BSO-04/OSOU

BSO-04: SOCIOLOGY OF ENVIRONMENT

Brief Contents
Block No Block Unit Unit
No
1 Sociology of Environment: Meaning,
1 Basics of Sociology of emergence and scope
Environment 2 Environment and Society – their inter-
relations, Ecology and Environment
3 Eco-system
4 Sustainable Development

Block No Block Unit Unit

No
5 Narmada Bachao Andolan
2 Environmental Movements 6 Ganga Bachao Abhiyan
7 Silent valley movements
8 Eco-feminist movement

Block No Block Unit Unit

No
9 Global Warming& Climate Change
3 10 Loss of Biodiversity (water & air)
Major Environmental Issues 11 Deforestation.
12 Urban Wastes, Industrial wastes

Block No Block Unit Unit

No
13 Environment protection efforts at the global
4 Environmental Protection level
14 Efforts at national level
15 Role of Civil Society Organizations
16 Role of Corporate Social Responsibility in
environmental protection
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ODISHA STATE OPEN UNIVERSITY, SAMBALPUR

Programme Name: Bachelor of Arts (Honours) in Sociology

Programme Code: BASO Course Name: Sociology of Environment

Course Code: BSO-04 Semester: II

Credit: 6 Block No. 1 to 4 Unit No. 1 to16 Pages: 1 to 257

This study material has been developed by Odisha State Open University as per the state model
syllabus for under graduate course in Sociology (Bachelor of Arts Examination) under Choice
Based Credit System (CBCS)

COURSE WRITERS

Prof. Tanu Tandon Dr. Tanaya Mohanty

Professor and Director-Education, Assistant Professor in Sociology,
Gandhi Institute of Technology and Management, Utkal University,
Vishakhapatnam Bhubaneswar.

Mr. Pabitra Mohan Behera Dr. Bishnuprasad Mohapatra

Assistant Professor in Botany, Assistant Professor in Sociology,
Government Women’s College, KIIT Deemed to be University,
Sambalpur Bhubaneswar.

OER

OER Source- https://epgp.inflibnet.ac.in/

COURSE EDITORS

Mr. Pratap Kishore Mohanty Ms. Karisma Sahoo

Academic Consultant, OSOU Academic Consultant, OSOU

Mr. Tapan Sahoo

Academic Consultant, OSOU

Printed and Published by

Registrar
Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur
(cc) OSOU, 2023. Sociology of Environment is made available under a Creative
Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0
http://creativecommons.org/licences/by-sa/4.0
Printer:
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BSO-04: SOCIOLOGY OF ENVIRONMENT

Contents
Blocks/Units Pg. No.

BLOCK-1: BASICS OF SOCIOLOGY OF ENVIRONMENT 1-74

Unit-1: Sociology of Environment: Meaning, emergence and scope: Introduction, Meaning

and Definition, Emergence and Scope of Sociology of Environment

Unit-2: Environment and Society- their inter-relations, ecology and environment:

Introduction, Relation between Environment and Society, Ecology and Environment, Meaning
and definition, scope and principle of ecology, Meaning and definition of Environment,

Unit-3: Eco-System: Introduction, Ecology, Definition, Sub-division of ecology, Level of

ecology, Ecosystem their Structure and Function, Biogeochemical cycle, Water cycle, Carbon
cycle, Nitrogen cycle

Unit-4: Sustainable Development: Introduction, Ban of single-use plastics,

Automobile/Vehicle Scrapping Policy, Promotion of Electrical Vehicles, Agenda 21 and
Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).

BLOCK-02: ENVIRONMENTAL MOVEMENTS 75-120

Unit-5: Narmada Bachao Andolan: Introduction, Background, The Narmada Valley

Development Project, Rationale behind development: The Dam, The movement , People and
Organizations involved, Current Status

Unit-6: Ganga Bachao Abhiyan: Introduction, 3Causes behind the movement, Pollution, The
Origin of the Movement, Activists involved, Demands, Awareness

Unit-7: Silent valley movements: Introduction, Ecological Significance of Silent Valley, The
Silent Valley Hydro-Electric Project, Save Silent Valley Movement, Short Description About,
Significance and Status of Silent Valley

Unit-8: Eco-Feminist Movement: Introduction, Women and Environment, Eco Feminism,

Women and Environmental Movements in India, Eco-Feminism in India and Chipko
Movement as a Women’s Movement
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BLOCK-03 MAJOR ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES 121-195

Unit-9: Global warming & Climate Change: Introduction, Definitions, Causes and Effects of
climate changes, Global Warming, Carbon Footprint and Environmental Protection

Unit-10: Loss of Biodiversity (Water & Air): Introduction, Concept/definition and Threat to
biodiversity, Loss of biodiversity, Scope, Causes and Levels of biodiversity, Biodiversity in
India, Need and Conservation of biodiversity

Unit-11: Deforestation: Introduction, Forest, effect of deforestation on tribal communities,

Conservation strategies, Forest conservation act and Case Study

Unit- 12: Urban wastes and Industrial wastes: Introduction, Solid Waste Management,
Different types and Treatment of Solid Waste, Waste Disposal Methods, Types of Solid Waste,
Urban Waste and Classification, Industrial Waste and its types, How to achieve Zero-Waste
Management

BLOCK -4 ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION 196-257

Unit-13: Environmental protection efforts at the global level: Introduction, The Need for
Environment Protection Treaties, International Agreements on Environmental Protection, Air
and Atmospheric Pollution, Convention on Biological Diversity, United Nations Convention
to Combat Desertification, Convention on Wildlife and Habitats, Efforts for General
Environmental Concern and Issues with the Environment Protection Treaties

Unit-14: Efforts at national level: Introduction, The Water (Prevention and Control of
Pollution) Act, 1974, The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981, The Wild Life
(Protection) Act, 1972, The Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 and The Forest Conservation
Act, 1980

Unit-15: Role of Civil Society Organisation: Introduction, Meaning, definition, types and
role of CSO, What is Environment Protection?, Role of CSO in Environmental Protection ,
Case Study: CSOs Initiative for Environmental Protection

Unit-16: Role of Corporate Social Responsibility in environmental protection:

Introduction, What is CSR?Meaning and definition of CSR, CSR Practices in India ,
Environment Protection, CSR and Environment Protection, CSR projects and expenditure on
Environment protection in India, Case Study: CSR Initiative for Environmental Protection in
India
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Block-1
Basics of Sociology of Environment

Unit-1: Sociology of Environment: Meaning,

Emergence and Scope
Unit-2: Environment and Society – their inter-
relations, Ecology and Environment
Unit-3: Eco-System
Unit-4: Sustainable Development
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UNIT-1: SOCIOLOGY OF ENVIRONMENT: MEANING, EMERGENCE AND

SCOPE

Structure

1.1 Learning Objectives

1.2 Introduction
1.3 Sociology of Environment: Meaning and Definition
1.4 Emergence of Environmental Sociology
1.5 Scope of Sociology of Environment
1.6 Let Us Sum Up
1.7 Glossary
1.8 Check your progress
1.9 References

1.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After studying this Unit, you will be able to:

 Discuss the meaning of sociology of environment;
 Explain the emergence of environmental sociology;
 Highlight the scope of environmental sociology.

1.2 INTRODUCTION

This Unit highlights the evolution of environmental sociology as a distinct field of inquiry,
focusing on how it addresses the environmental challenges of our time. It then adumbrates the
rich theoretical traditions of environmental sociology, and finally examines sustainability
through the lens of environmental sociology, referring to man and environment interaction.

1.3 SOCIOLOGY OF ENVIRONMENT: MEANING AND DEFINITION

The association between societal well-being and environmental quality is increasingly

becoming a topic of sociological interest. Environmental sociology is a sub discipline within
the field of sociology that studies of the interactions between the physical environment, social
organization, and social behaviour. Environmental sociologists typically place special
emphasis on studying the social factors that cause environmental problems, the societal impacts

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of those problems, and efforts to solve the problems. They also look at the social processes by
which certain environmental conditions become socially defined as problems.

Environment is derived from the French words "Environ" or "Environner" meaning "around",
"round about", "to surround, "to encompass". All these terms originated from the old French
word "Virer" and "Viron", which means ―a circle, around an organism, including humans. In
the common parlance environ is limited to only the "surrounding neighbourhood of a specific
place, the neighbourhood or vicinity" (Environmental Encyclopaedia, 1999), however in the
modern concept and the comprehensive view point, environ includes humans too. Thus
environment is a broad concept encompassing the whole range of diverse surroundings in
which humans perceive, experience and react to events and changes. It includes the land, water,
vegetation, air and also the social system. It also includes the physical and ecological
environment. It concerns man's ability to adapt both physically and mentally to the continuing
change in environment. Environment is not static, but dynamic and the changes occur even if
there is no human interference. The environment of any region is in state of dynamic
equilibrium. This is called the balance of nature. Environment is mainly composed of (a) the
natural environment and (b) the built up environment. Natural environment refers to places and
geographical features such as mountains, valleys, environmental conditions such as
temperature and rainfall, flora and fauna. Built up environment refers to the results of people's
alterations of environments, e.g., houses and buildings, cities, communities and similar and
related aspects. Environmental sociology is the study of how social and ecological systems
interact with one another. Both social and ecological systems are very complex and vast on
their own, and together the complexity grows. The interaction between social and ecological
systems might seem clear when we think about the way our society is built. However, due to
the complexity of the interaction, the development of separate disciplines, such as ‗sociology‘
focusing on social relationships alone and ‗ecology‘ based on environmental relationships
without relating to society, bifurcation in intuitions and disciplinary bias, the profound
relationships between society and the environment were hardly mentioned for a long period of
time. Over time, as Gould and Lewis stated, ―The increasing urgency of the negative impacts
of social systems on ecosystems created both the social space and social need for the emergence
of environmental sociology‖ (Gould et.al 2009, p.3). Environmental sociology is a subfield in
sociology despite the fact that it also has roots in ecology. The roots are not equally split
between sociology and ecology and environmental sociologists are not required to know the
natural sciences in ecology. Gould and Lewis describe the core of environmental sociology: its

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―special focus is on how social systems are organized and change in response to the natural
world, just as the changes they produce in the natural world force them to further respond and
change‖ (Gould et.al 2009, p.3).

1.4 EMERGENCE OF ENVIRONMENTAL SOCIOLOGY

During the 1970s, there was an emerging discussion on the environment by many sociologists
(Buttel and Morrison, 1977; Cotgrove, 1982; Humphrey and Buttel, 1982; Sandbach, 1980).
Environmental sociology became an officially recognized subfield in sociology as late as 1976
(Gould et.al 2009). In the late 1800s, environmental sociology was not a part of sociology at
all, but in the early 1900s there were two sociologists who started to talk about the relationship
between humans and nature, Henry Thomas Buckle and Ellsworth Huntington. According to
Buckle, human society is a product of natural forces and his theory of social change made quite
an impact on the intellectual circles in the 19th century (Hannigan, 2006).

Huntington, on the other hand, tried to establish a connection between climate and health,
energy, and metal processes such as intelligence, genius and willpower. He used his theories
to try to explain the rise and fall of ancient societies such as Rome, connecting the fall of the
kingdom to changes in the climate. This has been questioned by, for example, Sorokin, who
says that the correlations are fictive and that he overestimated the role of the geographical
environment. However, he agrees that the geography has an impact on every social
constellation. During this time, many sociologists applied Darwinism and the concept of
―evolution‖ and ―natural selection‖ to the human context, and the most prominent social
Darwinist was an English social philosopher, Herbert Spencer. He opposed any suggestion that
society could be transformed through education or social reform. Instead he believed that it is
better to leave it alone and we will change as time goes on. Spencer also had a disciple, Sumner,
who thought that we do not only fight with other species in nature, but also in society; however,
these theories were largely rejected later on (Gould et al. 2009; Hannigan, 2006).

Between the years of 1955 and 1975, it was more evident that the sociological literature became
more and more modern, and there are sociologists in particular that stand out during these two
decades, David H. Smith, Alex Inkeles and Daniel Lerner. According to Smith and Inkeles,
many individual members of certain communities were physiologically trapped in the past and
they had problems doing what modern citizens could do, such as keeping to a fixed schedule,
observing abstract rules, adopting multiple roles, and empathizing with others; this resulted in

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many developing nations failing to be a part of the modern world in the 1960s. Humans are not
born knowing all these qualities, but through life experience and education we can obtain them.
In his book The Passing of Traditional Society, Lerner discussed that the key to modernity is
the media; they have the power to establish a physiological openness among the population
(Lerner, 1964). One reason why the environmental aspect of sociology did not take off was an
apprehension that it would take the focus away from the debate that many sociologists thought
was more important—class. Even when no one could close their eyes from the environmental
issues they were facing, they still said that it was class-related problems that were the cause of
the issues, instead of using environmental reasons (Hannigan, 2006).

There are three important founders of classical sociological theories: Émile Durkheim, Max
Weber and Karl Marx. Émile Durkheim is least likely to be recognized as an environmental
sociologist. Émile Durkheim stated that social facts are more important than physical and
environmental facts. He put very little effort in the environmental part of sociology and insisted
that social facts ―are consequently the proper field of sociology‖ (Hannigan, 2006, p.6). Max
Weber, on the other hand, took environmental sociology into account. He connected economy,
science, government and industries with geographical attributes. The third one, Karl Marx, was
the one who has provoked the most widespread response from present-day environmental
commentators. Marx has affected modern-day environmental sociology the most. He only
touched the subject in his work, but many of his ideas later became the starting point for modern
theories of the environment. Marx and his colleague, Friedrich Engels, believed that the class
conflict did not profit any side of the conflict; instead it alienates people from their work and
from nature. This was obvious in the industrial revolution when it was more profitable to use
the land for industries rather than agriculture, which forced rural workers to give up their lands
and move to cities that were polluted and crowded. Marx and Engels were convinced that
capitalism was to blame for these events that eventually led to a bad state for the whole society.
They wanted to make the gap between nature and people smaller and reinstate the bond
between them, but did not know how to establish it. Marx talked about the ―humanization of
nature‖ which he said will give humans a better understanding of nature and how we can co-
exist in a way that benefits both the environment and us. He even pointed out specific
environmental issues and saw the importance of ecological sustainability. Both Marx and
Engels were pro-organic agriculture since they saw the danger in taking away all the nutrients
in the soil and using chemicals to get more crops. They suggested that to stop pollution from
fertilizers, farmers could use recycled human waste from the city instead (Hannigan,

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2006).

None of these three founders—Durkheim, Weber and Marx—spoke directly about

environmental sociology, but they were all talking about it indirectly, as they were talking
about humans and nature. It was not a single discovery that made environmental sociology a
field of inquiry; it was more like a movement driven by political reasons for social reform.
Various publications of books and reports during the 1970s drew more intellectual and public
attention towards environmental issues and problems. When sociologists first started
discussing environmental issues and problems in the 1970s, they applied social theories to the
environmental issues; soon a distinct field of study began to emerge. They made a distinction
between two parts, one of which studied the interaction between the society and the
environment, and the other which dealt more with environmental issues. This separation today
is not very clear as both parts often go under the umbrella of environmental sociology
(Hannigan, 2006).
The term ―environmental sociology‖ was first used in 1971 by Samuel Klausner in his book
‗On Man in His Environment’ (Klausner, 1971). Riley Dunlap came across Klausner´s book
and the term several years later and he is considered one of the founders of this field. He
focused mostly on the relationship between modern industrial societies and the physical
environments they inhabit. According to many, Earth Day in 1970 was the debut of the modern
environmental movement. It all started as a small proposal for national awareness on the
environment, but soon, it had grown into a much larger event, with many participants around
the world. ―Earth Day 1970‖ symbolizes ―Day 1‖ of the new environmentalism and it is
widely used in the American mass media (Hannigan, 2006). It was during this time that
environmental sociology became an officially recognized subfield in sociology and the
environmental issues started getting more attention on a political level. Sociologists started to
incorporate formal niches for environmental sociology, as the Rural Sociological Society´s
Natural Resource Research Group was formed in 1960s, the Society for the Social Problem
started a group in 1973 and the American Sociological Association´s Environment and
Technology group was formed in 1976. Also, among the population, it became a bigger and
bigger topic and due to several environmental crises, such as the energy crises in the early
1970s and the Love Canal incident in 1978 and people became more aware of environmental
issues and problems. Political actions were also made, both on national and international levels;
notable among them was the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment held in
Stockholm in 1972 (Gould et al.2009). Later on, the Global Environmental Change Programme

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was established in the UK and the Kyoto protocol was signed in 1997. Further, in the 1990s,
environmental sociology was being taught all over the world (Hannigan, 2006).

1.5 SCOPE OF SOCIOLOGY OF ENVIRONMENT

Environmental sociology is largely oriented towards the reciprocal relationship between the
environment and the larger society. Sociology of the environment is a new field of sociology
that has developed in relation to people‘s growing concern about environmental issues. It has
a dual focus. On the one hand it deals with the ways in which people in society relate to the
natural world. On the other hand it deals with ‗environmentalism ‘as a social movement; the
development of concern about the environment and the social context of actions about the
environment. It could be argued that the way people relate to the natural world has always been
a concern of sociologists. When Karl Marx talks about production ‘he is talking about a
relationship between workers and the natural objects they work up as products. Anthropologists
have always believed that natural objects have symbolic significance and this approach can
also be used by sociologists. What is the social meaning of the kangaroo, for example? The
environmentalist movement as a topic of sociology can be related to the growing concern with
environmental problems. The birth of the movement is normally dated to the publication of
Silent Spring by Rachel Carson in 1962, a book which documented the effect of toxic pesticides
on birds and other animals. The hippy movement that developed later in the 1960s was the first
large-scale popular subculture to develop themes from environmentalism.

The technical definition of environmental sociology is the sociological study of how humans
interact with the various aspects of the environment. In other words; how people treat the
various aspects of the environment such as pollution, conservation and recycling. This type of
study is one that is vital when it comes to helping find better ways for both nature and mankind
to interact, propagate and thrive. The association between societal well-being and
environmental quality is an important topic of Sociological inquiry. Environmental Sociology
as a sub discipline within Sociology explores the various forms of interaction between human
society and the environment. It mainly focuses its attention on the study of green movement,
energy issues, and risks of catastrophes, public attitudes towards environmental questions,
environmental policies and the quality of environment as a social problem.

Environmental sociology is also interested in a more general manner in human causes and
social factors of environmental pollution, as well as in the social impacts of this pollution and

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of diminishing natural resources that is in the reciprocal relations between human societies and
their biophysical environment. The inequitable social distribution of environmental hazards is
another central area of Environmental Sociological research, with scholars examining the
processes by which socially disadvantaged populations come to experience greater exposures
to myriad environmental hazards including natural disasters and unequal distribution of natural
resources. It also helps to formulate equitable strategies to drive environmental degradation
and also to build sustainable relationship between humans and the environment.

1.6 LET US SUM UP

This Unit has discussed about how human ecology has played important role in Environmental
Sociology. It has also discussed the emergence and scope of Environmental Sociology. This
unit delineates the inter-relationship between man and environment. Studies on evolution,
particularly Charles Darwin‘s work on origin of species and Herbert Spencer‘s concept of
‗survival of the fittest‘, have helped us understand the process of differentiation and
elaboration in natural environment. The history of human society is also well known to show
similar process of specialisation, organisation and expansion.

1.7 GLOSSARY

Ecology: a scientific study of interaction(s) between living organisms and their environment.

Environment: refers to the surrounding of an organism, including other organisms and the
physical world

Environmental Sociology: the field of sociology dealing with the interactions between
societies and their environments. It may focus on the social dimensions of either the natural
environment or the human-built environment

Social-ecological systems: refer to the integrated concept of human-in-nature, expressing

interlinked nature of social systems and ecosystems.

1.8 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. Write the meaning and definition of sociology of environment.

2. Explain the emergence of environmental sociology.

3. Discuss the scope of environmental sociology.

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1.9 REFERENCES

 Gould, K.A.; Lewis, T.L. (Eds.) (2009). Twenty Lessons in Environmental

 Sociology; Oxford University Press: New York, NY, USA; Oxford, UK.
 Hannigan, J. (2006). Environmental Sociology: A Social Constructivist
 Perspective, 2nd ed.; Routledge: New York, NY, USA.
 Lerner, D. (1964). The Passing of Traditional Society, 1st ed.; Free Press:
 New York, NY, USA.
 Klausner, S. (1971). On Man in His Environment, 1st ed.; Jossey-Bass: San
 Francisco, CA, US

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UNIT-2: ENVIRONMENT AND SOCIETY- THEIR INTER-RELATIONS, ECOLOGY

AND ENVIRONMENT

Structure

2.1 Learning Objectives

2.2 Introduction
2.3 Relation between Environment and Society
2.4 Ecology and Environment
2.4.1 Meaning and definition of Ecology
2.4.2 Scope and principle of ecology
2.4.3 Meaning and definition of Environment
2.5 Let Us Sum Up
2.6 Glossary
2.7 Check your progress
2.8 References

2.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After studying this Unit, you will be able to:

 Understand the natural environment and linkages between people and natural
environment;
 Define ecology and state the interconnection between human beings and their
environment;
 Discuss some of the approaches in ecology;
 State the basic needs of human society and describe the nature-human beings nexus in
the context of Indian society;
 explain the human influence on environment; and
 Explain the environmental sustainability.

2.2 INTRODUCTION

This unit introduces you with the interrelationship between ecology, environment and society.
We have begun this unit by stating what ecology is and gone on to describe the interconnection
between human beings and their environment. We have outlined some of the basic ecological
approaches, which explain this interrelationship between society and environment.

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2.3 RELATION BETWEEN SOCIETY AND ENVIRONMENT

Environment as the term itself indicates is anything that surrounds or environs us. Environment
in this sense is made of all those things which though distinct from us affect our life or activity
in some way. It consists of all surroundings and influences, whatsoever that are present
whenever an event occurs.

It refers to those forces, situations, or stimuli that affect the environment from outside.
Environment is thus not a simple but a complex phenomenon and consists of various forms
such as physical environment, biological environment, social environment and supra -social
environment.

The physical environment consists of the geographical, the climatic and the controlled
geographical environment. The biological environment includes the plant and animals found
all round man. The social environment consists of three kinds of environments—economic,
cultural and psycho-social environments. The supra-social environment consists of the notions
regarding God or supernatural power.

A. Physical Environment:

Physical environment is composed of those conditions that nature provides for man. It includes,
according to MacIver, the earth surface with all its physical features and natural resources, the
distribution of land and water, mountains and plains, minerals, plants and animals, the climatic
and all the cosmic forces-gravitational, electrical, traditional etc. that play upon the earth and
affect the life of man.

Physical environment is further classified as uncontrollable or “natural” and “artificial”. The

former is composed of those external material objects or phenomena which though in some
points may be modified by man are in general out of his control. That is, most of these men
can change only slightly but their larger changes depend on forces beyond his power.

Among this environment may be listed the sun and stars, the winds and rains, the mountains
and the seas, the seasons, the tides and the ocean currents. The controllable geographical
environment, on the other hand, consists of those elements which are amenable to the direct
control of man and which he can modify. Such are the vast stretches of land which he brings

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under cultivation; the rivers and streams which he tames with dams and embankments and so
on.

Influence of Physical Environment:

The physical environment plays a predominant role in determining the behaviour of the
individuals and groups. So great is the influence of physical environment on human life that
special studies have been made about this relationship since the times of Montesquieu.

After him French writers like Le Play, Demolins and Brunhes have been engaged in studying
the relationship between the physical environment and social phenomena. This emphasis on
the relationship between the characteristics of the physical habitat and social developments has
led to the development of two schools of American Sociology—the Ecological School and the
Regional School.

The Ecological School has been particularly interested in the social and cultural phenomena
associated with various urban areas. Focusing upon the social effects of locality, ecologists
have elaborated the processes that mark the rural and urban communities.

The regionalists have sought to establish relation between man’s physical environment and his
social life. According to them, man’s surroundings closely influence his activities. H. W. Odum
is the leader of the regional school. The ecological school was developed by the investigations
of Park and Burgess.

In Germany, an important branch of the geographical school was developed by Ratzel in his
extensive work Human Geography. In England H.T. Buckle wrote a history of civilization
along similar lines. Similarly American writers like Simple, Dexter, and Huntington have
sought to depict the impact of climatic conditions on human society.

The general results of these studies of relations between social developments and physical
environment are as follows:
Population:
The physical conditions of a country profoundly influence the distribution, size and density of
its population. The plains are the most densely populated and the mountains sparsely populated.
Likewise the density of population is small in desert areas and in those places which suffer

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from lack of rainfall. Temperature, rainfall and humidity are the factors which determine the
density of population.

