodenal glands – mucous glands in the submucosa of
the duodenum
Peyer patches – clusters of lymphatic nodules along the
digestive tract
Ileocecal junction – where the ileum connects to the
large intestine
Ileocecal sphincter – ring of smooth muscle
Ileocecal valve – allow intestinal contents to move from
the ileum to the large intestine; but not in opposite
direction
Secretions of the Small Intestine
1. Peptidases – break peptide bonds in proteins to
form amino acids
2. Disaccharidases – break down disaccharides
(maltose) into monosaccharides (glucose)
Movement of the Small Intestine
A. Peristaltic contractions – proceed along the
length of the intestine for variable distances;
causes the chime to move along the small
intestine
B. Segmental contractions – propagate for shot
distances; mix intestinal contents
LIVER AND PANCREAS
Anatomy of Liver
Major Lobes
1. Right lobe
2. Left lobe
Falciform ligament – CT septum that separates the right
and left lobe of the liver
M A V M .
Smaller Lobes Pancreatic islet / Islets of Langerhans – endocrine part;
1. Caudate lobe produce insulin and glucagon
2. Quadrate lobe
Compound acinar gland – exocrine part
Porta – gate through which blood vessels, ducts, and
nerves enter and exit the liver Acini – produce digestive enymes

Sources of Blood in the Liver Pancreatic duct – formed by larger ducts from clusters
1. Hepatic artery – takes oxygen-rich blood to the of acini
liver; supplies liver with oxygen
2. Hepatic portal vein – oxygen-poor blood but Functions of the Pancreas
rich in nutrients Major Proteolytic enzymes – continue protein digestion
that began in the stomach
Hepatic veins – where blood exits the liver and empty 1. Trypsin
into the inferior vena cava 2. Chymotrypsin
3. Carboxypeptidase
Portal Triads
1. Hepatic artery Pancreatic amylase – continues polysaccharide digestion
2. Hepatic portal vein that began in the oral cavity
3. Hepatic duct
Lipase – lipid-digesting enzyme
Hepatic cords – located bet. the center and margins of
each lobule Nucleases – enzymes that degrade DNA and RNA to
their component nucleotides
Hepatocytes – platelike groups that form the hepatic
cords LARGE INTESTINE
Anatomy
Hepatic sinusoids – blood channels that separates the Cecum
hepatic cords from one another § Proximal end of the large intestine

Central vein – where mixed blood flows toward the Appendix – 9 cm tube attached to the cecum
center of each lobule
Colon
Bile canaliculus – a cleftlike lumen bet. the cells of each 1. Ascending colon
hepatic cord 2. Transverse colon
3. Descending colon
Common hepatic duct – right + left hepatic ducts 4. Sigmoid colon

Common bile duct – common hepatic duct + cystic duct Crypts – straight, tubular glands in the mucosal lining of
the colon
Gallbladder – stores and concentrates bile
Teniae coli – three bands
Duodenal papilla – where the common bile duct joind
the pancreatic duct and opens into the duodenum Rectum
§ Straight, muscular tube that begins at the
Functions of the Liver termination of sigmoid colon & ends at the anal
1. Digestion canal
2. Excretion
3. Nutrient storage Anal Canal
4. Nutrient conversion § Begins at the inferior end of the rectum and ends
5. Detoxification of harmful chemicals at the anus (external digestive tract opening)
6. Synthesis of new molecules
Internal anal sphincter – smooth muscle layer at
Bile – dilutes and neutralizes stomach acid; dramatically superior end
increases the efficiency of fat digestion and absorption;
stimulated by secretin External anal sphincter – skeletal muscle at inferior end
Bile salts – emulsify fats Hemorrhoids – enlarged or inflamed rectal or
hemorrhoidal, veins that supply the anal canal; may
Bilirubin – bile pigment that results from the cause pain, itching, bleeding around anus
breakdown of hemoglobin
Functions of Large Intestine
Anatomy of Pancreas 1. Feces production
1. Head – near the midline of the body 2. Water absorption
2. Tail – extends to the left

M A V M .
Feces – converted chyme Lipase – secreted by pancreas; digests lipid molecules

Defecation – elimination of feces from the colon
Mass movements – strong contractions in the large parts
of the colon; propel the colon contents a considerable
distance towards the anys
Micelles – aggregated bile salts around small droplets of
digested lipids
Chylomicrons – packaged lipid-protein complexes
(lipoproteins)

Defecation reflex – local (weak contractions) + Chyle – lymph containing late amounts of absorbed
parasympathetic (strong contractions) reflexes lipid

DIGESTION, ABSORPTION, AND TRANSPORT Proteins

Digestion – breakdown of food to molecules tha are
small enough to be absorbed into the circulation
a. Mechanical digestion – breaks large good
particles into smaller ones
b. Chemical digestion – breaking of covalent
chemical bonds in organic molecules by
digestive enzymes
Absorption – begin in stomach; lipid-soluble molecules
diffuse through the stomach epithelium into the
circulation
Transport – requires carrier molecules and includes
facilitated diffusion, cotransport, and active transport
Carbohydrates
§ Consist primarily of starches, cellulose, sucrose
(table sugar), small amounts of fructose (fruit
sugar), and lactose (milk sugar)
Polysaccharides – large carbohydrates that consist of
many sugars linked by chemical bonds
§ Chains of amino acids
Pepsin – enzyme secreted by stomach that breaks down
proteins
Polypeptides – shorter amino acid chains
Trypsin, Chymotrypsin, Carboxypeptidase – enzymes
produced by pancreas that continue the digestive
process
Peptidases – small peptides
Water and Minerals
§ Approximately 9 L of water enters the digestive
tract
§ Approximately 2 L from food & drink &
remaining 7 liters is from digestive secretions
§

Salivary amylase – begins the digestion of

carbohydrates in the mouth

Pancreatic amylase – continues digestion of

carbohydrates

Disaccharides – two sugars; broken down

polysaccharide

Disaccharidase – group of enzymes that break the

disaccharides to monosaccharides

Monosaccharides – single sugars; glucose, galactose,

and fructose

Lipids
§ Molecules which are insoluble or slightly
soluble in water

Triglycerides – most common type of lipid; 3 fatty acids

bound to glycerol

Saturated – fatty acids have only single bonds

Unsaturated – fatty acids have one or more double

bonds

Emulsification – large lipid droplets are transformed

into much smaller droplets

M A V M .