Physical Necessities:
The topography of a country affects the human habitation, diet, dress and animal husbandry.
According to Brunhes, “If geography is far from explaining everything in the house, at least
the human habitation cannot be completely understood without an appeal to geography.”

The Eskimo tribes live in snow houses, use animal skins for garments and utilize the fish and
seal for food. Houses in the mountains are made of wood and stone while those in the plains
are built of brick and cement.

The dietary habits also are affected by the topography. Thus rice is the diet of Bengalese while
wheat is the diet of Punjabese. People living in the mountainous regions wear thick and woollen
clothes while those living in the plains wear cotton clothes.

Particular animals can be reared only in particular geographical environments. Camels are
found in Rajasthan, goats and sheep in the hills, cows and buffaloes in the plains.

Occupations:
Man’s occupations also are largely influenced by the geographical factors. In all the coastal
areas of India fishing is the main occupation. Oil wells are to be found in Assam. The main
occupation of Northern plain is agriculture. There are more sugar mills in Uttar Pradesh
because of the sugarcane crop. The mountainous people rear the sheep.

Physiological characteristics:
The topography affects the colour of the skin, stature, shape and colour of the hair, shape of
the nose, head etc. People of the hot climates have got darker skin than those living in colder
climates. Sample writes, “Stature is partly a matter of feeding and hence of geographic
conditions.” However, people of different bodily characteristics may be found in the same
environment and of same characteristics may be found in different environments.

Human Activities:
According to Durkheim, there is a close relation between seasons and criminal activity.
Huttington also is of the opinion that geographical environment has a great deal to do with the

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human activity. Extremes of heat or cold have a deterrent effect on human activity. It seems
clear that a certain moderate temperature is best calculated to evoke human activity.

Energy and Skill:

Huttington has written, “The amount of moisture in the air is one of the important factors in
regulating health and energy.” According to him, “When the temperature falls greatly, mental
work seems to suffer more than physical, and declines as much as when there is no change.”
According to Ross, “It is in the intermediate climes that such traits flourish as energy,
ambitions, self-reliance, industry and thrift.”

Civilization and Culture:

Civilization and culture also are influenced by the geographical environment. The Euphrates,
the Ganges, the Nile, the Yangtzekiang nurtured the earlier civilizations. The civilization of
Europe would have been very different had there been no Danube or Rhine. “Barrier and
threshold” these are the roles which the sea coasts have always played in history.

The seas are both a barrier and an opportunity for the people. The power of Spain, Holland and
England have arisen not only by historical circumstances but also by improvements in the
techniques of navigation. The Britishers were able to extend their empire in such an extent that
the sun would never set on it, because she was the mistress of the seas.

Culture also is influenced by the geographical environment. The art, literature and modes of
living of a country bear the impression of its natural environment. The natural conditions affect
the outlook on life, traditions, folk’s lore, marriage, institutions, form of government etc.

According to Keary, ‘the creed of a people is always greatly dependent upon their position on
this earth, upon the scenery amid which their life is passed and the natural phenomena to which
they become habituated. “People’s ideas and motives are influenced by the way in which they
earn their livelihood. A nation’s military power is greatly restricted if iron and oil deposits are
absent.

Economic Organisation:
The economic organisation of a country is to a large extent determined by geographic
conditions. Sufficient natural resources are necessary for the economic prosperity of a country.
The products of a place are governed by the raw material available.

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Political Organisation:
According to Huttington, “The geographical distribution of minerals is one of the greatest
causes of international troubles and wars.”

Influence of Plains:
Above we have described the influence of geography on human life in general. Now, we may
devote our particular attention to the influence of plains, hills and deserts on human life. Firstly
we consider the influence of plains.

Population:
The influence of plains on population can be seen from the fact that greater number of people
live in the plains than elsewhere. In the plains there are greater number of towns and densely
populated cities.

Economic life:
As there is a greater density of population in the towns on the plains, we find major industries
there. The economic life of the people living in the plains is more prosperous and active.
Agriculture is their main occupation. Animal husbandry also can be done better in the plains.

Means of communication:
In the plains there is a wide network of roads and railway lines. Transport is easier.

Social life:
The standard of living is higher in the plains. The progress of culture is ensured through the
progress of civilization. Art, literature and music progress. Education also develops easily. The
social organisation is strengthened. Preponderance of agricultural occupations leads to worship
of weather gods. The sense of group cooperation is awakened.

Political life:
The easy means 01 transport and communication affect the political functioning in the plains.
Administrative functions can be smoothly performed. The work of the police and the army is
made easier by the availability of efficient transport system.

Exchange of political opinion and propaganda are facilitated. The people come into close
contacts with each other thereby developing the sense of social unity. The life of the people

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being prosperous and contented, they take an active interest in the political affairs of the
country.

Influence of Hills:
The effect of hills on society is as follows:
Population:
The population in the hilly areas is thinner. The distribution of population is also uneven. The
people live scattered due to the unevenness of the terrain.

Economic Life:
The economic condition of the people living in the hilly areas is worse than those living in the
plains. The hilly people are generally poor. There are fewer means of transport and
communication which make industrial growth difficult. The terrain being uneven and rocky,
farming also is made difficult.

The modern agricultural implements cannot be used. The modes of farming are crude and
orthodox. There cannot be large farms. Much of the surface soil is washed away by rains. Thus
in the mountains we do not have large scale farming. The main occupations of the people are
animal husbandry, cultivation of dry fruits, fruits, wool, tea and wood work etc.

Social Life:
The mountainous people are generally religious and orthodox. Absence of education keeps
them conservative. The scattered nature of population makes it difficult to have a well-knit
society. The people are very busy in earning livelihood. Hence they do not get ample leisure to
develop art and literature.

Due to the extreme cold a number of working days are lost. The people do not benefit by the
modern scientific inventions because of the lack of developed means of transport and
communication. There are few doctors, teachers and engineers due to lack of education. The
people wear thick and woollen clothes. They usually worship gods and goddesses.

Political Life:
The mountain-dwellers do not have a well organised political life. The scattered nature of
population and fewer means of transport make it difficult to give an organised shape to the
administration. Poverty and lack of education do not allow democratic notions to develop.

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Influence of Deserts:
In the deserts there is very little rain and there are few rivers. The climate is very hot.

The influence of deserts on social life is as follows:

Economic Life:
There is lack of means of transport and communication; hence the economic life is naturally
backward. There is no agriculture because there are no rains or rivers. Of course, date palms
are abundantly found. The people move from place to place in search of fodder. They lead a
backward life. Trade is not in a flourishing condition. Consequently, there is poverty.

Social Life:
Due to the excessive poverty and a hard life, the social life of the desert dwellers is unorganised.
They live in caravans. The caravans are their basic social units. These caravans often conflict
with each other and indulge in loot and plundering.

There is lack of good manners. Poverty deprives them of good education. Due to the poor
means of communication and transport there is little contact with the civilised world. There is
much religious superstition and dogmatism. They have got a tough life.

Political Life:
The establishment of permanent government is a problem in the deserts. The Government
experiences much difficulty in maintaining peace and order. Due to poverty the Government
cannot tax the people very much and so it is not in a position to provide them with good
education and other social welfare activities.

Thus from the above account it is clear that the geographical environment influences a great
deal the economic, social and political life of the people. E. C. Sample writes, “Man has been
so noisy about the way he has conquered nature and nature has been so silent in her persistent
influence over man, that the geographic factor in the equation of human development has been
overlooked.”

The cause of every social change, according to the followers of the geographical school, is the
geographical environment. In the words of Ratzel, “Our growth of intelligence and culture, all
that we call progress of civilization, may better be compared with the upward shoot of a plant
than with the unconfined flight of a bird.

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We remain ever bound to the earth and the twig can only grow on the stem. Human nature may
raise its head aloft in the pure ether, but its feet must ever rest in the ground and the dust must
return to the dust.” According to Huttington, “the growth and decay of the civilisation is
completely dependent upon geographical factor.”

Among the geographical factors, climate is the main factor. Huttington holds that climate is the
main determinant of the growth and decay of civilisation. In the absence of good climate,
civilisation cannot develop. If the climate is unfavourable, civilisation starts decaying or at
least its progress is hindered.

Huxley also has tried to establish a close relation between climate and civilisation. According
to him, only the hot climate regions and Mediterranean zones are fit for human habitation.
According to Thomas Heywood, “The world is a theatre, the earth a stage, which God and
Nature do with actors fill.” Brillot Savarin said, “Tell me what you eat and I will tell you what
you are.”

The Social Environment:

The social environment consists of three kinds of environment, Economic cultural and psycho-
social environments. The economic environment consists of all the economic goods, houses
and roads, lands and gardens, domestic animals, machines, stores of manufactured articles; in
short, all the comforts and conveniences which man has made to deliver him out of the ‘state
of nature.’ Economic order is, in other words, an order of everyday life which man has built up
for the satisfying of his needs through production, exchange, distribution and consumption of
wealth.

The social significance of the economic order is that it is based upon the principle of ‘division
of labour’ that is on the specialisation of functions of the groups and the areas. This leads to
the inter-dependence of not only of individuals but also of groups and of nations.

Economic environment determines the life and character of society:

The life and character of the society have always been responsive to economic environment.
The closeness of this relationship was clearly proved when the industrial revolution was
followed by remarkable transformation in law and government, in the structure of classes, in
the distribution of population, in customs and institutions, in modes of thought and belief.

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There is then no wonder that Karl Marx had asserted that the economic environment is the
primary determinant of all social change. So he had written in his Das Capital that it is always
the immediate relation of the owners of the conditions of production to the immediate
producers in which we find the hidden foundations of the whole social structure.

Thus to his mind all the great associations, the family, the state, the church and all the great
forms of human culture, art, literature, science take their shape and character from economic
fact. Thus Marxism gives a materialistic interpretation of history and a predominant and
perhaps exclusive role to the economic environment in shaping society.

Economic environment is not the sole determinant:

But this is not the whole truth. People at very different levels have accepted and practised for
centuries the Christian and Muslim religions, the most diverse and approved systems of thought
have developed within the same structure. Marxism is thus not the accurate explanation of
human behaviour.

Further, mere economic goods are not an ultimate end of men’s Endeavour. Men do not
produce or exchange for the sake of the satisfactions which these processes serve. On the other
hand, men do seek health or happiness or knowledge or art for the direct satisfaction these
involve. In this sense these interests are prior to the economic interests and must be regarded
as modifying and directing the economic order.

The cultural environment includes the customs, traditions, laws, modes of thought and forms
of knowledge and belief which form man’s cultural inheritance. Every important aspect of
social life, sex-relationship, ownership, comradeship, the exchange of services and goods is
ordered, supported and controlled by elaborate system of usage known as tradition.

These traditions express the culture of the group to which they belong. Similarly, customs are
the way in accordance’ with which members of the group behave themselves. Again there are
ceremonies and rites which express a kind of religious sanction for the respective acts. There
are laws which the regulations enforced by some are constituted authority.

The psycho-social environment is the most pervasive of all the environments and is so
necessary to the life of a man that some authors believe that the life of the individual can be
totally explained in terms of How essential the social environment is to the development of the

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life of man can be seen in the records of children, Kaspur House, Anna and Isabelle, kept
physically alive in almost total isolation. These show in the words of one writer, “what happens
when the social environment of a child approaches zero.”

2.4 ECOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT

Man has been taking keen interest in his surrounding and for that matter his environment in a
practical sense since his evolution. His matter of survival was dependent on his understanding
of the natural forces, the flora and fauna surrounding him. Civilization and settled agriculture
further strengthened his relationship with environment as he started modifying and controlling
the forces of nature. However it is important to understand the concepts of environment ecology
or eco systems which are loosely used interchangeably or as substitutes of each other. Whereas
they differ in their scope and mechanism.

2.4.1 Meaning and definition of Ecology:

The science of ecology has had a gradual development through history. The reference to this
concept is found in the writings of Aristotle and other philosophers of Greek period.

The term ecology was first proposed by a German Biologist Ernest Hackel in 1866. The word
is derived from two Greek words „Oikos‟ that means house, a place to live and logos i.e. the
study of. Therefore ecology is a study of organisms at home. Ecology is mainly concerned with
the biological connections and processes of organisms, land, water etc. It can be referred as the
scientific study of the interactions that determine the distribution and abundance of organism.

According to Webster‟s dictionary “ecology is the totality or patterns of relations between

organisms and their environment”.

For E. Hackel “It is the science of relation between organisms and their environment”.

Taylor defined ecology as “the science of all the relations of all the organisms in relation
to all the environments” .

According to the United States Council on Environmental Quality, “ecology is the science
of the intricate web of relationships between living organisms and their non-living
surroundings.

Hence it is imperative to understand and differentiate the concept of ecology with reference to
environment or the components of ecosystem.

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2.4.2 Scope and principle of ecology:

Scope of ecology:

Ecology is a multidisciplinary science. Because of its focus on higher levels of the organization
of life on earth and on the interrelations between organisms and their environment, ecology
draws heavily on many other branches of science, especially geology, geography, meteorology,
climatology genetics, chemistry, physics, biology, maths and now even computer science.

Ecologists aim to explain the distribution, life processes and adaptations amongst the
organisms. Further it tries to analyse the movement of energy flow and successive growth and
development of organisms. It tries to comprehend the nature of biodiversity and its complexity.

Along with understanding the interrelation and interdependence of the organisms, ecologists
are also concerned about manner in which manipulation and misuse of non-living organisms
by human population is taking place, ruining the balance.

Principles of ecology:

All living organisms and their environment are mutually reactive, affecting each other in
various ways. Animal population, flora and fauna (vegetation) are interdependent throughout
the environment.

Components in ecology are dynamic and works as a sieve (to perforate) selecting organism for
growth and others for decay.

The species maintain uniformity in structure, function, reproduction, growth and development
by preservation of its genetic pool.

Modification in the organisms of ecology takes place through growth, dispersal, reproduction,
death and decay.

Under similar climatic conditions there may be simultaneous development of more than one
community and some of which may even reach their climax or critical stage.

2.4.3 Meaning and definition of Environment:

The term environment is derived from French word “environs” meaning around, encircle or
encompass. And hence the term environment in short can be used for surrounding.
Environment can also be referred as the totality of all the externalities that affect human life.

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In broader perspective environment consists of human, social, political, economic and physical
environment.

Webster‟s ninth new college dictionary defines environment as the “circumstances, objects or
conditions by which one is surrounded”.

The Encyclopaedia Britannica defines environment as the entire range of external influence
acting on an organism both physical and biological”.

It can also be defined as the “surrounding in which organisation operates including air, water,
land and natural resources, flora and fauna, humans and their inter relations”.

In nutshell environment comprises of all the biotic, abiotic, natural and human components
defining the form and survival of each in a given system at a given time or over a period of
time.

Components of environment: Broadly speaking, components of environment can be classified

in to two a) Natural and

b) Human (manmade).

 Lithosphere (land)
 Hydrosphere (water)
 Atmosphere (air)
 Biosphere (flora/fauna/microbes
 Anthrosphere

Natural Environment:

1. Lithosphere: It is the solid rocky crust covering the entire planet. It is inorganic and
composed of minerals. It consists of continents, mountains and ocean floor, which
makes up 29% of the earth‟s surface.
2. Hydrosphere: It is composed of all the water on and around the earth. It includes all
the oceans, lakes, rivers, ponds and streams on the earth. It covers 71% of the earth‟s

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surface of which 97% is in the oceans. Only 3% is fresh water which includes the solid
ice sheets as well as liquid form in the rivers and ponds.
3. Atmosphere: The atmosphere is the layer of gases surrounding the earth‟s surface. It
consists of 78% of Nitrogen, 21% of Oxygen, 0.03%carbon dioxide and other gases.
The atmosphere helps to maintain the temperature near the surface by absorbing the
dangerous ultraviolet rays coming from solar radiation.
4. Biosphere: This component comprise of living or non-living organisms, flora and
fauna, plants and animal species including one-cell organisms. They all are vital to
maintain the energy flow via eco-cycles, food webs and food chains (discussed in the
following sections) and thus maintain the balance in nature.

Man-made environment-:

Anthrosphere: The part of environment made, modified, or used by humans for their
activity is called Anthrosphere. The entire infrastructure made by humans by using the
natural components of the environment can be considered as a part of Anthrosphere. For
e.g. buildings made with the use of wood, cement or water. Even an ocean-going ship used
to ship goods made in the factory

2.5 LET US SUM UP

We have seen in this unit that environment and human society are intimately related. We began
the unit by describing what ecology is. Here, we specially focused on the relationship between
human beings and their environment. We said there is a reciprocal relationship between human
beings and nature. We then outlined the approaches in ecology, which explained the human
being nature nexus. While focussing on ecology in the context of Indian society we listed the
basic human needs and pointed out the situation in India where the environment is very crucial
for the satisfaction of needs and survival of human beings.

2.6 GLOSSARY

Biosphere: The zone of air, land and water at the surface of the earth that is occupied by living
organisms
Carrying Capacity: The maximum population that an ecosystem can sustain.
Ecosystem: A region in which the organisms and the physical environment form an interacting
unit

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Environment: All the external factors and conditions with which an organism interacts during
its lifetime and which affect the organism throughout its life.

2.7 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. What do you understand by environment?

2. Explain the linkages between society and environment.
3. What is ecology? Use two lines for your answer.
4. What is the Cultural Ecology Approach? Use three lines for your answer.

2.8 REFERENCES

 Asheim, G.B. (1994). Sustainability Ethical foundation and economic properties. The
World Bank Policy Research Department Public Economics Division.
 Birch, C. & Cobb, John B. Jr. (1984). The Liberation of Life: From the Cell to the
Community. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge.
 Foley, G. & Barnard, G. (1986). Farm and Community Forestry. Natraj Publishers:
Dehradun.
 Miller, G.T. (2012). Living in the Environment: Principles, Connections, and Solutions.
Brooks Cole.
 Mohan, Madan (2000). Ecology and Development. Rawat: Jaipur

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UNIT -3: ECOSYSTEM

Structure

3.1 Learning Objectives

3.2 Introduction
3.3 Ecology
3.3.1 Definition
3.3.2 Subdivision of ecology
3.3.3 Level of ecology
3.4 Ecosystem
3.5 Structure of ecosystem
3.6 Function of ecosystem
3.7 Biogeochemical cycle
3.7.1 Water cycle
3.7.2 Carbon cycle
2.7.3 Nitrogen cycle
3.8 Let Us Sum Up
3.9 Glossary
3.10 Check Your Progress
3.11 References

3.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After studying this Unit, you will be able to:

 Define and to know about the ecosystem, ecology, and biogeochemical cycle.
 Understand the subdivision of ecology
 Describe the level of ecology
 Get an idea about the concept, structure, and function of ecosystem with diagram.
 Acquire knowledge about food chain, food web, energy flow and ecological pyramid
with the help of diagram
 Have a basic understanding of biogeochemical cycle.

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3.2 INTRODUCTION

Ecology is a discipline of science that studies the relationships of organism and their habitat.
Have you ever wondered why a forest is covered in large, beautiful green trees, and what else is
present in a forest except these? Why is there a distinction in forest kinds along with physical
variations? What makes pond plants and animals different from those found in the ocean? How
does the amount of water and temperature distinguish a desert from a tundra region's vegetation?
What effect do animals have on soil water and nutrient availability? In grasslands, how does fire
alter the amount of food available? The study of ecology and ecosystems provides answers to all
of these concerns.

You learned about the environment and its properties in the previous unit. In this unit, you will
learn about what ecology is in a word. We will start by looking over some of the basic terms and
concepts of ecology. We'll go through the broad concept, history, scope, and many branches of
ecology. We will also look after energy flow, the food chain, the food web, the ecological
pyramid, and biogeochemical cycles.

3.3 ECOLOGY

In 1869, the German biologist Ernst Haeckel invented the term "ecology." Ecology, according
to Haeckel, is "the study of the natural environment, comprising the relationships between
organisms and their surroundings." It is made up of two Greek words: "Oikos," which means
"house," and "logos," which means "study." To put it in another way, ecology is the study of life
at home, with a focus on the patterns of relationships between living beings and their
surroundings. Ecology, according to Clements (1916), is the "science of communities." Ecology,
according to Odum (1963), is the "study of the structure and function of nature.""Ecology is the
scientific study of interactions that govern the distribution and abundance of species," according
to Andrewarth (1961). Smith (1977), a modern ecologist, defined it as "a multidisciplinary
science that deals with organisms and their places to survive, with a stress on the ecosystem." In
simple terms, it is concerned with the complex web of interactions that exist between live
creatures and their non-living environments. Other living organisms and the non-living
environment, such as water, air, and soil, are all present in the environment. Ecologists are
particularly concerned with the distribution, developmental growth, and adaptations of species,
as well as the analysis of the energy and nutrient flow.

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3.3.1 DEFINITION

Ecology can also be viewed in terms of the concept of organizational levels. The entire biological
continuum, including atoms, cells, organs, and organ systems, may be categorized into ten levels
of organization at best. Ecologists look at interactions between species, populations,
communities, ecosystems, biomes, and the biosphere at six different levels.

3.3.2 SUB-DIVISION OF ECOLOGY

Previously, ecology was split into two categories: plant and animal ecology. Modern ecology,
on the other hand, does not make such a distinction because plants and animals are deeply
intertwined and depend on one another and their environment.

There are two sub-divisions of ecology.

1. Autecology
2. Synecology

Autoecology

"Autecology" or "individual ecology" is the study of organism interacts with their

surroundings.

In autecology, we look at the impact of an individual's reactions to its natural environment and
demands, as well as the effects of its interacting environment, at any given time. In simple
terms, how an organism or a particular species interacts with its natural surroundings (what it
requires and how it reacts after interacting) is known as autoecology.

Individual species play a role in autecology research.

In autecology, we examine the morphology of individuals influenced by their surroundings,

their geographical distribution based on their surroundings, the impact of the environment on
the life cycle and growth of organisms, their taxonomic position, and a variety of other factors
which affect the development and growth of one's life.

An example is an organism's adaption to greater altitudes. Because there is less oxygen

available to body systems at higher altitudes due to higher pressure, the individual adapts by
producing more RBCs that can effectively and with high affinity attach to oxygen molecules

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through hemoglobin. Those living in rural locations, on the other hand, are subject to severe
changes in oxygen levels and pressure and may be affected by hypoxia.

Synecology

The term Synecology was coined by Schrocter and Kirchner in 1896. Under natural conditions,
organisms of various species living in a group can affect each other's lives in any way. It's a
more complicated problem. In contrast to autecology, where a single creature is the unit of
study, synecology considers a "group of organisms" to be the unit of study. Synecology is an
ecological strategy that combines "groups of organisms" as the unit of study. There ar e three
types of synecology: population ecology, community ecology, and biome and ecosystem
ecology. Acid rain's effects on a pond environment are an example of synecology. When acid
rain falls on a pond with diverse flora and fauna (especially fish diversity), it has a direct and
indirect impact on the health of the fish.

A typical example is Gause's principle-derived theory of Resource Partitioning, in which

organisms of different species compete for the same resources, like food, space, and so on,
resulting in resource partitioning or habitat partitioning.

3.3.3 LEVEL OF ECOLOGY

Ecology is the scientific study of life's abundance and diversity, as well as the interactions
between species and their natural surroundings. Ecology is a discipline of biology whose name
comes from the Greek word "ecology," which means "home" or "environment."

There are five organizational levels, with each level mentioned in increasing order of scale - from
tiny to huge.

Figure: Different level of ecology, Source:Different levels of ecology - Bing images

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Individual organisms

It is the most fundamental level of organization, including both unicellular and multi cellular
organisms. Every living species at this level has all of the qualities necessary for life to exist.

Population

A population is a group of individuals from the same species living in the same geographical
area. They breed with each other and compete for resources.

Community

It refers to the interconnection of many communities that interact and share a common
environment.

Ecosystem

It is the collection of all biological species and abiotic components in a particular area that
exists and interacts. Both living and nonliving elements of the environment interact with one
another.

Biosphere

It is the top level in the hierarchy. It is the biosphere system, which includes all living organisms
and other conditions that enable life to exist. The term "biosphere" refers to a portion of the
earth's crust. In this organization, many ecosystems interact.

3.4 ECOSYSTEM

Concept of ecosystem

The living communities that exist in a given place, as well as the physical and chemical
components that make up the non-living or abiotic environment, make up an ecosystem. A
pond, a forest, an estuary, and grassland are all examples of ecosystems. The limits are not
defined, even if they seem to be so at times, such as along the coastline of a tiny pond.

Living things (plants, animals, and microorganisms) and the nonliving environment (water, air,
soil, and so on) are inextricably linked and interact in nature. Without a live environment, no
living entity can exist. To carry out different living processes, every organism draws energy,
nutrients, and water from its environment.

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 Plants get their energy directly from the sun, whereas animals and microbes get their
energy from other organisms via plant-feeding, parasitism, predation, and/or
decomposition.
 Water is obtained mostly by terrestrial plants from the soil, whereas animals receive it
from open water in the environment or from their nutrition.
 Plants obtain their nutrients mostly from the soil or water, whereas animals get their
nutrients from plants or other microorganisms. Microorganisms are the most versatile,
collecting nutrients from the soil, water, food, or other living things.
As a result, the creatures interact in a variety of ways with one another and with their
surroundings.

These fundamental interactions between individuals and their non-living/physical and chemical
environment form an ecological system or ecosystem, which is an interconnected pace with a
fast system. Ecosystems had already long been regarded as the basic functional unit of ecology,
and ecology has also been defined as the study of ecosystems.

 The ecosystem is the most important structural and functional unit.

 The richness of an environment is related to its species diversity; the more complex
ecosystems have greater biodiversity.
 Energy flow and material cycling through and within the ecosystem are both important for
ecosystem function.
 An ecosystem's structure affects the quantity of energy required to maintain it. The less energy
required to maintain a structure, the more complicated it becomes.
 Ecosystems progress from simpler to more complicated stages as they mature. The early
phases of this succession have a lot of potential energy and a lot of energy flow per unit of
biomass. Energy accumulates less and flows via more diversified components in later
(mature) stages.
 In each given ecosystem, both the environment and energy fixation have limits that can't be
surpassed without major consequences.
 Environmental changes impose an evolutionary advantage on the population, which it must
adapt. Organisms being unable to adapt to their new surroundings eventually die.

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3.5 STRUCTURE OF ECOSYSTEM

The ecosystems consists of 2 components

1. Abiotic components
2. Biotic components

Figure: Schematic diagram of different components the of Ecosystem

Source: Components of ecosystem - Bing images

A. Abiotic components: These are the non-living components of the ecosystems. These
include physical factors, organic substances, and inorganic substances.
a) Physical Factor
 Sunlight
 Humidity
 Temperature
 Rainfall
 Pressure
b) Inorganic substance
 Carbon dioxide
 Nitrogen
 Oxygen
 Phosphorus
 Sulfur
 Water
 Rock

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 Soil
 Carbohydrates
 Proteins
 Lipids

B. Biotic components:

a) Producers: Photosynthesis, a process carried out by green plants, produces food for
the entire environment. Autotrophic plants taken water and nutrients from the soil,
carbon dioxide from the air, and in the presence of solar energy produces their food.

b) Consumers: They are known as heterotrophs, and they eat food produced by
autotrophs. They can be divided into three types based on their eating choices.
Herbivores (such as cows, deer, and rabbits) eat plants directly, carnivores (such as
lions, cats, and dogs) kill to eat, and omnivores (such as humans, pigs, and
sparrows) eat both plants and animals.

c) Decomposer: Also referred to as saprotrophs. These are mainly bacteria and fungus
that feed on the deteriorated and dead organic matter of plants and animals by
secreting enzymes on the decaying matter outside of their bodies. They play an
essential role in nutrient recycling. They're also known as debris feeders or
detrivores.

Figure: Examples of Biotic components of ecosystem such as producer consumer and

decomposer. Source: biotic component of ecosystem - Bing images

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Types of ecosystem

Ecosystems can be further divided into two categories:-

1. Natural ecosystems: A natural system is a group of living and non-living organisms that
exists in the environment. Through physical, chemical, and biological processes, each
component interacts as a single unit. Natural ecosystems are distinguished from other
ecosystems by the fact that they are entirely natural. Human activity does not affect their
interactions, as is the case with artificial ecosystems. Soil, light, air, water, plants,
animals, and microorganisms are all components of natural ecosystems that cause these
interactions. Each of these environmental elements is linked, either directly or indirectly.
Sunlight, for example, has an impact on plant growth.
Each ecosystem has a different measure. Biomes (land or atmosphere, sea area, forests, reefs,
etc.) are made up of interconnected ecosystems on Earth. Biomes are connected depending on
habitats, and each biome has multiple ecosystems. Natural habitats are divided into two groups:

 The terrestrial ecosystem is made up of plants and animals that live on the land.
 The aquatic ecosystem is made up of living organisms that live in water may be
freshwater or marine water.
2. Man-made ecosystems: Artificial ecosystems are ecosystems that have been created by
humans for financial or other purposes. Humans have altered these ecosystems for their
purposes, and they might be terrestrial or aquatic.

Figure: types and classification of ecosystems

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Source: classification of ecosystem - Bing images

3.6 FUNCTION OF ECOSYSTEM

The physical, biological, and biogeochemical activities that take place or occur within an
ecosystem are referred to as ecosystem functions. Simply put, ecosystem functions refer to how
the structural components of an ecosystem (for example, plants, water, soil, air, and other living
things) interact with one another, both within and across ecosystems. Every ecosystem operates
in a structured way under natural conditions. It takes energy from the sun and transmits it to
different biotic components; in fact, all life is dependent on this energy flow. Aside from energy,
living processes necessitate a variety of nutrients and water, which are exchanged by biotic
components within the ecosystem and with their abiotic counterparts within or outside the
ecosystem. In addition, the biotic components self-regulate systematically and face some
environmental stress.

Ecosystem structure and function are unsolvable linked and influence one another, necessitating
interdisciplinary research. Given the broad diversity of roles found in nature, the simple
autotroph–heterotroph–decomposer classification is a suitable starting point for understanding a
biotic community's ecological structure. Overall functions can be described using concepts like
production, utilization, and breakdown. These and other ecological categories refer to functions
rather than species, because a single population of a species may be involved in multiple basic
tasks.

They serve certain

a) Energy flow across the food chain

b) Nutrient cycling (biogeochemical cycles)

c) Ecological succession or ecosystem development

d) Homeostasis or feedback control mechanisms.

Energy flow

In ecosystems, everything organisms do (breathing, running, burrowing, and growing) requires

energy. So, how do they go about obtaining it? Plants and animals interact constantly in an
ecosystem. To generate and trade materials with animals and their surroundings requires a lot of
energy. The sun generates material cycling. The sun, whether directly or indirectly, is the

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ultimate source of energy for all living things of different types. The sun energy is captured by
green plants, which is then converted through a process known as photosynthesis. Photosynthesis
converts food (organic materials) into chemical energy, which they then store in their tissues.
This method is followed. Primary production is what it is termed.

Gross primary productivity is the rate at which green plants (primary producers) create total
organic matter. Some of the energy is used by green plants in the process of respiration. The
remaining energy is referred to as net primary production, which is the amount of energy
available to heterotrophic organisms. Other creatures take the energy in this stored form and pass
it on to other organisms. A significant amount of energy is wasted from the biological system
during this process. The rate of energy assimilation at the consumer level is referred to as
secondary productivity.

The entire process is known as energy flow. The most outstanding feature of this energy flow
is that it is unidirectional, one-way, and non-cyclic. It moves from producer to herbivore to
carnivore creatures, but unlike nutrients, it is never recycled back into the food chain. At each
level, there is a steady loss of energy as the flow of energy occurs.

The primary productivity of an ecosystem is determined by solar radiation, water availability,

nutrient availability, and the chlorophyll content of the plants. Tropical rainforests and estuaries
have the highest productivity. Tropical rainforests’ higher productivity is mostly due to a
favorable mix of high incoming solar radiation, moderate temperatures, abundant rainfall, and
a diverse range of organisms. As a result of these variables, the growing season is extended to
virtually the entire year. Natural wave currents in estuaries transport a large number of nutrients
that are favorable to growth. Desert ecosystems, on the other hand, are limited by a lack of
appropriate water supply, whilst tundra ecosystems are limited by low water temperature,
resulting in low primary output.

 Energy can be transformed from one form to another, but it cannot be created or
destroyed, according to the First Law of Thermodynamics. The total amount of energy
and matter in the Universe does not change; it simply takes on different forms. Energy
is the driving force behind all metabolic activities. In the environment, energy flow is
the unidirectional flow of energy from the producer to the top consumers. The study of
trophic level interaction in an ecosystem offers information on the energy flow in the
ecosystem.

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 Energy flow is the movement of energy through living organisms in a given

environment.
 A food chain can be built by separating all living species into producers and consumers.
 A trophic level is a name given to each nutritional level in the food chain.
 To better illustrate the abundance of species at each trophic level, these food chains are
subsequently aggregated into trophic pyramids.
 The energy flow along the food chain is unidirectional, with the head of an arrow
indicating the direction of energy flow; energy is lost as heat at each stage.

Trophic level interaction

 A trophic level is a representation of energy flow in an ecosystem.

 The trophic level of an organism refers to its position in the food chain.
 Trophic level interaction refers to how individuals in an ecosystem are connected
based on their nutritional needs.
 Energy is transferred uni-directionally through the trophic levels, from producers to
subsequent trophic levels.
 The energy level lowers from the first trophic level onward due to the loss of energy
in the form of heat at each trophic level.
 At each trophic level, this energy loss is significant. As a result, only four to five
trophic levels are usually present (beyond this the energy available is negligible to
support an organism).
 The trophic level interaction involves three concepts:
a) Food chain
b) Food web
c) Ecological pyramid
Food chain

 A food chain is a series of creatures in which nutrients and energy are transferred from
one organism to the next in the form of food. For survival in an ecosystem, the food
chain specifies who consumes who. In an ecosystem, the food chain also serves as a
means of transferring energy. The energy is generated by 'Producers,' then transported
to 'Consumers,' and finally to 'Decomposers.'

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 The movement of food energy from green plants (producers) to a sequence of organisms
with continuous eating and being eaten connections is referred to as a food chain.
 Grasses, grasshoppers, frogs, snakes, hawks/eagles, and other animals are examples.
 A trophic level is a name given to each nutritional level in the food chain.
 Top predators are at the top of the food chain, while producers are at the bottom.
 It is unidirectional. The sunlight flows from the primary producer to the top consumers
in one direction.
 The detritus food chain and the grazing food chain are two distinct forms of food chains.

Figure: Schematic diagram of food chain

Source: food chain - Bing images

Food web

In an ecosystem, trophic levels are not linear; rather, they are interrelated and form a food web.
As a result, a food web is a network of interrelated food chains in an ecosystem.

A single organism might be a part of various food chains. Food webs are more accurate
representations of energy flow in an ecosystem.

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Energy flows in an ecosystem in a linear or one-way direction. The energy absorbed by the
organism at each step in a food chain or web is needed to sustain the organism, and the
remainder is passed on to the next trophic level.

With numerous interlinked food chains, food webs can get rather complex. They contribute to
the ecosystem's overall stability. If one species goes extinct or suffers in a linear food chain,
the species in the successive trophic levels suffer as well. Each trophic level in a food web, on
the other hand, has a variety of alternatives. As a result, if one species is harmed, other trophic
levels aren't as badly affected.

Figure: Schematic diagram Food web

Source: Food Web Examples - Bing images

Ecological pyramid

The link between different living creatures at different trophic levels is usually plotted in an
ecological pyramid. G. Evelyn Hutchinson and Raymond Lindeman were the ones who
presented it.

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These pyramids have the shape of real pyramids, with the broadest base covered by the lowest
trophic level, i.e., producers. The principal consumers and so on occupy the next trophic level.

Ecological Pyramid's Importance

The significance of the ecological pyramid can be expressed as follows:

 They exhibit the feeding of many creatures in various habitats.

 It demonstrates the effectiveness of energy transmission.
 The ecosystem's state can be monitored, and any additional damage can be minimized.

Pyramid of numbers

The number of individuals in each trophic level is regarded as a level in this form of ecological
pyramid. Except in rare cases, such as the detritus food chain, where many creatures feed on a
single dead plant or animal, the number pyramid is normally vertical.

Figure: Schematic diagram of pyramid of numbers with example

Source: pyramid of numbers - Bing images

Pyramid of biomass

The amount of biomass produced by each trophic level is taken into account at each level of
this ecological pyramid. Except in oceans, where a huge number of zooplanktons feed on a
small number of phytoplankton, the biomass pyramid is also upright.

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Figure: shows an inverted pyramid and upright pyramid of biomass.

Source:pyramidofbiomass-Bingimages

Pyramid of energy

Because energy transmission in a food chain is always unidirectional, the energy pyramid is
the only sort of ecological pyramid that remains upright. In addition, as trophic levels rise,
some energy is lost to the endocrine system.

Fig. Figure: The pyramid of energy

Source: pyramid of energy - Bing images

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3.7 BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLE

Biogeochemical cycles refer to the movement of inorganic elements through physical,

chemical and biological systems. Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, and phosphorus
are the six most important elements needed for life. The biogeochemical cycle is the natural
process by which essential features in living matter circulate. In biogeochemical cycles, natural
elements pass from abiotic (non-living) to biotic (living) components.

The word "biogeochemical" refers to three parts of each cycle. Biological, geological, and
chemical factors all play a role. By flowing through physical and biological processes,
biogeochemical cycles help in the regulation of natural elements that are required for living
organisms. In nature, it functions as a recycling process.

Biogeochemical Cycles Types

The majority of nutrition cycles fall into the – category.

1. The sedimentary biogeochemical cycle's reservoir is the Earth's crust, which contains
earth-bound elements such as phosphorus, calcium, iron, and sulfur, among others.
The lithosphere is the principal reservoir pool for the elements in sedimentary cycles,
and the biologic materials participating in circulation are non-gaseous. Because
elements can become trapped in rocks and go out of circulation for lengthy periods,
sedimentary cycles are often slow. Sulfur and Phosphorus cycles, for instance.
2. Carbon, oxygen, and nitrogen are stored in the gaseous biogeochemical cycle's
reservoirs, which are air or the ocean.
The elements in gaseous cycles have the main reservoir in the gaseous phase, which is
the atmosphere or water. Before completing the cycle, the biogenetic elements in
circulation go through a gaseous phase.
Importance

Biogeochemical cycles are significant in the following ways because an ecosystem thrives by
combining energy flow and matter recycling.

 Biogeochemical cycles are a type of natural recycling that permits ecosystems to

continue to exist.
 Biogeochemical cycles are pathways by which nutrients flow between abiotic and biotic
regions of the Earth.

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 Regulates the elements required for life on the planet by cycling them through
biological and physical factors of the environment.
3.7.1 WATER CYCLE

Water is required for survival. Without water, no organism can survive. Rain, snow, ice dew,
and other forms of precipitation are the only sources of water on the planet. The water cycle is
the continuous movement of water in the biosphere. Water absorbed from the atmosphere on
the ground returns to the atmosphere as water vapor as a result of direct evaporation and
evapotranspiration (hydrological cycle). You already know that Earth is a watery planet in the
solar system, with water covering around 2/3 of its surface. Animals and plants, on the other
hand, have access to only a small portion of this.

The amount of water on the earth's surface is not distributed equally. Almost percent of the
world's water is chemically linked to rocks and never cycles. Nearly 97.3 percent of the
remaining 5% is in the oceans, while 2.1 percent is ice caps on the poles. Only 0.6 percent of
the water in the atmosphere, groundwater, and soil water is fresh water.

Evaporation, convection, precipitation, and collection are the four major components of the
water cycle.

a) Evaporation

Evaporation is the first step in the process.

When the sun heats water in rivers, lakes, or the ocean, it evaporates or turns into steam. The
steam or water vapor evaporates from the river, lake, or ocean and enters the atmosphere.

Did you know that transpiration helps evaporation get the water vapor back into the air?

b) Condensation

In the water cycle, condensation occurs when hot air near the surface rises, carrying the heat
with it. Clouds arise when water vapor in the air cools and returns to a liquid state. This is
referred to as convection.

You can see something similar at home... On a hot day, pour a glass of cool water and see what
occurs. On the outside of the glass, water develops. That water didn't manage to get past the
glass! It originated in the atmosphere. When water vapor in the warm air comes into contact
with cool glass, it transforms back into liquid.

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c) Precipitation
When a large amount of water condenses and the air can no longer hold it, precipitation
happens. When the clouds get solid, waterfalls to the ground as rain, ice, snow, or frost.

d) Storage/Collection
A large portion of the Earth's water does not participate in the water cycle regularly much of it
has been retained. Water is stored in a variety of locations on the planet. The ocean is the
world's largest water storage facility. The ocean holds over 96 percent of the world's water.
Because we can't drink the salty ocean water, fresh water is kept in lakes, glaciers, snow tops,
rivers, and underground in groundwater storage.

Figure: Water cycle

Source: water cycle - Bing images

3.7.2 CARBON CYCLE

Carbon is necessary for all life on the planet. Carbon is found in all biological things. Natural
and man-made (anthropogenic) sources both produce carbon.

Sources from Nature

 Atmosphere: Carbon is typically found as carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. Carbon is

released into the atmosphere by animal and plant respiration.
 Lithosphere: Carbon can be found in carbonate rocks in the lithosphere.
Carbonate rocks formed when ancient marine plankton sank to the ocean's depths
hundreds of millions of years ago and was subjected to heat and pressure. Carbon can

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also be present in fossil fuels including crude oil, coal, and natural gas. Carbon is also
found in soil via the decomposition of dead and decaying animals, as well as animal
waste.
 Hydrosphere: Carbon is dissolved in ocean water and lakes, and it is found in the
hydrosphere. Many species make their shells out of carbon. Photosynthesis in marine
plants uses carbon. In the aquatic ecology, the organic matter produced serves as food.
 Biosphere: Plants and trees store carbon in the biosphere. During photosynthesis, plants
use carbon dioxide from the environment to create food's building elements.
Anthropogenic sources

 Plants are no longer available to eliminate carbon dioxide from the air after deforestation.
As a result of deforestation, more carbon dioxide is released into the atmosphere.
 Industries and factories emit carbon dioxide.
 Wood burning: When wood is burned, the carbon stored in the trees is released into the
atmosphere as carbon dioxide.
 Fossil fuel combustion: When fossil fuels (coal, oil, and natural gas) are extracted from
the ground and burned for electricity at power plants, the carbon dioxide released into the
atmosphere is referred to as combustion.
Steps

 Carbon dioxide is released into the atmosphere through animal respiration and fuel
combustion.
 Producers take carbon dioxide and transform it into carbohydrates through a process
known as photosynthesis.
 Animals eat the plant, which then passes the carbon compounds through the food chain.
They exhale the majority of the carbon they intake as carbon dioxide during respiration.
 Animals and plants are destroyed by decomposers after they die, and the carbon in their
bodies is released into the atmosphere as carbon dioxide. Decomposition
is slowed in some cases. Plant and animal matter may one day be used as a fossil fuel
for combustion.

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Figure: Carbon cycle

Source: carbon cycle - Bing images

3.7.3 NITROGEN CYCLE

All living species, including humans, require nitrogen, which is a fundamental component of
protein. Although nitrogen makes up approximately 79 percent of our atmosphere, the mass of
living creatures cannot use it directly. Nitrogen also cycles from gaseous to solid to the gaseous
phase and again through the activities of a diverse range of species like carbon dioxide. For all
living species, nitrogen cycling is essential. Some nitrogen in the atmosphere, in-stream sources
(e.g. salmon corpses and litter fall), and vegetation (e.g. N-fixing plants) are all-natural sources
of nitrogen. Many natural biogeochemical processes, such as the breakdown of plants and
organisms, produce nitrogen as a by-product in watersheds, rivers, and streams.

Steps

1. Nitrogen fixation is the conversion of gaseous nitrogen to ammonia, which plants may
use. The following three approaches can repair atmospheric nitrogen:
 Nitrogen fixation in the atmosphere: Lightning, burning, and volcanic activity aid
nitrogen fixation.
 Industrial fixation: Molecular nitrogen is broken into atomic nitrogen, which then
combines with hydrogen to generate ammonia at high temperatures (400 0C) and
pressures (200 atm).
 Fixation of bacteria: There are two types of bacteria:
 Symbiotic bacteria in leguminous plants' root nodules, such as Rhizobium.

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 Symbiotic or free-living, for example, Nostoc is a type of fungus that grows in

the soil. Azithromycin, Cyanobacteria can produce ammonia by combining
atmospheric or dissolved nitrogen with hydrogen.
2. Nitrification: Nitrosomonas and Nitrococcus bacteria convert ammonia to nitrates and
nitrites, respectively, during the nitrification process. Nitrobacter, a soil bacteria, can
convert nitrate to nitrite.
3. Assimilation is the conversion of nitrogen fixed by plants into organic compounds like
proteins, DNA, RNA, and so on Plant and animal tissue are made up of these molecules.
4. Ammonification: Urea and uric acid are nitrogenous waste products produced by
living organisms. Bacteria transform these waste products, as well as the dead bodies
of organisms, back into inorganic ammonia. Ammonification is the terminology for this
process. This is facilitated by ammonifying bacteria.
5. Denitrification: Denitrification is the process to convert nitrates back into nitrogen gas.
Denitrifying bacteria prefer to live deep in the soil near the water level, and live in an
oxygen-free environment Nitrogen fixation is reversed by denitrification.

Figure: Process of Nitrogen cycle

Source: nitrogen cycle - Bing images

Biogeochemical cycles are significant because an ecosystem's survival depends on a balance

of energy flow and matter recycling. It is a type of natural recycling that allows ecosystems to
continue to survive and provides pathways for nutrients to travel between the abiotic and biotic

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parts of the Planet. It also controls the components required for life on Earth by cycling them
through the world's biological and physical features.

3.8 LET US SUM UP

1. Ecology is the scientific study of life's abundance and diversity, as well as the interactions
between species and their natural surroundings.
2. Synecology or "individual ecology" is the study of how people interact with their
surroundings.
3. The living community that exists in a given place, as well as the physical and chemical
components that make up the non-living or abiotic environment, make up an ecosystem.
4. Ecosystems had already long been regarded as the basic functional unit of ecology, and
ecology has also been defined as the study of ecosystems.
5. Ecosystems are of two types natural and man-made.
6. Living things (plants, animals, and microorganisms) and the non-living environment
(water, air, soil, and so on) are inextricably linked and interact in nature.
7. Under natural conditions, organisms of various species living in a group can affect each
other's lives in any way.
8. The trophic level interaction involves three concepts: a) Food chain b) Food web c)
Ecological pyramid. A food chain is a series of creatures in which nutrients and energy are
transferred from one organism to the next in the form of food.
9. They serve a certain; Energy flow across the food chain, Nutrient cycling (biogeochemical
cycles), Ecological succession or ecosystem development, and Homeostasis or feedback
control mechanisms.
10. There are two types of biogeochemical cycles. One is gaseous and sedimentary.

3.9 GLOSSARY

Ecosystem: Basic functional unit of organisms and their environment, interacting with each
other and within their own components.
Food Chain: The transfer of food energy from the producers (plants) through series of
organisms (Herbivores, Carnivores) successively with the repeated activities of eating and
being eaten is known as food chain.

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Food web: A food web is defined as the relationship in which a predator eats different types
of food at each trophic level and is in turn eaten by many different organisms.
Ecological pyramid: An ecological pyramid shows the trophic structure of an ecosystem as a
graph representing the biomass, organism number, and energy content of each trophic level in
a food web.
Ecological succession: It is the gradual process by which ecosystems change and develop over
time.

3.10 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. Define the term ‘ecology’?

2. What is a food chain?
3. What is an ecosystem?
4. What is energy flow?
5. What are the types of ecological pyramids?
6. Describe the classification of the ecosystem?
7. Describe the water cycle with a diagram?
8. Briefly, explain about the carbon cycle and its sources?
9. What do you mean by nitrogen cycle, explain the process with a diagram?

3.11 REFERENCES

 Allen and Hoekstra (1992). Toward a Unified Ecology. Columbia University Press, New
York.
 Clements, F.E. (1916). Plant succession: an analysis of the development of vegetation.
Washington, DC: Carnegie Institution of Washington.
 H. G. Andrewartha (1961). Introduction to the study of animal populations. University of
Chicago
 Press.
 Odum E. P. (1971). Fundamentals of Ecology. W. B. Saunders Company, Philadelphia.
 Odum, E.P. (1963). Ecology. Modern Biology Series. Holt, Rinehart and Wintson, New
York.
 Smith, R.L. (1966). Ecology and Field Biology. Harper and Row, New York

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UNIT-4 SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

Structure

4.1 Learning objectives

2.2 Introduction
4.3 Sustainable Development
4.4 Ban of single-use plastics
4.5 Automobile/Vehicle Scrapping Policy
4.6 Promotion of Electrical Vehicles
4.7 Agenda 21
4.8 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)
4.9 Let us sum up
4.10 Glossary
4.10 Check your progress
4.11 References

4.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After completion of this unit, you will able to get:

 Brief discussion about why the sustainable development is necessary

 Why government need to ban the use of single used plastic
 What is the need to introduce the automobile scrapping policy
 How electrical vehicles are promoting sustainable approach to save the environment from
pollution.
 Outcomes of the Earth Summit (Agenda-21)
 Briefly discussion about Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)

4.2 INTRODUCTION

Development typically refers to growth. However, over the past two centuries the phrase
development has been linked with economic growth which is measured by the country's gross
domestic product or the per capita income. The nations are competing with each other to
achieve and maintain their development goals. The objective to achieve development of a

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nation frequently runs parallel with the principles of environmental protection and
sustainability. The movement for sustainable development has been launched by international
organisations (United Nation) with an aim to restore the balanced interaction between man and
nature. The term sustainable development was first coined in 1972 in the Conference of United
Nation on Human Environment at Stockholm and then introduced in the report of ‘Common
Future’ by the World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED) in the year
1987. Brundtland report strongly giving the concept of sustainable development. It throws light
on how natural resources should be preserved for future generation without excessive use by
present generation to achieve the good quality of life. The first ever use of sustainable
development term found was in the Club of Rome in 1972 in a report named “Limit to Growth”.
In 1992 Earth Summit held at Rio de Janeiro 170 nations committed to environmental
preservation by signing an important document on sustainable development.

4.3 SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

Development strategy helps to maintain the quality of life of both future and present generation
without compromising the availability of resources stock. It is a modern variant concept of
development where all the natural resources, human resources, physical and financial asserts
are managed for increasing the long term wealth and well-being of society.

It is based on two key concepts:-

1-The first concept it based on “needs” which means to fulfil the basic requirements of human
being to achieve quality of life.
2-The second concept is based on economic, social and ecological balance such as literacy,
democratic values, good health of human being and the environment which is essential for a
nation development.

Three pillars of Sustainable development

1. Economic development (creating job opportunities)

2. Community development (shelter, food, health, education etc.)
3. Environmental protection (safe water, clean water, quality environment etc.)

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What is the difference between sustainability and sustainable development?

Sustainability is generally considered as a long-term goal (i.e., a more stable environment),

whereas sustainable development refers to the various processes and methods that can lead to
achieve sustainability (e.g. sustainable production and consumption, sustainable agriculture and
forestry, good research and technology required by government along with education and
training on this etc).

Source-https://www.quora.com/What-are-the-advantages-of-Sustainable-development

Sustainable development outline from our ‘Common Future’ report

1. In 1992, The Earth Summit UN Conference on Environmental and Development published

the Earth Charter which throw light on building a sustainable and peaceful society across
globe in the 21st Century.
2. Treaties and Principles on sustainable development like social development, economic
development and environmental protection are mentioned under the principles of the United
Nation Charter, The Millennium Declaration.

Need for Sustainable Development

1. To minimize environmental degradation.
2. To provide alternative in place of over exploited natural resources.
3. Regenerate technology to harness renewable resources.

How to achieve Sustainable Development

1. Rate of extraction or depletion of non-renewable resources should not exceed the rate of
generation.

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2. Emission of pollutant from various sources should not exceed the rate of absorption capacity
of the environment.
3. Population size of human being need to be control within the carrying capacity of the
environment.

Few highlighted issue are listed below, which are aim to achieve under the sustainable
environmental restoration programme

1. Population growth stabilisation

2. Rational use and conservation of forest resources with restriction on exploitation.
3. Afforestation in waste, barren, degraded or deforested area
4. Pollution Control (water, air, soil, land etc.)
5. Sustainable agricultural method adoption in agriculture practices
6. Waste management by adopting three R concept (Reduce, Reuse, Recycle)
7. Biodiversity conservation
8. Development and research required on technology for generating power from various
renewable energy like ocean, wind, sun etc.
9. Strict environmental law are required
10. Environmental Impact Assessment of plan, projects, policies are essential to check the
potential to threat the environment.

The following points need to address for long-term sustainable development

I. Rational use of natural resources.

II. Sustainable rise in per capita income along with economic welfare

III. Technology should be developed to supply vital items with the least amount of waste

IV. Population growth rate require attention of government to put some restrictions over it to

avoid burden on global life support system and resource exploitation on earth.
V. Environmental regulations should be strictly enforced. Strict law on disposal of chemical

effluents and various other pollutants directly in water, air and soil.
VI. Forest conservation, biodiversity conservation, waste management, pollution control, and

other measures should be done.

VII. Land use planning should be integrated. Organic farming should be promoted.

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VIII. Environmental education should be made mandatory in schools and colleges to educate

young generation about resources management, sustainable development, afforestation,

environmental laws etc.

4.4 BAN OF SINGLE-USE PLASTICS

The Ministry of Environment Forest and Climate Change notified the Plastic Waste Management
Amendment Rules, 2021 on 12 August 2021 and set a deadline to eliminate the single-use plastic.

Plastic item with high littering and low utility potential are placed under single-use plastic.
Millions tons of single use plastics are getting produced every year which cannot be used again
such as polythene, straw, soda bottles, food packing item, plastics bags etc. These are non-
biodegradable end up in landfill where it will bury and finally end up into oceans. Plastics lead
in deteriorating the environment and ecosystem in every possible day and way.

Implementing agency

The Central Pollution Control Board, in collaboration with state pollution control agencies, will
monitor the single use plastic ban, identify violations, and apply penalties in accordance with the
Environmental Protection Act of 1986.

Key points

1. From 1st July, 2022 single-use plastic manufacturing, import, distribution, stocking will be
prohibited.
2. Compostable plastics are exception from the single use plastic ban.
3. Government has given ten years notification for the compliance for those plastic
commodities that have been listed in this notification.
4. Permit given up to 50 micron thickness of plastic bags currently, will increased to 75 microns
after 30th September, 2021 and up to 120 micron from 31 st December, 2021. Plastic bags
with a greater thickness can be processed or recycled more efficiently and easy to handle in
terms of waste management.

Effects of Single use plastics

1. Piling plastic which is non-biodegradable trashes up on coastlines cause several impacts to

marine vulnerable communities and leads to deterioration.

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2. In many cases it cause suffocation, drowning, entangled, ingest plastic debris and starvation
in marine species such as turtles, seabirds, fish etc.
3. Burning of plastic many toxic fumes which become a health hazard for resident.

Figure Source: https://www.drishtiias.com/images/uploads/1628930507_image3.jpg

Plastic categories:

1. 1st Category: Plastic sticks in balloons, flags, ice cream, ear buds or thermocols used in
decoration.

2. 2nd Category: Packing film used in sweet boxes, invitation card, plastic plates-cup-spoon-
glasses, plastic banners that are less than 100 microns in thickness proposed to ban from
July 1, 2022.

3. 3rd Category: Prohibit the use of non-woven bags that made of up non-biodegradable
plastics below 24 microns in thickness proposed to ban effectively from September 2022.

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Alternative of Plastic: Compostable Plastics

Compostable plastics are manufactured from renewable elements such as soy protein,
potato, corn, tapioca starches, cellulose and lactic acid, rather than petrochemicals and fossil
fuels. When these are non-toxic composted they breakdown into carbon dioxide, water, and
biomass.

Figure: Compostable plastics benefits and limitation

Reason for ban of single-use plastic

 Single-use plastics, often known as disposable plastics, are only used once before being
discarded or reprocessed, it cause more and more plastic waste generation.
 Plastic has overtaken all other materials in the packaging sector because it is so
inexpensive, durable and handy. People are not focusing that how harmful it is to human
being, marine life and to the environment as it takes hundreds of years to degrade.
 According to the figures, single-use plastic accounts for 43 percent of the 9.46 million
tonnes of plastic garbage generated in our country each year.
 Non-biodegradable bases such as petroleum generally end up in a landfill or in the
water, where it finally ends up in the ocean. Toxic chemicals (additives used to shaping
and hardening process in the manufacturing of plastic) released throughout the
breakdown process and end up in our food and water supplies.

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 Pollution created by single-use plastic items has become a major environmental concern
for all countries. India committed to reduce the pollution caused mostly dumped single-
use plastics. In 2019, India piloted a resolution on ban on single-use plastic which
causes a huge amount of pollution at the 4th United Nations Environment Assembly.
 The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) awarded India's Prime Minister
Narendra Modi the "champions of the environment" award in 2018 for aiming to
remove all single-use plastic by 2022.

Plastic Waste Curb Initiatives

 Swachh Bharat Mission

 India Plastics Pact
 Project REPLAN (Reducing plastic in nature)
 Un-Plastic Collective
 Go Litter Partnership Project

The Plastic Waste Management Rules, 2016, officially prohibit the manufacturing,
stocking, importing, distribution, selling, and use of carry bags and plastic sheets with a thickness
of less than 50 microns throughout the country. The Plastic Waste Management Amendment
Rules of 2021 revise the rules of 2016.

Next Steps

 Sustainable Alternatives: Affordably and environmentally friendly alternatives resources or

raw material should be introduced and should be used to lessen the burden caused by non-
biodegradable and pollution causing products like plastic.
 Alternatives of plastic such as cotton, khadi bags and biodegradable plastics must be
promoted.
 To find sustainable feasible choices to replace more and more plastic uses, more R&D
(Research and Development) is required which needs fund support from the government,
NGOs etc., along with promotion.
 To get rid of plastic pollution, countries must adopt and help each other to achieve
sustainable economic practices throughout the plastics value chain.

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 Economy relies on resource reuse, trading, repairing, restoration, remanufacturing, and

recycling to produce a closed-loop system that reduces resource consumption, waste output,
pollution, and carbon emissions.

4.5 THE AUTOMOBILE/ VEHICLE SCRAPPING POLICY 2021

On February 1, 2021, during the Union Budget meeting, India's Finance Minister Nirmala
Sitharaman announced a new policy regarding automobile scrapping. Later, on March 18, 2021,
Nitin Gadkari, Minister for Road Transport and Highways, officially launched this programme
with full details mentioned in this vehicle scrappage policy. This policy aim to phase out
polluting and un-suitable automobiles on road in India because they are main source to cause air
pollution. Automated Testing Stations and Registered Vehicle Scrapping Facilities across the
country will supply the infrastructure for this project. It is the government funded programme.
The scrappage regulation comes into effect when a vehicle's registration period expires. Private
passenger automobiles typically have a 15-year life span, whereas commercial vehicles have a
10-year lifespan. It was studied that crossing the limited using time period that vehicle become
significantly more polluting than when they were first purchased. The policy has a number of
positive outcomes. Because old cars or automobiles are a major source of pollution, removing
them from transportation chain system will enhance public health and contribute to combat
climate change. The destruction of old automobiles will result in a huge increase in new vehicle
production and sales, benefiting the automobile industry and it is connected to industrial growth
with revenue generation. India's cities are among the world most polluted like New Delhi.

New Vehicle Scrappage Policy in India

 Vehicle scrappage policy 2021 will help in the identification of automobiles that are unfit
for road use. As the policy name indicates, the new scrappage policy will lead in the
scrapping of old and defective automobiles that pollute the environment. As soon as the car
registration is completed, the vehicle scrap policy will activate.
 The vehicle will be put through a fitness test after a set period of time. For an example a car
is only considered fit for 15 years under the country's motor vehicle laws. When a car reaches
the age of 15, it begins to pollute the environment when compared to a new vehicle.
 When commercial and passenger vehicles older than 15 and 20 years and fail the fitness test,
they will be scrapped without any question.

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Objectives of Vehicle Scrapping Policy, 2021

 The new scrappage policy's main goal is to identify and recycle unfit automobiles in a
systematic manner. The scrap policy's ultimate goal is to reduce the pollution created by
such automobiles in the environment.
 Unfit automobiles that pollute the environment are a big barrier to the country's progress.
This policy of car scrapping will cut pollution with while other benefits. It means that
metals like steel, plastic and other metals will be able to be recycled. Manufacturing costs
will be decreased as well. It is believed that vehicle sales would improve after this that the
scrappage policy is in place.
 Most importantly, successful implementation of scrapping of vehicle policy, the old
automobile recycling programme will result in incentives for purchasing a new vehicle.

When will the Vehicle Disposal Policy be implemented?

The Indian Ministry of Road Transport and Highways aims to promote the establishment of
Registered Vehicle Scrapping Facilities throughout the country. It will also promoting private
and public participation in the establishment of such facilities. The programme aims to boost
car sales in the country by providing incentives for new vehicle purchases. For private
automobiles, vehicles older than 20 years will be deregistered from June 1, 2024. It will happen
if they fail the test or if the registration certificate is not issued. A passenger vehicle such as
car, registration certificate is valid for 15 years from the date of issue, while a commercial
vehicle registration certificate is valid for ten years. Commercial vehicles that are more than 15
years old will also be deregistered from April 1st, 2023.The estimated timelines for
implementing the proposed automobile scrappage regulation in 2021 are shown in the table
below:

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What is the Vehicle Categorization for the Scrappage Policy?

On Indian highways, various types of automobiles can be seen being driven. Due to the diversity
of automobiles, the same rules cannot be applied to all of them. As a result categorization of
automobiles is required when it comes to executing the vehicle scrappage policy 2021.

1. Commercial Automobiles

Commercial vehicles include all vehicles used for commercial reasons, such as buses and other
modes of transportation. When the vehicle reaches the age of 15, it must pass a fitness test. If the
vehicle is declared unsuitable, it will be scrapped in accordance with the Vehicle Scrappage
Policy 2021.
The car scrappage strategy for government vehicles was authorized in January 2021. Vehicles
owned by the federal and state governments that are over 15 years old will be scrapped. This will
take effect during the next year. The current target date is April 1, 2022.

2. Private Automobiles

Private automobiles are those that are used to commute from one location to another on a daily
basis. When a private car is judged to be unfit or fails to renew its registration, it will be de-
registered after 20 years. High re-registration fees will be charged for vehicles of 15 years after
the initial registration date.

3. Vintage Automobiles

When compared to a modern automobile, vintage vehicles are older technique using automobile.
Scrapping of Vintage vehicles also taken into account in dismantling purposes despite it being
driven less and also cause less pollution. Overall, it is a distinct category, and the nature of such
vehicles will be taken into account when it comes to follow the automobile scrapping policy.

Scrapping vehicles is significant for India

Automobiles that are no longer fit for use will be scrapped which will lessen the air pollution and
makes the air quality good. The scraping of vehicles not only decreasing the air pollution but
also boosting the production and selling of new vehicles which automatically contributing
towards economy growth. Over 51 lakh vehicles (both private and commercial) have reached
their 20th year milestone. Overall, the new scrappage regulation help to generate new job

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opportunities. For examples, workers demand in new automobile scrapping, manufacturing,

marketing centres will increase. In comparison to technology new automobiles will design with
such technique which will contribute less emission by eliminating use of few substance which
cause pollution. New car are being produced with improved safety features for automobile driver
and passenger. It will increasing the durability of the vehicle. Furthermore, the recycling industry
will become more active, resulting in increased revenue of a country. Vehicle owners who trash
an old vehicle may be eligible for tax savings.

Laws are required to monitor the material recycling and reuse process

The centre has set up a number of incentives for people who want to get rid of their old,
inefficient cars.

 First, owners of such automobiles will receive a scrap value equivalent to 4% to 6% of

the new vehicle's sale price.
 Second, if the owner shows proof of deposit, no registration costs for the new car will
be charged.
 Third, state governments have been advised to give motor vehicle owners tax savings
of up to 25% for non-transport automobiles and up to 15% for transportation vehicles.
 Fourth, automobile manufacturers have been requested to provide a 5% discount on
new car purchases done with a certificate of deposit. Buying a new vehicle reduces
maintenance costs and allows consumers to save more money on gas.

The government's vehicle scrappage policy complements a number of other proposals targeted
at decreasing vehicular emissions, including the advertising of alternative fuels, the FAME
(Faster Adoption of BSVI Stage Emission Standards for Vehicles) strategy, and the growth of
BSVI stage emission standards for vehicles adoption. All the above are desired objective a nd
need to be fixed as soon as possible.

4.6 PROMOTION OF ELECTRICAL VEHICLE

Vehicle pollution is the biggest factor in India's on road which leads in production of
greenhouse gases which automatically leads to rise in pollution levels. The combat alternative
which the government of India can initiate for the betterment of environment is the promotion
and use of the Electric vehicles which will produce no emissions on the road and helps in
reducing greenhouse gas emissions. The Department of Heavy Industry created the FAME

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India Scheme and introduced on1 st April 2015 under the National Electric Mobility to
encourage the society for the adoption of electric vehicles, with the first phase beginning in
April. In general the FAME (Faster Adoption and Manufacturing of (Hybrid &) Electric
Vehicles) scheme basically target offering subsidy to customer on electric vehicles to promote
use of electric vehicle which is better for Environment by using Hybrid and Electric Vehicles
that has almost no pollution on road. The cost of electricity of electric vehicles can be
minimized by using renewable charging options like electricity generated from solar energy
installed at home.

Figure Source- https://www.insightsonindia.com/2022/03/21/fame-india-scheme-3/

What does Electric Vehicles (EVs) stand for?

An electric vehicle uses an electric motor to run rather than an internal combustion engine. A
battery in an electric vehicle can be charged using electricity. The motor is powered by electric
energy. Electric vehicles can be either totally electric or hybrid, meaning they might include
both an electric motor and a combustion engine.

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Why the requirement of electric vehicles (EVs) felt?

Few gases are polluting the quality of air include carbon monoxide, sulphur dioxide, and
hydrocarbons. These gases are the product of an internal combustion engine emission. On road
vehicular emission on road leads India to home 14 of the world’s top 20 most polluted cities
stated by WHO Survey.

Figure Source-https://fleely.com/top-5-benefits-of-electric-cars/

All of the pollution-causing chemicals, gases related emissions are mostly hazardous to women,
children, and the elder age group. The vehicular pollution emission contributes in rapid global
warming. Electric vehicles, on the other hand are pollution free on road and environmental
friendly and also do not generate hazardous gases, which helps in minimizing the global
warming. As a result it will help to achieve the Paris Climate Agreement's commitments.

It will help in contributing in the reduction of oil imports. India is the world's fifth largest oil
importer, consuming 2.2 million barrels a day. The government started providing vehicle
incentives and lower taxes on electric vehicles purchase to minimize the use of petrol/diesel
automobiles. The using cost of electricity for electric vehicles can be reduced if the renewable
source of energy such as home installed solar energy generated electricity used for electric charge
of that Electric Vehicle.

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Steps taken towards initiating electric vehicles use in India

The FAME Scheme's Phase-I has been extended through March 2019, according to an official
media statement. During this phase, a demand incentive of about IN 359 crores (about $50.5
million) was provided to over 280,000 hybrid and electric automobiles. This saved roughly 50
million gallons of fuel and reduced CO2 emissions by around 124 million kg.

Approximately 500 charging stations were built in Phase I across the country. In addition, the
Ministry of Power's Energy Efficiency Services Limited (EESL) has installed 65 public charging
stations for electric vehicles across the country. EESL is also deploying roughly 300 AC and 170
DC captive chargers around the country's government offices.

NITI AAYOG's goal to have 100 percent electric vehicles by 2030 on road which is a fantastic
step toward making India pollution-free. This will save huge amounts of money in fuel costs and
open up new opportunities in the future. The transportation sector in India requires a significant
move towards electric vehicles.

According to the Society of Indian Automobile Manufacturers (SIAM), about 300 million
automobiles on the road are powered by internal combustion engines. For the next three years,
demand incentives were intended to support roughly 100,000 electric two-wheelers, 500,000
electric three-wheelers, 55,000 electric four-wheeler passenger cars, and 7,000 electric buses.

Global overview on Electric Vehicle

 In Norway, one out of every three cars is electric, or 33%.

 China and the United States account for more than half of the world's electric vehicles.
 Fuel based automobiles are generating more pollution and worsening the environment.
This make China to plan shift its automobile market to electric automobile and planned
to have 5 lakh public charging stations till 2020 to support this.
 The United Kingdom and France set a goal of having 100 percent electric cars by 2040.

India's Electric Vehicle Industry Challenges

 Till 2022 Electric vehicles are not widely used in India, which has one of the world's
lowest penetration rates.
 India faces difficulties in the technological manufacturing of electronics such as batteries
and semiconductors.

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 Another challenge which investors are facing in this business is the instability in
government's policymaking. It is a capital-intensive industry that will soon turn a profit
but it will increase in demand of Electric Vehicle Industry.
 Local production accounts for only 35% of total electric car input production.
 India has no lithium or cobalt reserves, which are essential for battery production, which
is the most crucial component of electric vehicles. This has to do with rising production
costs as a result of reliance on China and Japan.
 Other barriers include a lack of infrastructure for AC versus DC charging stations, grid
stability, and worry of the battery running out fast.
 This industry requires highly trained employees and high-quality services.

The government's initiatives

 By 2030, the government wants to sell 30% of new electric automobiles and two-
wheelers to minimize air pollution and fewer burdens on fossil fuel consumption. The
government is pursuing it through initiative plan and policy.

 The National Electric Mobility (NEMMP)-With an initial budget of Rs 75 crore, it is a

transition plan for India's fuel security via promoting the demand for electric vehicles
in India. By 2020, the goal is to have roughly 6 million electric automobiles on the road.
This plan aims to make mobility in the country more in-expensive and environmentally
sustainable, as well as establish automotive dominance in global production.

 Faster Adoption and Manufacturing of hybrid and electric vehicles (FAME)-The

government established the initiative in 2015 with the goal of creating a market and
developing a manufacturing ecosystem with long-term growth for hybrid and electric
vehicle. It is created by the Department of Heavy Industry and consists of four important
areas: technology development, demand generation, pilot projects, and charging
infrastructure.

 FAME II stands for "Faster Adoption and Manufacturing of hybrid and Electric Vehicles-
Phase II. The scheme was inaugurated with a budget of Rs 10,000 crore over three years,
which was recently authorized by the cabinet, based on the results and experience of
phase I of FAME. This plan includes a holistic approach to the Electric Vehicle business,
encompassing charging infrastructure, battery manufacture, market formation, public

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demand, and EV adoption in public transportation. It allows for the construction of

charging infrastructure at 25-kilometer intervals in chosen cities and important routes.
Under Phase-II of FAME India, 68 cities across 25 Cities/UT are selected for 2,877
Electric Vehicle charging station. 9 Expressways and 16 Highways sanctioned with 1576
charging station. 65 Cities will get 6315 e-buses for intracity and intercity services across
26 states/UT.

Solution and Next Steps

Government need to generate demand of Electric Vehicle in public which needs great funds,
government support, promotion and public participation to make it more feasible with a goal
to achieve more adoption of affordable electric vehicle among consumers. Because batteries
account for half of the cost of electric vehicles, the focus should be on providing subsidy on
batteries rather than electric automobiles or to educate people to use renewable resources
energy like home installed solar panel to charge the battery of electric vehicle.

In case the adoption of renewable energy sources is critical, government should R&D on the
technology to use thermal energy sources that would help to attain environmental benefits of
electric vehicles. Compared to electrochemical batteries, thermal energy storage is typically
less expensive and has a longer cycle life. Therefore, providing heat to EVs in cold climates
utilization of thermal batteries with high energy storage density is helpful. It will help
in lowering vehicle costs, increase vehicle performance and boost battery life.

Electric vehicles have a long way to go before they can be seen on Indian roads at full potential.
Policy structure, implementation, and innovation all together will help in achieving the 2030
target. The government should promote electric vehicle transportation.

4.7 AGENDA-21

The Earth Summit 1992 resulted in the following:

1. Rio Declaration on Environmental and Development with 27 principles
2. Agenda 21 focused on sustainable development in various sections
3. Forest Principle

It is a non-binding action plan for sustainable development. It was the result of 1992 Earth
Summit, a United Nations conference on environment and development held in Rio de Janeiro,

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Brazil. It instructed to follow the action plan at every level like local, national and international
by the UN, various sovereign governments, other organizations. The project goal for every
country to have its own Agenda 21 at local level to achieve sustainability.

Figure: Phases of Agenda 21 at local level, Source: https://prepp.in/news/e-492-agenda-21-

environment-notes

It was 1992 when Agenda 21 was opened up for interested parties signatures. More than 178
governments accepted Agenda 21, the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development, and
the Statement of Principles for the Sustainable Management of Forests during the United
Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil,
from June 3 to 14, 1992. The World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD), held in
Johannesburg, South Africa from August 26 to September 4, 2002, confirmed the effective
application of Agenda 21, the Programme for Further Implementation of Agenda 21, and the
Commitments to the Rio Principles. The first Conference of Parties held in 1995 which led to
the Kyoto Protocol

Agenda 21 is divided into four sections

Agenda 21 is a massive document with 40 chapters that lays out a "action plan" for sustainable
development, including a wide variety of natural resources, the roles of various groups, as well
as social and economic planning and implementation of plans and policies on challenges.

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Section I: Social and Economic Dimensions focuses on reducing poverty, particularly in

developing nations, changing consumption patterns, boosting health, producing a more
sustainable population and achieving a more sustainable decision-making process.

Section II: Resources Conservation and Management for Development like atmospheric
protection, combating deforestation, conserving delicate habitats, conservation of biological
diversity (biodiversity), pollution control, biotechnology management, and radioactive wastes
are all included.

Section III: Strengthening the Role of Major Groups, as well as indigenous peoples, their
communities, farmers, Children and youth, women, NGOs, local governments, business and
industry, and workers are all mentioned.

Section IV: Means of Implementation: Science, technological transfer, education, international

bodies, and financial mechanisms are all included.

Agenda 21 – Significance

1. Agenda 21 not only solving today’s issue but also aim to prepare the globe earlier for next
Century challenges of the World.
2. It will requires support from every nations, every citizen, political support and commitment.
3. It should be implemented at every level to attain sustainability; it must cover local, national
and international with proper plans, policies, strategies, processes.
4. It requires fund support from government or other NGOs.
5. In agenda 21 the United Nations systems play an important role. Other organizations,
countries also being asked to help to goal of Agenda-21

Rio+20 (2012) outcomes

At the United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development in 2012, the participants

demonstrated their commitment to Agenda 21 in a text document titled "The Future We Want."
Leaders from 180 countries actively participated in this.

For Agenda 21, The United States is a signatory country; however the Senate did not hold a
formal discussion or vote on it because it is a legally non-binding declaration of purpose rather
than a treaty. As a result, under Article Six of the US Constitution, it is not considered as law.

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President George H. W. Bush was among the 178 heads of state who signed the agreement's
final language at the 1992 Earth Summit.

The President's Council on Sustainable Development (PCSD), established by Executive Order

12852 in 1993, is responsible with recommending to the President a national action plan for
sustainable development. Leaders from government and industry, as well as environmental,
labour, and civil rights organizations, make up the PCSD. In early 1996, the PCSD presented
the President with their report, "Sustainable America: A New Consensus."
To promote the Agenda 21 campaign, the PCSD established ten common goals
 The environment and your health
 Economic Progress
 Equity
 Nature preservation
 Stewardship
 Sustainable communities
 Civic participation
 Population
 International duty
 Learning

The Earth Summit's Conventions, Principles, and Declarations provide principles to deal with
poverty, hunger, resource use, and ecosystem degradation. Agenda 21 lays out a framework
outlining a sustainable development action plan and setting goals for activities that combine
economic growth and environmental conservation.

Agenda 21 lays out a framework outlining the sustainable development action plan and setting
goals for activities that combine economic growth and environmental conservation.

 Provides strategies for mitigating land, air, and water degradation while preserving
ecosystems and their diversity.
 Poverty, population prevention, health, and education are all addressed.
 Encourages everyone to play a part to conserve environment and natural resources.
Governments, businesses, labour unions, scientists, teachers, indigenous peoples and

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youth all play a part in attaining sustainable development and must be involved in
decision-making processes.
 Encourages the elimination of environmentally and socially damaging processes while
maintaining an economic framework.

Agenda 21 emphasizes the importance of eradicating poverty. One of the most serious issues
poor countries face is the limitation of resources and the ability to live a good quality of life.
Developed countries should take the responsibility for supporting developing countries in
reducing their environmental consequences and achieving sustainable development.
Agenda 21 is a call on government to introduce sustainable development into their national
plans. Issues must be addressed on a local, national and international level to achieve
sustainable development earlier.

Agenda 21's achievements

1. Through Agenda 21 (Rio Earth Summit), the concept of sustainable development was
introduced globally and every country along with their citizens are participating in this
to achieve its goal as soon as possible
2. Agenda 21 has contributed to put the concept of sustainable human development at the
heart of development.
3. In an effort to solve the difficulty of harmonizing environmental and developmental
concerns, Agenda 21 established the Commission on Sustainable Development (CSD)
and actively working globally.
4. It is working sector-by- sector which will help to eradicate issue at local roots.
5. It increases the approach to practice sustainable agricultural practices, protect
biodiversity etc.

Even now, twenty years after the Earth Summit, Agenda 21 it remains the UN system's most
important goal to achieve sustainable development globally as soon possible. There are many
problems which are being faced by human which are still not listed in Agenda 21, it still
creating a coverage gap. It needed to address as soon as possible. Many nations start paying
attention to its implementation on full term as day-by-day environment is degrading. Funds,
support from different organization, active participation of citizen all can help to achieve this.

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4.8 SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT GOALS

The United Nations approved the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), in 2015 as a universal
call to achieve end on poverty, safeguard the environment and set a goal to achieve this by 2030,
as everyone has to right to lives in peace and prosperity. Many countries all together agreed to
give priority to those who are left behind to achieve a good quality of life. The Sustainable
Development Goals (SDGs) aim to eliminate poverty, hunger, AIDS, and discrimination against
women. To realize and achieve the SDGs in whatever context, all of society's creativity-support,
Government-NGOs fund support, technology development is required. The 17 SDGs are
interconnected. It helps in balancing social, economic and environmental sustainability.

Figure Source- https://www.un.org/en/sustainable-development-goals

Goal 1: No Poverty

Poverty eradication globally in every possible form continues to be the greatest humanity's
concerns till now. Around 736 million people lived on less than $1.90 per day income in 2015,
without food, decent drinking water, and sanitation. Rapid growth in China and India has helped
millions of people escape poverty, but achievement has been uneven. The Sustainable
Development Goals (SDGs) are a strong pledge to finish what we started and abolish poverty in
all of its forms and dimensions by 2030.

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Goal 2: Zero Hunger

Many developing nations who are earlier faced famine and starvation are now able to achieve
their dietary requirements. Unfortunately, few nations still facing acute under nutrition issue
which hinder to achieve progress. As of 2017, 821 million people were predicted to be
chronically malnourished. The SDGs aim to eliminate all types of food insecurity by 2030,
ensuring that everyone, especially children, has enough and nutritious food throughout the year.
This leads many opportunities and progress for sustainable based agriculture practices, support
small-scale farmer, and equitable access to land- technology-markets.

Goal 3: Good Health and Well-Being

It recognizes the importance of good health as a long-term development. Promotion of physical

health is required. Government playing an important part in providing good medical facility
that why several primary reasons which were responsible for death and suffering have seen
significant declined in numbers. Life expectancy has risen in number, infant and maternal
mortality rates have decreased, HIV has been eradicated, and malaria deaths have been cut in
half. However, the globe is still facing many other health related issues within countries which
need to pay attention as soon possible to eradicate.

Goal 4: Quality Education

Providing universal access to high-quality education supports. It is a belief that education is

one of the most powerful and proven tools for long-term development. By 2030, a goal set to
achieve complete free primary and secondary education for every girls and boys. It also aspires
to equalize access to cheap vocational training, erase gender inequality and income gaps and
ensure universal access to high-quality higher education.

Goal 5: Gender Equality

Ending all forms of discrimination against women is not only a basic human right, but it is also
essential for a long-term future development for a nation. It has been studied that empowering
women and girls promotes economic growth and development of a nation.

Gender equality is at the heart of UNDP's work, and government is supporting this to make a
significant progress.

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Goal 6: Clean Water and Sanitation

Water stress is the major concern for numbers of countries which is a situation where water
availability cannot be achieved to meet the demand of human being and the environment. Water
stress such as rise in drought, no clean drinking water supply and desertification. Water
shortages are expected to affect at least one out of every four individuals by 2050.By 2030,
government must need to invest in enough infrastructures like dam, canal, and rainwater
harvesting structure, sanitation facilities, and hygiene promotion to ensure that everyone has
access to safe and in-expensive drinking water. Water-related ecosystems must be protected
and restored to maintain the biological interaction of every living species in the environment.

Goal 7: Affordable and Clean Energy

According to the rapid urbanization or world's population growth, the demand for fuel (non
renewable energy) is growing. This high demand on fossil fuels is causing significant climate
change. It aim to meet the SDG 7th targets by 2030 by investing funds to increase the R&D
process to develop technology to use solar, wind, and thermal power in full term to convert it
into different form of energy to lessen the burden on fusel fuel or non-renewable resources.

Goal 8: Decent Work and Economic Growth

The SDGs encourage long-term economic growth, increased productivity, and technological
advancement. Encouragement of entrepreneurship and job development, as well as effective
efforts to end forced labour, slavery, and human trafficking, are essential and need to monitor.
Another goal included to attain successful employment for every men and women by 2030.

Goal 9: Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure

More over 4 billion people still lack Internet connectivity, with 90% of them living in developing
countries. To ensure equal access to learning resources, as well as to stimulate innovation and
entrepreneurship, it is important to minimize the coverage gap to provide internet to everyone.
Technological advancement is also essential for finding long-term solutions to both economic
and environmental problems, such as creating new jobs and increasing energy efficiency.

Goal 10: Reduced Inequalities

Inequality of income needs global solutions. This requires rules, regulation and capital, as well
as encourage developing aid and foreign investment in this areas.
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Goal 11: Sustainable Cities and Communities

Creating job, business possibilities, safe-reliable housing, and resilient communities

(The communities that are sustainable can survive social, economic, and environmental shocks.
In terms of efficiency and cleanliness, sustainable communities are environmentally sustainable)
and economies are all essential part of making the cities sustainable. It involves investing in
public transportation, establishing green public areas, promoting participatory in urban planning
and management.

Goal 12: Responsible Consumption and Production

To achieve economic growth and long-term development, we must drastically minimize our
environmental footprint by altering how we currently produce, use every commodities and
resources. The effective management of our common natural resources, as well as minimizing
emission of harmful contaminants needs more attention to achieve sustainable goals. Encourage
industries, businesses, and consumers to reduce and eliminate waste, as well as support
developing countries in their transformation towards adopting more sustainable consumption
habits by 2030.

Goal 13: Climate Action

No country is left behind in term of harmful effects caused by different consequences of climate
change. Greenhouse gas emissions increased more than 50% since 1990. By 2030, every country
need to adopt more sustainable consumption patterns to decrease burden on consumption of fossil
fuel.91 percent of human calamities are caused by climate change and killed more than 1.3
million people and injured 4.4 billion people between 1998 and 2017. Rules should be adopted
to incorporate catastrophe risk mitigation, natural resource conservation, and human security into
national development policies.

Goal 14: Life below Water

The SDGs seek to manage and conserve coastal marine ecosystems in a sustainable manner, as
well as address the issue caused due to ocean acidification. To improve the protection
government use appropriate sustainable approaches which follows international norms. It will
help to mitigate many problems which the life below water is facing.

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Goal 15: Life on Land

Annually, 13 million hectares of forest are being cut, while 3.6 billion hectares of dry land have
been desertified, disproportionately use of land is harming soil quality and leading to rapid
increase in climate change. To conserve food, shelter, forest and biodiversity immediate action
is required to limit all unlawful activities as almost 7,000 animal and plant species have been
unlawfully exported. Loss of natural habitats and biodiversity are at high risk.

Goal 16: Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions

Without peace, stability, human development, proper rules-regulations and good governance, a
country cannot able to achieve sustainability and cannot hope for long-term progress. The SDGs
goal to reduce all types of violence, try to create peace and harmony among every living organism
while also working with governments and communities to end war and insecurity. The rule of
law and human rights must be promoted as part of this process.

Goal 17: Partnerships for the Goals

Promoting international commerce and helping poor nations by increasing their exports all are
the important aspects of building a global, rules-based and fair trading system that benefits
everyone. Strong global alliances and cooperation are required to achieve the SDGs goal by
2030.

4.9 LET US SUM UP

In this block we have discussed about basic of sustainable development and why its need to
implement at global level to save our resources which are non-renewable. It throws light on
how ban of single use plastics, promotion of electrical vehicles helps in executing sustainable
approach to save the environment. It also highlighted the outcomes from Rio Earth Summit-
Agenda-21.

4.10 GLOSSARY

GNP-Gross National Product

UNESCO- United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization

MDG -Millennium Development Goals.

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IPCC -Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

UNFCCC –United Nation Framework Convention on Climate Change

CBD-Convention on Biological Diversity

4.11 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. What do you mean sustainable development?

2. What is single use plastic?
3. What do you mean by electric vehicles?
4. What the full form of FAME?
5. What are the two key concepts of sustainable development?
6. What is Agenda-21?
7. Describe Automobile Scrapping Policy.
8. Discuss Agenda-21.
9. What is the reason for ban of single use plastics and what are the plastic waste curb
initiatives.
10. Which issues highlighted to achieve under sustainable environmental restoration
programme?
11. What are the step taken towards initiating electric vehicles in India and discuss challenges
facing by Electric Vehicle Industry in India?
12. What do you mean by sustainable development and discuss 17 sustainable development
goals.

4.12 REFERENCES

 Sustainable Development India and Beyond by Dr. Anjali Singh Tomar, Prof. Amit Kumar
Kashyap.
 Sustainable Development Goals: Directive Principle for Sustainable India by 2030 by Ajay
Ahlawat.
 Introduction to Sustainable Development by Martin J. Osserwaarde
 Growth with Sustainability- A Journey towards Sustainable Development in India by Dr.
Jaydev Mishra.

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Block-2
Environmental Movements

Unit-5: Narmada Bachao Andolan

Unit-6: Ganga Bachao Abhiyan
Unit-7: Silent valley movements
Unit-8: Eco-feminist movement
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UNIT-5: NARMADA BACHAO ANDOLAN

Structure

5.1 Learning objectives

5.2 Introduction
5.3 Background
5.4 The Narmada Valley Development Project
5.5 Rationale behind development: The Dam
5.6 The movement
5.7 People and Organizations involved
5.8 Current Status
5.9 Let us sum up
5.10 Glossary
5.11 Check your progress
5.12 References

5.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After studying this Unit, you will be able to-

 The background of Narmada bachao andolan

 The movement and its course
 Role of people involved in the movement

5.2 INTRODUCTION

Narmada Bachao Andolan originated due to construction of a dam across the Narmada River
having not only developmental consequences but also various other social consequences to
the people affected by these developments.. The model, in a way, is incremental and brings
prosperity and wealth but is also discriminatory, as people affected by the project do not have
any options and survival /sustainable ways out.

This development story started with the major irrigation project in the nineteenth century and
continued even after independence and is still lingering on as the most popular rehabilitation
movement in India. Pundit Nehru envisaged building dams and agriculture projects as key to
development and the way that developing countries like India can come in line with global

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development. As globalization gained acceleration in the 1990s, such projects, once considered
as empowering signs of development, turned into most disputed signs. The transition of
multifarious dams from domains of hope to absolute distress and poverty is due to the nature
of development that they led to.

They built bipolar worlds − a world of ‘have’ and another of ‘have not’. It transformed one
portion to greenery and another to desert. .

For the state, it posed various problems and extreme confrontation. It

• posed challenges to the state power

• questioned the developmental model

• led to different forms of protest

• invited attention and support from national and international media

In the case of NBA, the dispute between people and state became extreme. After a prolonged
confrontation and crisis, the issue went before the Supreme Court of the land. The judiciary,
was called upon to resolve the crisi impending upon the people of three stares, most affected
were tribal and those whose homes were affected. In the case of NBA, the court delivered
‘justice’ in favour of the State. Narmada Bachao Andolan showcases the culmination of acute
dilemmas of development, and represents a complicated, distressful process which led to chaos
and anger. ’ The model of development is not embedded in people-centric approach, rather
alienates the people who eventually end up as opponents of development. This is the price the
non-participant approach has to pay in a society which is unequal and struck with a
development

Originally, the movement was named Narmada Dharangrast Samiti for people affected by the
lack of resettlement and rehabilitation due to submergence. The Narmada Bachao Andolan
(movement) is a prime example of non-violent struggle against the big dam constructions. They
involved the Gandhian method of fasting and staging protests by involving large number of
people in their mass movements. The main reason for such protests is not a just revolting
against the dam construction. It involves the rehabilitation of those who lose their land and
valuable property in the process. Save the Narmada movement, or the Narmada Bachao
Andolan, began in 1985. The Andolan was led by the local tribes, environmentalists, farmers,
and activists that aimed to protest against the lack of proper rehabilitation and resettlement of

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the people dependent on the river for their living and livelihood after the construction and
development of the Narmada Dam Project.

5.3 BACKGROUND

Narmada, the largest west-flowing river in the Indian peninsula, which arises on the plateau
of Amarkantak in the Shahdol district of Madhya Pradesh. It covers the states of Madhya
Pradesh, Maharashtra, Gujarat and parts of Rajasthan. Its course is 1312 km to the Arabian Sea
through lush forests, hills, agricultural regions and rocky gorges. It has around 41 tributaries,
surrounded by 3 mountain ranges of Satpura, Vindhya and Maikal, and on the fourth side
merges into the Arabian Sea. On its basin, the villages constitute 81% and comprise mainly
tribal population consisting of Bhils, Gonds, Baigas and others whose primary occupation is
agriculture. The Narmada basin is rich in its natural resources.

5.4 THE NARMADA VALLEY DEVELOPMENT PROJECT

The Narmada Basin covers an area of approximately 94, 500 square kilometers between the
Vindhya and the Satpura ranges of Central India. It is the site of the Narmada Valley
Development Project (NVDP), a much dreamed and anticipated project that was envisioned
to harness the river Narmada that flows through the three states of ·Madhya Pradesh,
Maharashtra and Gujarat, which planned to have thirty big dams; one hundred and thirty-five
medium dams, and three thousand small dams to be constructed on the Narmada river and its
forty-one tributaries. However, due to the Narmada basin features like densely forested
basaltic hills, and majority of people dependent on these resources , it led to protests and
agitation . The 1312 kilometers long Narmada Valley contains large alluvial plains in Madhya
Pradesh. To the West, the Narmada River meanders ' through Gujarat widening into a 25-
kilometer long estuary as it flows into the Gulf of Cambay. More than 22 million people live
in the valley and several tribal groups, particularly Bhils and Gonds occupy the forest uplands.
The project is estimated to affect over 2.5 lakh of people. The Sardar Sarovar Project (SSP)
and the Narmada Sagar Project (NSP) arc the two biggest dams to be constructed in the
Narmada River, and the SSP alone will submerge 245 villages: 19 in Gujarat, 33 in
Maharashtra, and 193 in Madhya Pradesh. Thus these two projects have remained disputed due
to their major displacement and problems of people rehabilitation. This resulted in the uproar
of a protest movement one of its kind called the 'Narmada Bachao Andolan'. The movement
has drawn upon a various discourses for protests such as displacement challenges and options

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for rehabilitatio; environmental effects and sustainability problems; financial implications of

the project; forced displacements of residents and violations of freedom and human rights;
issues related to planning and management of resources, water and forest ; implications of
western growth model, and alternative development and sustainable technology, among many
others. The movement uses different tools of protest as taken from the learning of Gandhiji like
nonviolence, fasting, Satyagraha.

5.5 RATIONALE BEHIND DEVELOPMENT: THE DAM

The policy level decision makers reached to conclusion that since Narmada valley is a
backward region, it lacks irrigation facilities, and mineral and natural resources are
unexploited, hydro-electric power is under-utilized and infrastructural facilities are dismal. The
features of the underdevelopment like low electricity consumption, less industrial activity, slow
urban growth, below average agricultural yields, lack of modern medical, educational and
banking facilities are very much obvious. Though the idea of the project was conceived in
1946, the states through which the river takes its course have got entangled in deciding the
resource use, the area to be irrigated and sharing of water. The project commenced after the
Narmada Water Disputes Tribunal (NWDT) gave its consent for the planning and work on the
largest single river valley project in India.

According to the Master Plan, the project had: 30 major dams, 10 on the main river and 20 on
the tributaries, 5 hydro electric schemes, 6 multi-purpose schemes, 19 irrigation schemes
135 medium schemes 3000 minor irrigation schemes.

The project also promised to provide employment, to check floods, supply water for domestic
and industrial use and promote tourism. In real time, the project not only had meticulous
planning missing but also careful execution as it involved a mammoth level exploitation of
natural resources on the river basin, which had risk to submerge the vast areas of forest and
agricultural land. The region being geologically seismic zone, the earthquakes posed severe
threat to the region, threatening an acute damage to the dam. Over 150,000 acres of forest land
came under the submergence threat and the total area of forest under the threat of flood
constituted around 350,000 hectares, amounting to around 11% of the river basin’s forests. The
submergence also posed immense pressure on the adjoining areas and its land resources due to
large scale migration of people, threatened by the submergence fears. The NWDT laid down
certain directives to take care of the displaced people and the compensation that needs to be
paid, in place of the land they have lost. It called for an adequate resettlement grant, and the

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provision of basic amenities like housing sites, primary schools for children, health
dispensaries and transport facilities. The directives did not contain the provision for land
acquisition for the displaced and directed the latter to acquire land with the resettlement sum
provided by the government. It had also posed new challenges like unemployment and
inadequate measures of alternative incomes in the new villages. The rehabilitation efforts
differed from state to state with Gujarat providing better compensation and resettlement
facilities as compared to Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra. With no hope for secure economic
future, the displaced people launched the Narmada Bachao Andolan in order to assert their
rights and gain justice. The Andolan is one of the longest struggles against a development
project in the post-independent India, stressing upon the rights of the displaced people and
raising demands for an justifiable compensatory package. Routledge (2003) notes, the
“Narmada Bachao Andolan have been conducting its resistances across multiple scales. It has
grounded its resistances against the project in the villages, and it has also taken the struggles to
non-local terrains including the national and international levels. These resistances arc
articulated within a number of inter-related realms. In the environmental realm, it is involved
in a struggle to protect local ecological resources like forests and rivers. In the economic realm,
it articulates a conflict over access to productive natural resources like forests, land and water
that are under threat of exploitation by the three states and the transnational corporations. And,
finally in the cultural front, it articulates to protect the identities and solidarities of the
communities of the communities affected by the project which are grounded around issues of
kinship, neighborhood and the everyday social interactions. Hence, the movement involves
interplay of various socio-political, economic and environmental variables.”

5.6 THE MOVEMENT

The Narmada Bachao Andolan has been treated as a good example of the environmental
movement in India (Shiva and Bandyopadhyay: 1989; Gadgil and Guha:.1995), and has
attracted a wide academic attention (\X'ood: 1993; Omvedt: 1993; Baviskar: 1995; Sangvai:
2002; Khagram: 2004; Nilsen: 2006). No doubt it is the most Prevalent and popular example
of resistance to large Dams in India. As one of the pioneer anti-dam movements in India, the
Narmada Bachao Andolan has travelled a long, multi-pronged fight against the Narmada
Valley Projects.. While propagating sustainable, people oriented development, the Narmada
Bachao Andolan has highlighted the contradictions of development paradigms which are based
on unequal distribution and utilization of resources and lead to unbalanced growth.

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The Narmada Bachao Andolan did not start as an all-state, national movement as it is today.
The course of the movement began with the various isolated incidents in different corners of
the three riparian states of Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra and Gujarat. Its course of
development can be understood as a discourse of resistance can be transcribed through
movement documents and specific cultural practices.

The first ripples travelling to the Narmada Bachao Andolan (Save the Narmada Movement) in
the Western Nimad region of Madhya Pradesh began in the end of the 1970s. The caste Hindu
farming communities of Western Nimad Plains started the resistance against the SSP first as
'Nimad bachao Andolan immediately after the Narmada Water Disputes Tribunal (NWDT)
presented its final award on 16 August 1979. The affected villagers from Nimad launched the
'Nimad Bachao andolan: as a struggle for the reduction of the height of the proposed dam. The
second phase of the protest occurred sometimes 1n 1985, a time when some environmentalists'
formed outside the valley like the Kalpavriksh and the Hindu College Nature Club expressed
their disquiet in the press. At this stage, Medha Patkar got involved in community mobilization
in Maharashtra on the issue of submergence and displacement. Initially, just resettlement and
rehabilitation of the people being displaced by the SSP Dam also became the core issues of the
movement. However, when it became obvious that it was not possible for the state to rehablitate
all the affected persons properly, the focus shifted to complete opposition to the dam, and
finally, in course of time, to preserving the environmental integrity and natural ecosystems of
the entire valley. Thus, the issues transformed from reduction of dam height to question of
resettlement and rehabilitation to the question of environmental integrity culminating in the
total opposition to the project.

Sometimes in the second half of the 1980s, the interactions between the local organizations in
all the three riparian states and their ant-dam mobilizations led the Narmada Dhanagrasta
Samiti, the Narmada Ghati Navanirman Samiti and the Narmada Asargrasta Sangharsa Samiti
of Kervadia Colony in Gujarat to finallv. Declare their joint opposition to the Sardar Sarovar
project. These ' organizations merged together and finally, a pan-state environmental
movement came into existence. This institutionalization of the local level protests into a
monolithic, pan-state environmental movement represents the third phase in the evolution of
the movement.

Fourth stage of the movement is situated sometimes m the early 1990s. The movement reached
a dramatic phase late in 1990 when Baba Amte with approximately five thousand protestors,

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mostly tribals, began the Narmada Jan Vikas Sangharsh Yatra (Narmada People's Progress
Struggle March) from Badwani, Madhya Pradesh to Ferkuwa on the Madhya Pradesh- Gujarat
borders. However, in literal terms the Gujarat government defeated the tribal protestors. Instead
of accepting defeat, the Narmada Bachao Andolan announced a non-cooperation movement
in the valley including the anti-tax paying campaign and. the prevention of all government
officials except teachers and doctors from entering the villages. The movement took a new turn
with the withdrawal by the World Bank, and the pressure from the movement for the review
of the project.

5.7 PEOPLE AND ORGANIZATIONS INVOLVED

Narmada Bachao Andolan, which originated as a response to the Narmada Water Disputes
Tribunal Award is lead by strong and popular leaders. The people involved are from various
strata and sections of society: it ranges from the tribal of the affected area to the. educated
middle-class people who have joined the movement from various areas in India, be it rural or
urban, during the course of movement. A number of non-governmental organizations have
been associated with the Narmada Bachao Andolan in its struggle against the Sardar Sarovar
project. Some important organizations which been with the NBA are the Civil Liberties, Kisan
Sangharsha Samiti (Madhya Pradesh), Adhikar Sangh (Gujarat), Manav Kalyan Trust,
Navsarjan Trust (Surat), Utthan Trust Ahmedabad), Sahiyar Women’s Organization-Baroda),
Alakh (Women's Organizatjon~Baroda), Punarutthan Tnist, Inquilabi Coimnunist Sangathan ,
Dankuni Mines Virodhi Sangharsha Samiti (Anti-Mines struggle), Hawkers Union, Shramik
Parishads, Anti-Resorts Committee, Students' Christian Movement (Kerala) , Rastriya Yuva
Sangathan, Smile (Delhi), Samnvay (Ahmedabad), etc. All these organization has organized
and participated in different supportive programmes in support of the Narmada Bachao
Andolan.

The NBA clearly illustrates the power of .creating associations with the international bodies
and people. The NBA has built supportive groups all over the world. . It has been receiving
support from the Grassroots movements in Europe and Latin America fighting against new
found imperialism, WTO and Globalization. Besides, NBA has gathered its momentum
through environmental groups such as International Rivers Network (IRN), Environmental
Defense Fund (EDF), The Friends of the Earth, Human and Indigenous Rights Organisations,
etc.

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NBA has created what Keck and Sikkink (1998) called .the globally linked collectives of social
movements. By sending faxes to international FNGOs such as EDF in Washington DC,
Survival. "International (SI) in LondonFriends of the Earth in Tokyo, the NBA was able to
gather support from these organizations, which in turn put pressure on politicians in the
respective countries to stop the Bank from further funding for the Narmada Project.

The movement is propelled by the leadership of group of, educated, middle-class people from
outside the Narmada Valley. The most prominent of the movement leaders are the Medha
Patkar, followed by others like Chittaroopa Palit in the line of hierarchy, and Arundhati Roy-
a novelist turned activist, who has a very important role, just second to Medha Patkar.

Due to its continuous, perseverant stuggle , the NBA won the ‘Right Livelihood Award’ that
is aimed at bringing justice to society and world . The movement also saw an active
participation from Baba Amte (1914-2008), known for his unparallel service to the leprosy
patients in the tribal areas. As rightly mentioned by the Right Livelihood Award panel, ‘The
issues of land for the displaced, the rehabilitation policy at a national level and development
planning without displacement have become national issues with NBA interventions,
influencing policy making and mass movements. NBA has been effective in its multiple
strategy at the executive, legislative and judicial level, campaigning against the destruction and
displacement caused by large dams and for the rights of the affected people – farmers, laborers,
fishermen and others’

5.8 CURRENT STATUS

Despite the protests, the project was revived in the year 2000 with 110 m. under the directions
of the Supreme Court. Later the height increased to 121.92 m. in 2006 to reach its highest mark
at 138.68 m. in 2019. This place is now one of the most popular tourist places with various
attractions, especially The Statue of Unity. The Narmada Bachao Andolan activist, including
Medha Patkar, continues to fight for proper rehabilitation of the villagers as well as the
reception of the promised compensation. Later the Supreme Court charged the Narmada
Bachao Andolan with perjury in 2011 for providing false information under oath.

5.9 LET US SUM UP

The movement against the Narmada Valley project, the largest ever planned river valley
project, is India's major environmental movement. It is meant to provide water for drinking

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purposes, irrigation and power generation to the beneficiary States of Madhya Pradesh., Gujarat
and Maharashtra. However, it has several serious repercussions for the environment as well as
the local inhabitants. The most immediate concern arises from the fact that the surrounding
area of NVDP will be submerged. As a result, the natural ecology will be destroyed and the
local inhabitants will be displaced. People will lose their land, home and livelihood,
compensation in terms of a piece of land elsewhere would not recreate their means of
livelihood. Submergence also leads to deforestation of the entire area. Large-scale protests
nationwide are visible which are carried on by the people from different walks of life.
Environmental activists-Baba Amte, Medha Patkar provide leadership and popularity to this
movement. Big dams have been the target of much agitation recently. Alternative sources of
water and energy need to be augmented locally. Cooperative management structure for water
harvesting and distribution are being explored.

Evidently, Narmada Valley movement has created a space for people's protest for social justice.
The protest against the dam continues unabated with people, groups and agencies from various
fields and different regions joining it. This movement has 13 received wide national and
international attention. Earlier the NBA focused only for the proper resettlement issues of the
displaced, but later on when they became aware about the ecological and human consequences,
the protesters focused on the dimensions of sustainable development and completely opposed
the Sardar Sarovar Project.

5.10 GLOSSARY

CYSV: Chattra Yuva Sangharsh Vahini

NAPM: National Alliance of People’s Movement

NBA: Narmada Bachao Andolan

NJVSY: Narmada Jan Vikas Sangharsh Yatra

NSD: Narmada Shakti Dal NVDA: Narmada Valley Development Authority

NVDP: Narmada Valley Development Projects

NWDT: Narmada Water Disputes Tribunal

SSD: Sardar Sarovar Dam SSP: Sardar Sarovar Project

SSR: Sardar Sarovar Reservoirs

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TISS: Tata Institute of Social Sciences

5.11 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. What were the main issues of Narmada Bachao Andolan?

2. Which type of movement is Narmada Bachao Andolan?
3. Why Narmada Bachao Andolan was was started?
4. Which is the most important cause of Narmada Bachao Andolan?
5. What arguments are given by the supporters of this project?

5.12 REFERENCES

 Baviskar, Arnita (1995). In the Belly of the river Tiibal Conflicts over development in
Narmada Valley, New Delhi: Oxford University Press.
 Bhardwaj, Ashutosh (nd.). Medha Patkar 011 Completion of Twenty Years of Narmada
Bachao Andolan," An Interview with Medha Patkar
 Desai, Anjana P. (1985). Spatial Aspects of Settlement Patterns: Study of the Narmada
Command Area of l\hhesana District, Gujarat, New Delhi, Concept Publishing Company.
 Dwivedi (1999). "Displacement Risks and Resistance: Local Perceptions and Actions in
the Sardar Sarovar", DePelopment a11d Change-30.
 Patkar, Medha (1995). "The Struggle for Participation and Justice: A Historical
Narrative", in W. F. Fisher (ed.) Towards sustainable development? Struggling over
India’s Narmada river , London, M. E. Sharpe.
 Tarrow, S. (1 99 8). Power in Movement: Social movement and Contentious politics.
Cambridge, Cambridge University Press

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UNIT-6: GANGA BACHAO ABHIYAN

Structure

6.1 Learning objectives

6.2 Introduction
6.3Causes behind the movement
6.4 Pollution
6.5 The Origin of the Movement
6.6 Activists involved
6.7 Demands
6.8 Awareness
6.9 Let us sum up
6.10 Glossary
6.11 Check your progress
6.12 References

6.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After studying this unit, you will be able to-

 Origin of movement
 Journey of the movement
 Activists involved in the movement.

6.2 INTRODUCTION

The environmental movement is a broad generic term which is generally used to describe and
understand different types of local struggles and conflicts concerned with livelihood issues and
ecological security within the larger context of the development debate. These struggles in fact
critiqued and questioned the notion of development and conservation ecology pursued by the
Indian state and its officials since colonial time. The genesis of the environmental movement
in India can be traced to the Chipko movement (1973) in Garhwal region in the new state of
Uttaranchal. In fact, between 1970s and 1980s there were several struggles in India around
issues of rights to forest and water.

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Environmental movements in India have been more or less conducted at the grassroots levels
and more so not by the educated elite but by simple village folk and tribal depending on the
region. These have been initially characterized by protests against the big companies
indiscriminately using the forest resources for commercial purposes. Later the movements
focused on water issues, flora and fauna, biodiversity, and massive deforestation till the recent
river pollution, the prime examples being the Ganga and Yamuna clean-up action plans. In the
recent past environmental pollution caused due the industrialization has become the focus of
collective action by the civil society organizations, NGOs, concerned individuals, especially
lawyers, scientists, environmentalists and social activists. All the major cities of India are
facing acute air, water and other kinds on environmental pollution. Continuous immigration of
the people from rural areas into the cities, their habitat in the congested areas which exist along
with the polluting small scale industries; increasing number of vehicles; and unplanned
expansion of cities, open drainage, etc. have created levels environmental hazards. In this Unit
we will study about one such movement Save Ganga movement.

Save Ganga Movement is a widespread Gandhian non-violent movement supported by saints

and popular social activists across the Indian States Uttar Pradesh and Bihar in support of a
free Ganga.

Save Ganga Movement : It is a widespread Gandhian non-violent movement supported by

saints and popular social activists across the Indian States Uttar Pradesh and Bihar in support
of a free Ganga. The movement is supported by Ganga Seva Abhiyanam, Pune-based National
Women's Organisation (NWO) besides those of many other like-minded organisations and with
the moral support from many religious leaders, spiritual and political, scientists,
environmentalists, writers and social activists.[1][2][3] Ganga Calling – Save Ganga is another
such campaign supported by Indian Council for Enviro-Legal Action

The movement did not build up suddenly. Concerns about the condition of the Ganges were
raised for decades which gained impetus in the past few years owing to awareness and support
from keen environmentalists. Furthermore, different studies revealed the deteriorating health
of the river. In 1998, Smt Rama Rauta, the founder of National Women's Organization (NWO)
under the leadership of Dr. Sushila Nair conceived the necessity to initiate public mobilization
based on the principles of non-violence to seek support for Save Ganga Movement – against
the pollution of the Ganges and its tributaries. A seminar on Ganga aur hamaaraa
daayitvaon (Ganga and our duty) was conducted on 13 November 1998 at Kanpur. Soon

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popular Gandhians, Shri Sunderlal Bahuguna and Dr. Kanchanlata Sabarwal, also joined the
Movement.

Smt. Rama Rauta founded the Save Ganga Movement in 1998 with a seminar on ‘Ganga aur
Humara Daayitva’ at Kanpur understanding the need of a nationwide collective movement to
the cause and also a need of a holistic solution to the various issues faced by the river. National
Women's Organization, Pune was formed in 1998 mainly for this noble cause.She
conceptualized the movement with Gandhian ideology and soon this movement was supported
or joined by various eminent Gandhians, religious leaders from various faiths, legal experts,
eminent scientists, and various scientific organizations such as IIT, CSIR labs such as NEERI,
NBRI, ITRC and many like-minded NGOs. A holistic roadmap detailing short-term and long-
term solution to the impending ecological crisis drafted by the continuous churning of the
intellectuals associated with this movement has been a reference guide to the Governments
working towards making the Ganga “Aviral ” and “Nirmal”.

“ The objective of the Movement is, on the one hand, to create mass awareness for uneco-
friendly non-violent culture of development for the protection of our life-sustaining natural
systems in general and of the sacred Ganga and the Himalayas in particular; on the other hand,
to put moral pressure on the government, to take time-bound decisive steps to completely and
permanently save the Ganga symbolizing all rivers and water bodies, and the Giriraj
Himalayas, symbolizing all mountains forests and wildlife.”

— Smt. Rana Rauta, an eminent member of NRGBA and convener of Save Ganga Movement

6.3 CAUSES BEHIND THE MOVEMENT

River Ganga has been the most affected river due to pollution caused by various sources .
Ganges is the largest and the most sacred river of India with enormous spiritual, cultural, and
physical influence. It provides water to about 40% of India's population in 11 states. It is
estimated that the livelihoods of over 500 million people in India are dependent upon the river,
and that one-third of India's population lives within the Ganges Basin. Despite this magnitude
of influence and control by the river over present and future of the country, it is allegedly under
direct threat from various manmade and natural environmental issues.

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6.4 POLLUTION

River Ganges flows through the most densely populated regions of India passing 29 cities with
population over 100,000, 23 cities with population between 50,000 and 100,000, and about 48
towns. A sizeable proportion of the effluents in Ganges are caused by this population through
domestic usage like bathing, laundry and public defecation. Countless tanneries, chemical
plants, textile mills, distilleries, slaughterhouses, and hospitals contribute to the pollution of
the Ganges by dumping untreated toxic and non-biodegradable waste into it. It is this sheer
volume of pollutants released into the river every day that are causing irreparable damage to
the ecosystem and contributing to significant sanitation issues.

The Ganga Action Plan or GAP was a program launched by Rajiv Gandhi in April 1986 to
reduce the pollution load on the river. But the efforts to decrease the pollution level in the river
became abortive even after spending ₹ 9017.1 million Therefore, this plan was withdrawn on
31 March 2000. This plan is described as failure by many scientist and NGOs in their studies

6.5 THE ORIGIN OF THE MOVEMENT

National Women’s Organization (NWO) was formed in Pune in July 1998 by Smt Rama Rauta,
dedicated to the protection and promotion of Nature and Women’s cause in general and to the
creation of a Gandhian non-violent Movement to Save the Ganga and the Giriraj Himalayas in
particular. In its Ahimsa Rally from Aga Khan Palace to Yervada Jail, Pune on 1st Oct 1998
under the inspiring leadership of Dr. Sushila Nair, it was decided to initiate a Save Ganga
Movement to mobilize public opinion in favour of a culture of development based on the
principles of non-violence replacing the present eco-hostile culture of development.

With the objective to create scientific awareness among the masses against environmental
degradation in general and the pollution of the Ganga and its tributaries in particular, with the
help of many like-minded organizations and with the moral support from many religious
leaders, spiritual and political, scientists, environmentalists, writers and social activists, we
initiated Save Ganga Movement with a seminar on “Ganga aur hamaaraa daayitva” on 13th
Nov. 1998 at Kanpur. Renowned Gandhians Sri Sundrlal Bahuguna, Dr. Kanchanlata
Sabarwal, the minister of urban development-U.P. govt., the mayors of Lucknow and Kanpur
and scientists, environmentalists, industrialists, social activists and many distinguished persons
from Lucknow and Kanpur participated in it, and solemnly resolved to make this movement a
national non-violent movement against the pollution of the Ganga and other rivers of our

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country. No lasting solution to the impending devastating ecological crisis is possible without
creating mass awareness. We intend to convert this Movement into a mass awakening
campaign across the country for the protection of the life-sustaining environment in general
and of the sacred Ganga, its tributaries and their source the Himalayas and its flora and fauna
in particular.

6.6 ACTIVISTS INVOLVED

Acharya Jitendra

Swami Jitendranand Saraswati is National General Secretary of Ganga Mahasabha. He is

working for Ganga since 2000. He is a well known Social Activist(Environmentalist) in India.
It was his effort to convince Mr. Lal Krishna Advani[21] in 2008 to compel the Chief
Minister B.C. Khanduri to abandon all state hydro-dam projects on the Ganga and persuade
Professor Guru Das Agrawal G. D. Agrawal to give up his fast within 24 hours. In 2010
Again Acharya Jitendra played a crucial role to stop the Loharinag Pala Hydel Project – On
The Ganga. As K.N. Govinda said he worked behind the scenes for three years, interfacing
with people and like Baba Ramdev and Acharya Jitendra, environmentalists and politicians of
all hues.

Swami Nigamananda

In early 2011, a Hindu seer named Swami Nigamananda Saraswati fasted unto death, protesting
against illegal mining happening in the district of Haridwar (in Uttarakhand) resulting in
pollution.[23] Following his death in June 2011, his Ashram leader Swami Shivananda fasted
for 11 days starting on 25 November 2011, taking his movement forward. Finally, the
Uttarakhand government released an order to ban illegal mining all over Haridwar district

Prof. G. D. Agrawal

Noted environmental activist, Prof. G. D. Agrawal Patron of Ganga Mahasabha sat ng

construction in this sensitive and sacred region of India. Due to support from other social
activists like Anna Hazare, the Prime Minister of India, Manmohan Singh admitted publicly to
cease any further hydroelectric damming of the Ganga in Uttarakhand. He also called for a
National River Ganga Basin Authority (NRGBA) meeting and urged the authorities to utilize
the ₹ 26 billion (about 520M US$) sanctioned "for creating sewer networks, sewage treatment
plants, sewage pumping stations, electric crematoria, community toilets and development of
river fronts".

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Narendra Modi

Chief Minister of Gujarat, now Prime Minister of India Narendra Modi has been very bent on
the issue of the holy river,[citation needed] and has promised the Parliament of India to clean
the river as the density of coli-form bacteria have risen from 5,000 per 100ml to 58,000 per
100ml, nearly 121 times over the acceptable limit. So far, ₹ 20,000 crore has gone into the
cleaning of the Ganga.[citation needed] Narendra Modi has also offered the gifts he received
during his tenure as PM of the nation for bidding. The amount received from the bidding will
be utilized for the cause

Rama Rauta

Rama Rauta founded the Save Ganga Movement in 1998 with a seminar on 'Ganga Aur Humara
Daayitva' at Kanpur understanding the need of a nationwide collective movement to the cause
and also a need of a holistic solution to the various issues faced by the river. She conceptualised
the movement with Gandhian ideology and soon this movement was supported or joined by
various eminent Gandhians, religious leaders from various faiths, legal experts, eminent
political leaders and various scientific organisations such as IIT, CSIR labs such as NEERI,
NBRI, ITRC and many like-minded NGOs. A holistic roadmap detailing short-term and long-
term solution to the impending ecological crisis drafted by the continuous churning of the
intellectuals associated with this movement has been a reference guide to the Governments
working towards making the Ganga "Aviral " and "Nirmal

6.7 DEMANDS

The movement is solely aimed at one goal – to prevent the anti-nature, anti-human, anti-
environment activities against Ganges and sustain the cultural importance, holiness and age old
heritage of the same. Though most of the demands are directly related to the pollution and
construction works over Ganges, there are ought to be several demands related indirectly to
these.

No construction

It is demanded that the Upper course of Ganges should be strictly disallowed any kind of
damming and construction work.[25] It should be declared a Wild River zone and visits by
tourists and people to Gangotri National Park should also be regulated and toned down. Eco-
friendly tourism should replace the present eco-hostile tourism. Time-bound steps for non-
commercial afforestation of the Uttarakhand should be undertaken and these activities should

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be carried by the local people, using samplings of local plants. This demand was backed by a
recent report prepared by the state-funded Wildlife Institute of India that recommended
scrapping 34 of the Ganges dam projects, citing environmental concerns.

Pollution regulation

Ganga suffer from a large scale pollution due to common practices like bathing, washing,
putting flowers and idols into the river creating filthy and unhygienic conditions. Dismal civic
conditions, bad smell and unavailability of basic amenities like toilets and changing rooms
could be seen. Most of the ghats could be seen with a series of iron grills erected on stony
platform, laden with heaps of garbage and rotten stuff. Animal loitering on ghats, troubling the
residents and devotees is the other problem.

It is necessary to frame some rules and guidelines for the Civic authorities and municipalities
to carry out a scheduled and continued cleaning effort from the concerned officials.

Industrialization control

Since, Industries dump a large quantity of inorganic and non-bio degradable wastes into the
Ganga and other rivers, It is demanded that further establishments of any kind of new Industry
with poor management shouldn't be undertaken. Also, those who are flouting the pollution
regulation norms should be checked at once. Aforestation and efforts to save wild life in
the Himalayas should be regulated by a high powered committee.[citation needed]

6.8 AWARENESS

Mass awareness against environmental degradation, especially against pollution of

air, water and land and deforestation and destruction of wildlife should be undertaken.[citation
needed]

T.V. and Radio are to be persuaded to give a substantial amount of prime time to create such
awareness, informing regularly about the water pollution levels of major rivers and of air
pollution levels in big cities and their adverse effect on the common people.

National laboratories such as NEERI, Thermal Research Centre (CPRI), etc., must regularly
monitor the pollution levels of major rivers and inform the public about the hazardous effects
through various forms of mass media.

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A comprehensive website on the Ganges and other rivers of our country should be created for
networking of various organisations and people involved in the Ganga Action Plan and for
creating necessary mass-awareness for saving the Ganges and other rivers of our country.

Environmental ethics should be taught as a part of the syllabus on ethics, both at the school as
well as at the college level. Teaching environmental ethics without discussing the value and
means of an ethical life would be of little significance. We must study critically the views of
great religions and of great teachers and thinkers of mankind about various fundamental issues
of ethics.

6.8.1 Monitoring committee

It is demanded that a committee of experts to monitor the progress of the governmental course
of actions in this direction should be appointed. It should report all of its findings and actions
to the Supreme Court of India which direct the Central and State Governments.

6.8.2 Panel to review projects on Ganges

Amid the building pressure from the Hindu leaders in the June mega rally, the government
proposed to set up an expert-panel which would review the situation and examine the
ecological impact of hydel projects taken on the Himalayan rivers. The committee includes
representatives from the ministries of environment, power, and water resources and other
authorities and research institutions. From outside the government, the PMO has chosen
director general of Centre for Science and Environment Sunita Narain, former professor of IIT-
BHU and mahant of Sankat Mochan temple at Varanasi Virbhadra Mishra and head of Tarun
Bharat Sangh-Rajendra Singh. The committee will also inspect previous reports by IIT
Roorkee and Wildlife Institute of India.

6.8.3 NGRBA

To fulfill the demands of activists to have an independent monitoring committee for Ganges,
the government has proposed to upgrade the existing National Ganga River Basin
Authority (NRGBA) to the level of an independent commission along the lines of the National
Human Rights Commission through a new law.

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6.9LET US SUM UP

The mainstream development models implemented particularly in the Third World have had
devastating effects on the ecology and environment of these countries to the extent of
endangering the very existence of life forms on the planet earth. The basic problem with the
development models prescribed and implemented is the unscrupulous exploitation of nature
for short term economic gains of a few powerful individuals. The totalising imperatives of this
new wave of development destroyed the forests and ultimately destabilised the ‘blue planet’.
In the post-war period there was a strong faith in the development models proposed by the
west. Most of the developing countries followed these dominant models without raising any
question. In India, the large dams were viewed as the “icons of development”. Most often, the
beneficiaries of these development models in India were the big farmers and the industrialists.
Under these circumstances the traditional communities were totally marginalised and they were
‘silenced’ in the name of “nation building” and “development”.

6.10 GLOSSARY

CPCB: Central Pollution Control Board CSIR: Council of Scientific and Industrial Research

EPA: Environment Protection Act

GAP: Ganga Action Plan

GBS: Ganga BachaoSamiti

GCP: Ganga Conservation Project

GMA: Ganga Mukti Andolan

NAPM: National Alliance of People's Movements

NBJBA: Nodi Bachao Jibon Bachao Andolan

NGKCBMP: National Godavari, Krishna and Cauvery Basin Management Plan

NGRBMP: National Ganga River Basin Management Plan

NHEPRP: National Himalayan Ecology Preservation and Restoration Plan

NRCD: National River Conservation Directorate

SSRD: Sanatan Sanskriti Raksha Dal STPs: Sewage Treatment Plants

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6.11 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. What is Ganga Bachao Abhiyan?

2. Name one activist and mention his/her role in Ganga Bachao Movement?

6.12 REFERENCES

 Bilgrami, K.S. (1991) Living Ganga, Narendra Publishing House, Delhi, India.
 Pratap Rana, (2006) Problem of the Ganga Water Pollution in Bihar: A Geographical
Discussion in R.
 Rauta Rama. (2017) Save Ganga Movement: A Gandhian Non-Violent Movement For
A Non-Violent Culture Of Development. In Nath K., Sharma V. (eds), Water and
Sanitation in the New Millennium. Springer, New Delhi.
 Shukla, A.C. and Vandana Asthana (1995) Ganga: A Water Marvel, Ashish Publishing
House, New Delhi.
 Web Sources- www. savegangamovement.org.

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UNIT-7: SILENT VALLEY MOVEMENTS

Structure

7.1 Learning Objectives

7.2 Introduction
7.3 The Silent Valley
7.4 Ecological Significance of Silent Valley
7.5 The Silent Valley Hydro-Electric Project
7.6 Save Silent Valley Movement
7.7 Short Description About Silent Valley Movement
7.8 Significance of Salient Valley
7.9 Status Of Silent Valley
7.10 Let Us Sum Up
7.11 Check Your Progress
7.12 References

7.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVE

After studying this Unit, you will be able to:

• The environmental effects of large hydroelectric projects like Silent Valley
• The history of important events that have occurred since the Silent Valley Movement's
foundation.
• The importance of forest protection through citizen initiative.
• The success of non-violent interest expression in civil society.
• The role of activist organizations active in the silent valley movement.

7.2 INTRODUCTION

You will learn about the silent valley movement in Kerala, India's southernmost state, one of
the country's most serious environmental movements. The campaign to stop the Silent Valley
Hydroelectric Project (SVHP) from being built in the serene Silent Valley in Kerala's Palakkad
district was launched in 1973. The "Save Silent Valley" movement aimed to safeguard the
entire reserve forest of the silent valley, which is evergreen and dense. The movement was
mostly carried out by local people and activists, particularly environmental activists. The
movement concentrated on educating people about the value of tropical rainforests and the

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ecological damage caused by the SVHP. To prevent the planned dams' and the hydroelectric
project's damaging effects on the protected forest in Silent Valley, a social movement was
started.

In this context, we're talking about the success of a movement for environmental protection
against a major hydroelectric project in Kerala's Silent Valley, in the Palghat district, in the late
1980s. The Kerala Sastra Sahitya Parishad (KSSP) eventually won up the movement, which
was locally started with significant backing from the civil society, and the government was
finally forced to abandon the project. The movement was entirely nonviolent and took place in
a non-political setting, according to a Post-Gandhian worldview. As was previously mentioned,
the environment, the primary support for human settlement, was ignored by contemporary
development schemes.

In this context, local efforts are making numerous attempts to go beyond the conventional
models of development. Examples include fighting against the destruction of the forest reserve
in the name of "development" and developing a model of development that is more
environmentally friendly. The Silent Valley movement is praised for its non-political style and
for making a major contribution to raising public awareness of the value of preserving
evergreen forests.

7.3 THE SILENT VALLEY

Kerala, India is home to Silent Valley National Park. It is bordered by a 148 km2 buffer zone
and has a core area of 89.52 km2 (34.56 sq mi) in the Nilgiri highlands (57 sq mi). There are
some endangered plant and animal species in this national park. Botanist Robert Wight visited
this region in 1847. It is situated on the border between the Nilambur Taluk in Kerala's
Malappuram District, the Mannarkkad Taluk in Palakkad District, and the Nilgiris District in
Tamil Nadu.

Fig. Silent Valley , kerala

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Source; Silent Valley Kerala - Bing images

It is situated in the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve, which has a diverse biodiversity. Around Silent
Valley National Park are the Karimpuzha Wildlife Sanctuary, New Amarambalam Reserved
Forest, Nedumkayam Rainforest, Attappadi Reserved Forest, Mannarkkad Taluk, Palakkad
District, and Mukurthi National Park, Nilgiris District. It is close to Anginda peak and Mukurthi
peak, the fifth-highest peak in South India. Both the Kunthipuzha River and Bhavani River,
tributaries of the Bharathappuzha River, have their origins close to Silent Valley. In Silent
Valley, the Kadalundi River also has its beginning.

Silent Valley receives a lot of rain during the monsoons, however, the actual amount varies
within the area due to the varying topography. The Neelikal region in the west experiences
mean annual rainfall of nearly 5000 mm, whereas the eastern part of the park experiences
means annual rainfall of only 3200 mm. The park has its own microclimate and likely receives
some convectional rainfall in addition to rain from two monsoons because it is totally
surrounded by a ring of hills. Due to the rain shadow effect, rainfall generally increases at
higher altitudes and decreases from west to east. Between June and September, the southwest
monsoon season is when 80% of the rainfall takes place. During the north-east monsoon, it also
gets a lot of rain.

 The British named the area ‘Silent Valley’ because of a the valley was absence of noisy
Cicadas.

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 The Kuntipuzha is a major river that flows 15 km southwest from Silent Valley.

 It takes its origin in the lush green forests of Silent Valley.

 In 1928, the location on the Kunthipuzha River at Sairandhri was identified as an ideal
site for electricity generation.

 Initially, the decision was made by the British government to build a dam across the
river, which originates from the forest.

 In 1958, a study and survey of the area were conducted, and a hydroelectric project was
proposed by the Kerala State Electricity Board (KSEB).

 The plans for a hydroelectric project that threatened the park’s high diversity of wildlife
stimulated an Environmentalist Social Movement in the 1970s called ‘Save Silent
Valley’ which resulted in the cancellation of the project.

7.4 ECOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF SILENT VALLEY

A tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests Ecoregion is present in the park's valley
regions. The region of the South Western Ghats upland rain forests contains hilly terrain above
1,000 metres. Evergreen forests begin to disappear above 1,500 m in support of sholas, which
are stunted forests mixed with open grassland and are of interest to ecologists since the area's
rich biodiversity has never been harmed by people. This area is home to several endangered
species. Here, new plant and animal species are frequently found.

7.4.1 Biodiversity in Silent Valley

Flora

The valley's flora consists of over 1000 species of flowering plants, 108 species of wildflowers,
100 species of ferns and fern allies, 200 species of unicellular organisms, 75 species of lichens,
and about 200 species of algae. These plants are primarily restricted to the Western Ghats.
Rare, endemic, and critically endangered orchids are also members of the family Orchidaceae,
which is represented by more than 100 species in the Valley. They appear in a variety of colours
and shapes from the thick vegetation, tree trunks, and cracks in the rocks.

Every plant in the forest, from the smallest one celled algae to the biggest tree in the forest, has
the unexplored potential to contribute to positive improvements in biotechnology in addition
to supporting recharge of the aquifer, water retention of the watershed, and preventing soil
erosion.

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Fauna

16 bird species in Silent Valley are classified as threatened or restricted by Birdlife

International. There are 15 endemic species in the region, including the black-and-orange
flycatcher. Ten endangered species were discovered during the 2006 winter bird census,
including the pale harrier, the red-winged crested cuckoo, and the Malabar pied hornbill. The
Ceylon frogmouth and big Indian hornbill are two uncommon bird species that can be found
here. Black bulbuls were the most numerous bird species.

Fig. black-and-orange flycatcher Fig. Ceylon frogmouth

Source; black-and-orange flycatcher. - Bing images Source; The Ceylon frogmouth -

Bing images

The largest of all wild cattle, the gaur, is one of the mammals in the valley. Silent Valley is
home to at least 34 different species of mammals, including the endangered Lion-tailed
Macaque, Niligiri Langur, Malabar Giant Squirrel, Nilgiri Tahr, Peshwa's Bat (Myotispeshwa),
and Hairy winged Bat. There are nine different types of mice, rats, and bats. There were 14
lion-tailed macaque soldiers, 85 Nilgiri langur troops, 15 bonnet macaque troops, and 7
Hanuman langur troops that were seen. The Nilgiri Langur was randomly distributed, whilst
the lion-tailed macaque armies were restricted to the southern region of the Park. Hanuman
Langurs and bonnet macaques made occasional appearances. There are also tigers, leopards
(panthers), jungle cats, fisher cats, common palm civets, small Indian civets, brown palm
civets, sloth bears, little Travancore flying squirrels, Indian pangolins (scaly anteaters),
porcupines, wild boars, sambars, spotted deer, barking deer, mouse deer, and gaur that call this
area home.

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Fig. Malabar Giant Squirrel and lion-tailed macaque

Source; https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_ , https://byjus.com/free-ias-prep/lion- tailed-

macaque/

The ecosystem is home to at least 730 identified species of insects. There are 33 species of
crickets and grasshoppers identified, one of which is new. Two new species of Homoptera and
39 different genuine bug species—six of which are new—have both been identified. There are
128 different species of beetles, including 10 new ones.

400 kinds of moths and more than 128 species of butterflies are found here. In a 1993 study,
butterflies were determined to belong to 9 different families. The largest number of species
were found in the families Nymphalide and Papilionidae. South India is home to 13 different
species, five of which are protected. A mixed swarm of thousands of butterflies carrying 7
species of butterflies was seen moving toward Silent Valley National Park. An observer once
saw numerous birds trying to catch these butterflies in one instance. The bird species included
the Pied Bushchat Saxicolacaprata, the Nilgiri Pipit Anthusnilghiriensis, the Greenish Leaf-
Warbler Phylloscopustrochiloides, the Oriental White-eye Zosteropspalpebrosa, and the
Tickell's Warbler Phylloscopusaffinis.

Silent Valley has been recognised by the Indian Council of Agricultural Research's (ICAR)
Plant Exploration and Collection Division's National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources
(NBPGR) as having a high level of biodiversity and serving as a significant gene pool resource
for recombinant DNA technologies. Gene selection from the wild rice variants Oryzanivara
(Central India) and Oryza Pittambi discovered in Silent Valley for the qualities of broad
spectrum disease resistance in high yielding hybrid rice varieties, particularly IR-36, which are

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responsible for most of the green revolution throughout Asia, is an important example of the
use of wild germplasm.

7.4.2 Tribal Communities in the Valley

There is no record of the valley ever being populated, but the Mudugar and Irula tribal people
are indigenous to the area and live in the adjacent valley of Attappady Reserved Forest. Aside
from that, the Kurumbar people reside in the highest mountain outside the park, which borders
the Nilgiris.

Numerous Mudugar, Irula, and Kurumbar people currently work as day labourers and porters.
In the park, several people work as forest guards and tour guides for the Forest Department. In
the Attappady area, marijuana is grown in 16 of the 21 tribal settlements. The so-called ganja
mafia is able to easily recruit Mudugar due to their widespread extreme poverty. There were
going to be 50 more men hired as forest guards in 2006 from the 21 tribal villages.

Fig. Irula and Mudugar women ( Tribal communities found in the Valley )

Source; Mudugar - Bing images, Mudugar and Irula tribal people - Bing images

7.5 THE SILENT VALLEY HYDRO-ELECTRIC PROJECT

To preserve Silent Valley, an evergreen tropical forest in Kerala, India's Palakkad district,
activists launched the Silent Valley Movement. It was started in 1973 to stop a hydroelectric
project from flooding the Silent Valley Reserve Forest.

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The Silent Valley initially gained international notice due to the ongoing resistance of the
locals to a proposed hydropower project by the Kerala State Electricity Board [KSEB] in the
valley, not because of its rich natural diversity. The Kunthipuzha River location near
Sairandhri was selected as the perfect place for electricity generation in 1928. In 1958, a
study and assessment of the area were carried out, and the Kerala State Electricity Board
suggested a 120 MV hydroelectric project costing Rs. 17 Crore. Plans for a hydropower
project that would have endangered the park's rich diversity of animals sparked the "Save
Silent Valley" environmentalist social movement in the 1970s, which led to the project's
abandonment and the establishment of a natural park in 1970.

The Kerala Electricity Board has already begun building there. The project had been the subject
of a strong public discussionin the field of science. This discussion includes participation from
political parties, local residents, activists, and members of civil society in general. The Kerala
Government's Science and Technology Department and the Planning Board, however, both
granted the KSEB approval for the project's construction. However, the truth is that none of
the relevant authorities granted it permission. The Science and Technology Department of the
Government of Kerala and the state's scientific community objected, but the Morarji Desai
government at the federal level told the state government that KSEB should be approved
regardless of their concerns. The project turned into a matter of respect for the KSEB, the state
of Kerala, and the nation's prime minister. On the other hand, the scientific community grew
increasingly aware of the necessity to step up the resistance movement in order to preserve the
Silent Valley's great biodiversity. Finally, Kerala's scientific community realised that they
could not successfully promote the cause on their own and believed that joint efforts between
the scientific community and the local population were required to ensure the conservation of
the rainforests.

It was evident that the government officials who recommended building the dam had not
considered the type of harm that would caused over the entire region. It is important to mention
in this context that the destructive earthquake that struck Koyna in 1968 was linked to the
weight of the water in the Koyna reservoir. The Nile Delta had suffered greatly as a result of
the Aswan High Dam project.

It is also important to highlight that throughout the 1980s, when state-led development projects
dominated the landscape, environmental movements like the Silent Valley Movement attracted
widespread attention. The dams were thought as as "icons" of development.

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Fig. The Hydro-electric Project of Silent Valley

Source; Silent Valley Palakkad - Bing images

7.6 SAVE SILENT VALLEY MOVEMENT

Without a question, the campaign emphasised how crucial it is to preserve the environment for
future generations. The non-violent fight to prevent the complete destruction of the evergreen
forests took on a symbolic meaning in the form of preserving the lion-tailed Macaque. Several
environmental organisations, including the Silent Valley Action Forum, Bombay Natural
History Society, and Narmada Bachao Andolan (NBA), took part in the campaign. Sunita
Narain, Vandana Shiva, Medha Patkar, Sundarlal Bahuguna, Baba Amte were among the well-
known leaders. The media campaigns, both print and electronic, helped influence public
opinion in favour of preserving the ecosystem of the Silent Valley.

The movement was initially started by locals and afterward taken over by the Kerala Sastra
Sahitya Parishad, as it is mentioned here (KSSP). Numerous scientific investigations carried
out by KSSP indisputably emphasized the need to preserve the ecosystem in its pristine state
for the benefit of humanity. The valley has to be protected because of its diverse biodiversity,
according to the KSSP's biologist leaders. To educate the public, they had planned numerous
public forums. Most contemporary technical phrases, such "genetic diversity," consequently
become common in Kerala.

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Fig. The poet of Silent Valley, Sugatha kumari and others during silent valley movement

Source; https://www.magzter.com/news/572/1580/122020/po2kg

The public was made aware of the situation in 1976 when the Kerala State Electricity Board
revealed an intention to start building a dam. Public discussion about the proposal had been
severe. This discussion involved the scientific community, political parties, local residents,
activists, and civil society in general. The movement drew together thinkers, researchers,
creative artists, poets, writers of novels, and lawyers.

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Fig. Support of Mass Media during movement

Source; impact of silent valley movement - Bing images

Following were demonstrations, street-corner lectures, exhibitions, writers' gatherings, slide

exhibitions, and similar events. Some KSEB authorities opposed it strongly, and the
organisation spent a lot of money on counter-propaganda. Campaigners for the silent valley
were characterised as anti-development politicians acting in their own subconscious. The fight
for a new paradigm—development without destroying the environment—was quickly
symbolised by the silent vally movement, the nation's most heated environmental issue.

 The initiative was initially started by locals and later taken over by the Kerala Sastra
Sahitya Parishad (KSSP).
 By publishing a study on the Silent Valley hydroelectric project's techno-economic and
socio-political assessment, the KSSP successfully raised public interest.
 Public opinion was turned against the idea by the KSSP.
 As a result, the Keralan government passed the Protection of Ecological Balance Act
of 1979, which established the Silent Valley Protection Area, and announced the
hydroelectric project area's withdrawal from the proposed national park.

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7.7 SHORT DESCRIPTION ABOUT SILENT VALLEY MOVEMENT

Name of the movement: Save Silent Valley Movement

Started-1970

Ended - 1985

Country- India

State – Kerala

Location- Padavayal

Source of Movement:

 Biodiversity Conservation
 Deforestation
 Establishment of Reserve / National Park
 Dam water distribution conflict

Relevent Government Sector

 Government of Kerala
 Government of India

Activists (Organization and other Supporters)

 Silent Valley Samrakshana Samiti

 Kerala Sastra Sahitya Parishad
 Kerala Nature History Society
 Citizen

Conflicts and Movements

 Participatory community-based research (popular epidemiology studies, etc..)

 the development of alternate reports or knowledge
 creation of a network or collective action
 participation of local, national, and international NGOs
 Legal activism, court cases, and lawsuits
 Activists that use unconventional or medium

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 Challenges facing the EIA

 official letters of complaint and petitions
 political campaigns
 other local consultations outside the vote
 marches and street protests
 Arguments in favour of nature's rights
 Utilizing economic measures to value the environmental arguments

Outcome of the project: Stopped

In January 1981, Indira Gandhi, who was India's prime minister at the time, made the
announcement that Silent Valley would be protected in response to public demand. The
hydroelectric project was stopped in November 1983. Rajiv Gandhi, India's former prime
leader, formally opened the Silent Valley National Park in 1985. The location is currently
regarded as a "hot spot". For India's environmental movement overall, the "Save Silent Valley"
campaign was a huge success. In addition, it serves as motivation for agitations of a similar
nature. That campaign is a major driving force behind the "Narmada Bachao Andolan" and
"Tehri Dam" protests.

7.8 SIGNIFICANCE OF SALIENT VALLEY

 A variety of endangered birds and animals can be found in the valley.

 16 bird species were recognised by Birdlife International as being threatened or
restricted in Silent Valley.
 The largest of all wild cattle, the gaur, is one of the valley's mammals. Silent Valley is
home to at least 34 different animal species, including some that are endangered.
 The Indian Council of Agricultural Research, or ICAR, has designated Silent Valley as
a region with high biodiversity and a significant Gene Pool resource for recombinant
DNA inventions (India).

7.9 STATUS OF SILENT VALLEY

 The forest in the vicinity of Silent Valley was designated a Reserve Forest in 1914.
 However, forestry operations were carried out in some areas of the Silent Valley forest
from 1927 to 1976.

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 The Silent Valley forests were designated as a National Park on November 15, 1983,
when the Central Administration gave the State government the order to terminate the
Project.
 The Silent Valley National Park was initially established on September 7, 1985.
 The Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve's core area was established as Silent Valley National
Park on September 1, 1986.

7.10 LET US SUM UP

In India's history of environmental movements, the silent valley protest in Kerala is a

revolutionary act of noncompliance. It served as a model for several of the most well-known
environmental initiatives, including the Narmada Bachao Andolan opposing the Sardar
Sarovar. Movement against the Tehri Dam Project in the state of Uttarakhand as well as
projects in the three states of Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, and Maharashtra. The fact that the post-
industrial developmental models completely discounted the significance of environmental
protection for humanity's basic subsistence on the planet Earth is extremely crucial.

7.11 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. Where the Silent Valley Moment Started?

2. Discuss briefly the impact of silent valley movement.
3. What is the Outcome of Save Silent Valley Movement?
4. Describe briefly about Silent Valley.

7.12 REFERENCES

 Agarwal, Bina (2007). ‘The Gender and Environment Debate: Lessons from India.’ In
Mahesh Rangarajan (Eds.). Environmental Issues in India: A Reader. Pearson India, New
Delhi
 Braidotti, R., E. Charkiewicz, S. Hausler, S. Wieringa (1994). (Eds.). Women, the
Environment and Sustainable Development: Towards a Theoretical Analysis. London:
Zed Books with INSTRAW.
 Birkeland J., (1993) Ecofeminism: Linking Theory and Practice, in G. Gaard (ed.),
Ecofeminism: Women, Animals and Nature, Temple University Press, Philadelphia.
 Guha, Ramachandra, (2006) How Much Should A Person Consume? Thinking through
the Environment, Permanent Black, New Delhi.

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 King Y., (1983).The Ecology of Feminism and the Feminism of Ecology, in J. Plant,
Healing the Wounds: The Promise of Ecofeminism, New Society Publishers,
Philadelphia, California, pp. 18-28.
 Ling, CHEN. (2014). The Background and Theoretical Origin of Ecofeminism, Cross-
Cultural Communication, Vol. 10, No. 4, pp. 104-108 Ortner, Sherry, B. (1972). ‘Is
female to male as nature is to culture?’ Feminist Studies, 1(2), 5-31.
 Maria Mies and Vandana Shiva, 1993. Ecofeminism, Fernwood Publication, Halifax,
Nova Scotia, Canada.
 Mies M. - Shiva V. (1993). Ecofeminism, Kali for Women, New Delhi Rao, Manisha,
Ecofeminism at the Crossroads in India: A Review
 Spretnak C., (1990) Ecofeminism: Our roots & Flowering, in I. Diamond - G.Orenstein
(ed.), Reweaving the World: The Emergence of Ecofeminism,Random House,
California.
 Salleh, Ariel (1993). ‘Class, Race and Gender Discourse in the Ecofeminism/Deep
Ecology Debate’. Environmental Ethics, 15, 225-44.
 Shiva, Vandana (1988). Staying Alive: Women, Ecology and Survival in
 India. New Delh

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UNIT-8: ECO-FEMINIST MOVEMENT

Structure

8.1 Learning Objectives

8.2 Introduction
8.3 Women and Environment
8.4 Eco Feminism
8.5 Women and Environmental Movements in India
8.6 Eco-Feminism in India
8.7 Chipko Movement as a Women’s Movement
8.8 Let Us Sum Up
8.9 Glossary
8.10 Check Your Progress
8.11 References

8.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After studying this Unit, you will be able to:

 Critically analyse the notion of ecofeminism as theory and as a practical solution while
approaching problems regarding gender and environment;

 Describe the subjugation and oppression of environment and women by a larger system or
culture

 Understand the theoretical background of ecofeminism and its broad categories

 Explain how different cultures come to see the environment and the conflicts in these multiple
perceptions

 Analyse the ecofeminism from Indian perspectives and understand few important grass root
level eco-feminist movements in India

8.2 INTRODUCTION

As a combined product of ecological movement and women’s movement, Ecofeminism not

only collects the theoretical essence of feminism, but also absorbs the theoretical perspectives
of ecologism. In the social practice of environmental movement, Ecofeminism often combines

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environmental problems and women’s problems to solve. It proposes to focus on ecological

problems from a female point of view, and applies female principles to ecological movement;
and also it advocates to develop feminism from ecological principles. Ecofeminism emphasizes
to recognize the importance of ecological system protection from a female perspective and
develops its vision of feminism theory in the practice of ecological movement. In this unit, we
will get to know about the term “eco-feminism”, global eco-feminist theories and eco-feminist
theories of India. With the help of the theoretical framework, we will try to gain a critical
perspective on some of the ways in which the subjugation of 39 the environment is linked to
that of women. In the social practice of environmental movement, Ecofeminism often
combines environmental problems and women’s problems to solve. It proposes to focus on
ecological problems from a female point of view, and applies female principles to ecological
movement. Ecofeminism also advocates to develop feminism from ecological principles. We
will also learn about the role of different women’s movements and their struggle to preserve
the dignity of our environment.

8.3 WOMEN AND ENVIRONMENT

According to Bina Agarwal, environmental degradation affects not only people from the lower
class but it does have a gender dimension. Mostly women are in charge of gathering forest
products. In some cases these women are the sole bread winners of their families. Besides, in
rural households there is a gender discrimination based on food and health care facilities.
Women in general do not have access to and control over resources like land and production
technology. Women as such have less employment opportunities, less occupational mobility,
lower levels of training and lower wages in comparison to men. Keeping these back ground in
mind, it is important to understand the importance of common property resources in villages
and no doubt forest is that resource. Agarwal notes that since women are the main gatherer of
fuel, fodder and water which takes an average of 10 to 12 hours, depletion of forest resources
stretches further their working hours. A woman in the hills of northwest India puts it as quoted
by Bina Agarwal:

When we were young, we used to go to the forest early in the morning without eating anything.
There we would eat plenty of berries and wild fruits…drink old water of the Banj (Oak)
roots…While we gather all the fodder and fire wood we needed rest under the shade of some
huge tree and then go home. Now with the going of trees everything else has gone. Besides,

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decline in forest affects the income of these rural women adversely. There is loss of grazing
land for animals, and they hardly get cash with them to buy fodder.

Studies from Bangladesh reveal that receding forest patches have contributed to poor diet
among rural households. It has drastically affected the nutritional values in rural households.
Less availability of fuel wood has resulted in avoiding food that needs to be cooked for longer
hours and either making a shift to food items that can be prepared in less time or taking up
uncooked food. Women have to choose between time spent on fuel gathering and time spent
on cooking which declines the nutritional quality of a meal in rural household.

As such women suffer from nutritional inadequacies and other health related disorder because
of intra-household inequality. Besides, they get more exposed to pollutions and the ponds that
are pesticide and fertilizer infested in their normal day to day affairs like collecting water,
bathing animals, washing clothes. The burden of the sick associated with water pollution so
falls on the women.

Women depend a lot on their informal support system like neighbours and kins during times
of crisis. Due to environmental degradation and displacement, migration leads to the erosion
of the informal support system of women. The relationship that forest dwellers have with the
forest has cultural and symbolic meaning. The songs, legends and the rituals are associated
with the forests. This leads to a loss of cultural forms and alienation among the women.

Food gathering calls for a vast knowledge on the local biodiversity, nutritional and medicinal
properties of plants, roots and trees. This indigenous knowledge system that women hold which
has-been carried down from one generation to another also erodes with the erosion of forests.
One must understand that this indigenous knowledge is a coping mechanism during times of
disaster and starvation. Women mitigate famine and floods by identifying roots and herbs from
the forest for feeding their families and children. The knowledge on nature by poor rural women
in their everyday contact with natural and forest resources is a lifesaving skill which has gone
unrecognized by the state and major agencies of development. This has led to marginalization
of indigenous and women’s knowledge that needs to be tapped and documented.

The way the state goes for forestation of a mono-cultural plantation for commercial viability
has affected the poor women’s need. Mostly when the tree nurseries are designed in forest
hinterland, local rural women are not involved in such decision making process. Thus, the so-
called scientific management of forestry is reductionist in its approach as it does not take into
consideration of the interrelated system of vegetation, soil, water and biodiversity in the forest.

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1. How forest patches make up for intra-household inequality and poor nutrition for women?

2. Briefly discuss about the role of indigenous knowledge of women.

3. Explain why scientific management of forests is reductionist in its approach?

8.4 ECO FEMINISM

Eco-feminism makes an attempt to establish a link between women and nature. The term eco-
feminism was conceptualized by French Feminist Francoise d’ Eaubonne in 1974. It
underscores the structures of dominance having their impact both on nature and women. Both
women and nature have been depicted as wild and non-rational. Sherry Ortner was the first to
argue that woman is always identified with nature. Her argument was based on the biological
processes of reproduction as far as women and nature was concerned. This view was supported
by Ariel Kay Salleh. Scholars like Ynestra King and Carolyn Merchant maintained that women
are ideological portrayed as being closer to nature though emphasized that nature-culture
dichotomy is false and used for perpetuation of gender hierarchy. Merchant explained that the
16th century and 17th century, scientific revolution and capitalist market-oriented ideology
continued uninterrupted exploitation of nature. Earth is metaphor for women and is conceived
as the nurturing mother engaged in reproduction. Merchant believes that putting together the
goals of women’s movement and environmental movement can bring about a new structural
change and different value orientation.

Bina Agarwal explains that there are relevant inter linkages between domination and
exploitation of nature. We always had the nature versus culture dichotomy in a patriarchal set
up. Women are always associated with nature while men with culture. There seems to be a
hierarchical relationship between culture and nature which is reflective of the hierarchy
between man and woman. Since the domination of nature and women has taken place at one
point of time, women have a greater role in putting an end to this domination. Besides, the
feminist movement and the environmental movement vouch for a society which believes in
equality and non-hierarchical. Basically, the idea that women and nature are inferior to men, is
rooted in an ideological system of ideas is to be shunned and eco-feminism calls upon both
men and women to change this order.

Thus, ecofeminism links culture and nature together symbolically. It draws commonality
between women and environment together and finally it gives a blueprint and a vision for an
egalitarian future which cans maintain harmony. Vandana Shiva draws upon the traditional

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Indian cosmological view that of ‘Prakriti’ and the feminine creative principle called ‘Shakti’
which in association with the masculine force called ‘Purusha’ is the creator of the world. There
is a shift in this notion, and the man is viewed as distinct and dominating the passive nature.
This shift is oppressive and exploitative. It devalues the feminine principle. The death of
Prakriti means an end to the feminine creative principle. Here, Shiva points out that this
position is not just an ideological or a metaphorical one. She looks into the case of Chipko
movement and keenly observes the women activists. She asserts that third world women have
extreme dependence on nature in their day to day lives. It is their nurturing relationship with
nature and their special knowledge that helps them feed their families, and is the major source
of sustenance. She draws our attention to the fact that in this shifting ideological realm, the
knowledge of women is also marginalized against western scientific discourse. Chipko as a
women’s movement has exhibited all those sparks of ecofeminism. But scholars like Bina
Agarwal portray Chipko from a different theoretical position.

Criticism of Eco-feminism:

1. It takes women as a single category and fails to maintain distinction among women
belonging to different class, race, ethnicity and gender.

2. The relationship between nature and women is drawn on a metaphorical and ideological
ground without substantiating it on an argument based on resources or power dynamics.

3. This construct has little to offer about the structures that produce and perpetuate the
inequality.

4. Eco-feminism argument is far removed from the lived experience of women and the
relationship they share with the material natural world.

5. That the connection between women and nature is based on a form of essentialism.

Maria Mies and Vandana Shiva have mostly embedded the third world problems and
experiences but mostly missed out on the local forces of power play and social relations that
precede colonialism. In contemporary times, we witness there is a structural cause to
environmental degradation. According to Bina Agarwal men and women share a unique
relationship with nature. This relationship with nature is gender, class ethnicity and caste based.
For instance, poor peasant and tribal women have always been responsible for fetching fuel
and fodder. These communities are likely to get most affected by environmental degradation.
In this regard, these women become victims of degradation as well as repository about nature

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which is distinct from the men folk. Their understanding of environment and approach to it is
special and has a gender dimension. Agarwal calls its feminist environmentalism as from a
feminist perspective; it challenges the need to reallocate work, division of labour and resource
distribution between both the genders. On the environmental front, it challenges the notion of
people’s relationship with nature and the way they perceive environment.

8.5 WOMEN AND ENVIRONMENTAL MOVEMENTS IN INDIA

The role of women in various environmental movements have come to gain more prominence
thereby making the environmental movements synonymous with women‘s inclination towards
nature‘s protection and their role as caretakers of natural environment. Furthermore, women
were involved in bringing the issue of environmental degradation and the necessity to take care
of nature; this further strengthens the view of women being more sympathetic to nature. Even
the policymaking, under women, was more pro-environment. For example, Mrs. Indira Gandhi
was the first prime minister who recognised the importance of environmental conservation and
represented India at the Stockholm Convention in 1972. She also brought a halt to the tree-
felling activities in the Himalayan region that came under threat for commercial use. The policy
of development that is more oriented towards expanding the urban areas and which has come
to be identified as against the tenets of natural environment is associated with the policy-
making process by male members. The active participation of women in environmental
movements has been widely recognised all over the world. They have been at the forefront
preventing the destruction of environment and saving the surrounding ecology and as well as
inhabitants. Two prime examples in our country include The Chipko Movement (literally
meaning Hug the Trees Movement) and Narmada Bachao Movement (Save Narmada
Movement). While the former prevented the felling of trees in the Himalayan region for
commercial purposes, the latter sought to rehabilitate and provide adequate compensation to
those displaced due to flooding of the villages because of dam construction. In both the cases,
women have taken lead to protect and preserve the natural environment. A striking feature of
environmental movements in modern India, as Ramachandra Guha says, has been the crucial
role played by women. They have taken to the streets to protest forest felling, unregulated
mining, displacement, and overfishing. They have also taken the lead in programs of
environmental restoration; in the planting up of bare hillsides, in the conservation of local
sources of water supply, and in the promotion of energy-efficient technologies (Guha, 2006,
p.58).

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8.6 ECO-FEMINISM IN INDIA

In ancient Indian philosophy the association of women with nature is even more deeply
embedded than in Western thought. However, unlike in the West, the opposition between the
male and the female, and in turn between nature and culture, does not exist in Indian
philosophical thought. Vandana Shiva (1988) finds this to be the hallmark of a culture that
looks at both the male and female as the expression of the same person—and not separate from
each other. Here, we will know about Vandana Shiva, one of the eminent environmentalists or
Eco feminist of India.

Eco-Feminist Vandana Shiva

Vandana Shiva is one of the most articulate environmentalists of India and has gained
international repute with many of her seminal works in the field of environment. She devoted
her time to take up environmental activism and founded the Research Foundation for Science
Technology and Ecology to articulate the emerging social and ecological issues. Vandana
Shiva finds the Western ecofeminist movement as lacking in the way it presents the association
between women and nature. Her formulation of a more inclusive and dynamic theory, draws
on Indian cosmological and philosophical thinking to project a new relationship between
gender and nature. Having examined the movement within the western context, let us now turn
to India to examine indigenous approaches to ecofeminism.

In Indian cosmology the world is produced through the opposing play of destruction and
creation, and cohesion and disintegration (Shiva, 1988). The dynamic force that comes out of
this process is called Shakti—which is literally the source of everything and in turn pervades
everything. And the manifestation of Shakti, or the feminine principle in the form of an energy
or power is called Prakriti, or nature. “Nature, both animate and inanimate, is thus an expression
of Shakti, the feminine and creative principle of the cosmos, in conjunction with the masculine
principle (Purusha), Prakriti creates the world” (Shiva, 1988, p.38). Thus here person and
nature or Purusha-Prakriti are a duality in unity. They are not opposing to each other, but rather
they are “…inseparable complements of one another in nature, in woman, in man” (Shiva,
1988, p.40).

Despite there being a unified approach towards nature in terms of men and women, Shiva
reiterates that women do share a special relationship with nature. This is seen in the following
ways. First, in the ways in which women’s interaction with nature was reciprocal—for they

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found themselves to be close to nature in the way both produced and replenished the earth and
society. Second, women are in partnership with nature by not only using its resources, but also
giving it back. They do not own nature like property, but insist on participating in the process
of ‘to let grow and to make grow’. Last, with nature women are producers who help sustain
society and relations. There are proponents of a subsistence economy and the inventors of the
first productive economy (Shiva, 1988, p. 43).

Shiva insists that the role of marginalized women and communities becomes especially
important for they are living proof of the harmful effects of Eco-Feminism progress, as also
they have the holistic and ecological knowledge of what the protection and production of life
involves. Women of the Third World are the best representatives of such a category.

8.7 CHIPKO MOVEMENT AS A WOMEN’S MOVEMENT

Bina Agarwal notes that mere participation of women in a movement does not make gender
perspective explicit in a movement. But this Chipko has an orientation for feminist
environmentalism because of the following reasons:

1. The protest by women against commercial exploitation of the Himalayan forests has been
jointly with men in the earlier phases when they were confronting nonlocal contractors. In
subsequent times women always had the single aim of saving trees from felling. They even
faced opposition from the men in the village who at times were in support of cutting trees for
their own interests. For instance, in Dongri Paintoli an Oak forest was to be cleared for potato
seed farm. Men welcomed this scheme as it would bring them income in the form of cash. The
women argued that it would add five kilometres to their everyday journey for fuel and fodder
gathering. Cash in hands of men does not necessarily mean that the money would come to the
family to bear their expenses.

2. Women have always actively engaged in conserving the forests by keeping an eye on illegal
tree felling. In Gopeshwar town, a women’s group appointed a watch woman to check felling
of trees and regulate carrying of forest products by villagers. She was paid a wage in kind for
the purpose, thus empowering another woman in the process of conserving the trees.

3. As far as forestation and replanting was concerned, the choice of saplings to be planted was
also gendered. Women would prefer trees that would contribute to subsistence economy i n
terms of fuel and fodder while men would prefer commercially viable trees.

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4. According to Agarwal, Chipko is more than a mere environmental movement. Women in

this movement have raised their voice against male alcoholism, domestic violence and wasteful
expenditure. Chipko gave them the voice address gatherings in a meeting. Many have
questioned as to why they are not members of the village council.

5. Women have a holistic understanding of the forest ecology. They do not reduce forest to
trees and trees to wood for commercial use. They understand nature and the idea of
interdependence between human and nature.

Chipko is rooted in the Gandhian tradition of those regions. Bimla Behn established Navjivan
Ashram inthe1970s which went on to give an organizational foundation to Chipko movement.
Chipko went into be a movement that did not reduce itself to prevention of felling of trees. It
created space for a sustainable life in every way. It reflected the moral strength of the women
in those regions. They could identify a gendered dimension to the issues they were facing. No
doubt, clearing of a patch of forest increased the burden of work for women as they had to
cover extra miles for collecting fuel wood and other forest products in their everyday life. On
the other hand, men would earn fast cash by working with the contractors in clearing the forest.
They would spend the same money they earned in the process to alcohol. It was soon realized
by the women of the hills that alcoholism brought hunger for their children and rose in cases
of domestic violence. Thus, in some of the villages they took the cause protecting the forests.
Even picketing of alcohol shops by women were reported in the region. In 1995, a major
landslide in the region had become a matter of concern. Hima Devi generated awareness and
public opinion against deforestation as being there as on behind the landslide. (Agarwal1999).
Thus, Chipko movement had many dimensions. It was also taken to be a movement against
capitalism as the later had a masculine approach.

8.8 LET US SUM UP

The unit also discusses the environmental movement, spearheaded primarily by women to
show how they have located themselves as the best supporters of protection of the environment
and sustainable development till date. When the world is facing a global crisis vis-à-vis the
environment, it is essential for us to understand the ways in which the environment has come
to figure in our everyday lives. It is in this sense that we must also strive to protect it. It is no
wonder then that an important part of this course tries to look at how this linkage can be
established at the level of human relationships, especially that with gender, and more
specifically, women.

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8.9 GLOSSARY

Masculinity- Having qualities or appearance traditionally associated with men.

Patriarchy-a system of society or government in which the father or eldest male is head of the
family and descent is reckoned through the male line.

8.10 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. How did eco-feminism emerge?

2. Describe briefly about Chipko Movement?

8.11 REFERENCES

 Agarwal, Bina (2007). ‘The Gender and Environment Debate: Lessons from India.’ In
Mahesh Rangarajan (Eds.). Environmental Issues in India: A Reader. Pearson India, New
Delhi
 Braidotti, R., E. Charkiewicz, S. Hausler, S. Wieringa (1994). (Eds.). Women, the
Environment and Sustainable Development: Towards a Theoretical Analysis. London:
Zed Books with INSTRAW.
 Birkeland J., (1993) Ecofeminism: Linking Theory and Practice, in G. Gaard (ed.),
Ecofeminism: Women, Animals and Nature, Temple University Press, Philadelphia.
 Guha, Ramachandra, (2006) How Much Should A Person Consume? Thinking through
the Environment, Permanent Black, New Delhi.
 King Y., (1983).The Ecology of Feminism and the Feminism of Ecology, in J. Plant,
Healing the Wounds: The Promise of Ecofeminism, New Society Publishers,
Philadelphia, California, pp. 18-28.
 Ling, CHEN. (2014). The Background and Theoretical Origin of Ecofeminism, Cross-
Cultural Communication, Vol. 10, No. 4, pp. 104-108
 Ortner, Sherry, B. (1972). ‘Is female to male as nature is to culture?’ Feminist Studies,
1(2), 5-31.
 Maria Mies and Vandana Shiva, 1993. Ecofeminism, Fernwood Publication, Halifax,
Nova Scotia, Canada.
 Mies M. - Shiva V. (1993). Ecofeminism, Kali for Women, New Delhi 10. Rao, Manisha,
Ecofeminism at the Crossroads in India: A Review

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 Spretnak C., (1990) Ecofeminism: Our roots & Flowering, in I. Diamond - G. Orenstein
(ed.), Reweaving the World: The Emergence of Ecofeminism, Random House,
California.
 Salleh, Ariel (1993). ‘Class, Race and Gender Discourse in the Ecofeminism/ Deep
Ecology Debate’. Environmental Ethics, 15, 225-44.
 Shiva, Vandana (1988). Staying Alive: Women, Ecology and Survival in India. New
Delhi: Kali for Women.

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Block-3
Major Environmental Issues

Unit-9: Global Warming& Climate Change

Unit-10: Loss of Biodiversity (water & air)
Unit-11: Deforestation
Unit-12: Urban Wastes and Industrial wastes
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UNIT-9: GLOBAL WARMING & CLIMATE CHANGE

Structure

9.1 Learning Objectives

9.2 Introduction
9.3 Definitions
9.4 Causes of climate changes
9.5 Effects of climate changes
9.6 Global Warming
9.7 Carbon Footprint
9.8 Environmental Protection
9.9 Let Us Sum Up
9.10 Glossary
9.11 Check your progress
9.12 References

9.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After studying this Unit, you will be able to:

 Define climate change

 Explain natural and human-induced causes for climate change
 Effects of climate change
 Analyze the relationship between greenhouse gas emissions and climate change
 Have an idea about global warming and its causes
 A brief idea about the carbon footprint
 Find out steps for environmental protection

9.2 INTRODUCTION

Climate

Climate refers to the long-term average weather conditions of a particular area. For example,
climate of Jammu is cold and snowy in the winter, but the climate of Rajasthan is warm and
humid throughout the year. A regional climate is the climate of a specific area, such as the climate
of Jammu or Rajasthan. The term "global climate" refers to the climate of the whole world. When

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Ecologists talk about global climate change, they're referring to a consistent pattern in the
climate.

Other changes around the world as a result of rising global temperatures include hurricanes,
melting of glaciers, and the loss of biodiversity. Because the atmosphere, water, and landmass
are all linked to one another and with the climate. This means that a modification in one place
can cause changes everywhere. When atmospheric temperatures rise, for example, the oceans
absorb more heat from the atmosphere and warm up. Warmer waters can lead to more powerful
storms.

Weather

Weather refers to the state of the atmosphere at a certain location at a specific time. For
example, it is windy and rainy for some day but not always. Satellites are used by weather
forecasting agencies to examine the atmosphere and forecast the weather for the next several
days. The Meteosat satellite transmits photographs of the Earth's atmosphere. The weather
forecasters prepare the weather forecast using these photographs. At a specific location and
time, the weather describes instant atmospheric conditions such as rainfall, temperature, and
wind speed. It varies from day today. Climate refers to the average (or "typical") weather
pattern for a certain location over several decades. Consider how weather and climate change
operate on different time scales to better understand the difference. Weather is defined as the
events of the environment in hours, days, and some time months; whereas the climate is defined
as the environmental events during months, years, and decades; and climate change is the
measurement of environmental differences during decades and centuries. Thunderstorms that
last for one or two hours and tropical cyclones that last for several days are examples of
weather. Climate variability is described by climate patterns like the El Nio, and Southern
Oscillation, while climate change is defined by events occurring across periods, such as the
average increase in temperature of the globe or global warming.

9.3 DEFINITION

Climate change: “Any change in climate over time, whether due to natural variability or as
a result of human activity” (IPCC, 2001a).The United Nations Framework Convention on
Climate Change (UNFCC) in Article 1defined it as: “climate change refers to a change in
climate which is attributed directly or indirectly to human activity that alters the composition

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of the global atmosphere and which is in addition to natural climate variability observed over
a comparable period” (IPCC, 2001a).

Climate variability: Climate variability is defined by scientists as the way the climate changes,
over time, not just from day to day like the weather. Some summers are significantly cooler
than others. Some years have more precipitation than others. Even though people are highly
sensitive. It is not as evident as weather variability in terms of climatic variability. Since it
occurs throughout seasons and years.

Yearly deviation of environmental parameters such as temperature, wind speed, rain fal, etc.,
from a long-term average climatic variability.

Fig. Various climatic variations as a result of environmental events

Source:https://www.google.com/search?q=global+wind+circulation+diagram&rlz=1C1CHB
F_enIN968IN968&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjunMXZ-
pz4AhXH8DgGHXrzCx8Q_AUoAXoECAEQAw&biw=1600&bih=781&dpr=1#imgrc=P68
L2uUqqKR4-M

9.4 CAUSES OF CLIMATE CHANGE

Environmental disturbances which are either natural or man-made are the main cause of climate
change. Natural processes like volcanic eruptions, ocean currents, Solar movements, El Ninos

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and La Ninas are the causes of climate change. On the other hand, Greenhouse gas emissions,
deforestation, forest fire, coal mining, fossil fuel burning, industrialization, and agriculture are
the man made causes of climate change.

Fig. The earth surface due to climate change

Source:https://www.google.com/search?q=CLIMATE+CHANGE+ON+EARTH+SURFACE
&rlz=1C1CHBF_enIN968IN968&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjGuLX_-
pz4AhXTjgGHWaQAFoQ_AUoAXoECAIQAw&biw=1600&bih=781&dpr=1#imgrc=mL6s
evU5r6BvXM

Human activities, particularly fossil fuel combustion, increasing greenhouse gases (GHGs),
resulted an extraordinary variation in the climate during the last 100 years. The infrared energy
emitted from the earth's surface is captured by these gases, warming the globe. Since the early
twentieth century, global average surface temperature increased by about 0.7°C (1.4°F). The
climate of the Earth is a complicated system that is continuously changing, but it is currently
warmer than it has been in early years. The increasing atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) level
is creating havoc on plant and animal life as well as environmental systems. And, if CO2 levels
continue to climb at their current rates, the world will become far hotter than it is now, maybe
hot enough to melt much of the Earth's current ice cover.The temperature of the Earth has
changed repeatedly throughout geological time. The earth has gone through repeated cycles of
glacial (cold) and interglacial (warm) periods lasting around 80,000 years on average. These
were most likely caused by the Milankovich Cycles, which govern the seasonal timing and
intensity of solar radiation entering the atmosphere and are governed by regular variations in
Earth's orbit and spin. The number of greenhouse gases (primarily carbon dioxide, methane,
and water vapor) in the atmosphere, the extent of sea and land-based ice across the northern
hemisphere, and alterations in wind and ocean current patterns are all possible contributors to

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the onset and termination of ice ages. Earth's climate has changed between periods of relative
warmth and relative cold for much of its 4.5 billion-year history, each lasting tens to hundreds
of millions of years. The polar parts of the earth were fully ice-free during the warmest periods.
Earth has also gone through multiple ice ages, which lasted millions of years and saw sea ice
advance and retreat many times throughout the world. During the coldest parts of the year,
snow blanketed the entire globe. Scientists have gone back in time to identify a time when
atmospheric GHG concentrations were as high as they are expected to be in the next decades,
if current emission trends continue. They, CO2 levels were higher than 500 parts per million
during the Eocene epoch, which lasted from 55 million to 38 million years ago.

Source:https://www.google.com/search?q=PAST+500+MILLION+YEARS+OF+CLIMATE
+CHANGE&tbm=isch&ved=2ahUKEwj7m8qA5z4AhWe0HMBHUCCAjIQ2-
cCegQIABAA&oq=PAST+500+MILLION+YEARS+OF+CLIMATE+CHANGE&gslcp=C
gNpbWcQAzoECAAQQzoLCAAQgAQQsQMQgwE6CAgAEIAEELEDOgoIABCxAxCD
ARBDOgcIABCxAxBDOgUIABCABDoGCAAQHhAFOgYIABAeEAg6BAgAEBhQ6Qd
YmYQBYIeHAWgAcAB4A4AB2gGIAd1AkgEGMC42Ny4ymAEAoAEBqgELZ3dzLX

Many factors affect global climate change.

The factors are -

1. The Milankovitch Theory

2. Atmospheric CO2 Variation
3. Volcanic eruption
4. Variation in solar output

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5. Land ocean-atmosphere system

6. Human activity

Geological factors

The Milankovitch Theory

Changes in the amount of solar radiation reaching the planet, known as insolation, and the
distribution of sunlight on its surface can affect global climate change. Astronomers have
identified a link between the solar constant and variations in the pattern of sunspots, or solar
storms, on the Sun's surface. The Earth's climate is controlled by solar energy. By researching
oscillations in the Earth's orbital geometry and axial tilt, Milankovitch projected a pattern of
fluctuating insolation and global climate change and calculated the time for a complete cycle
of change to occur. The globe receives about 6% more solar radiation in January than in July.
The Earth's position has an impact on its climate. During its annual voyage around the sun, the
Earth's current elliptical orbit places it closest to the sun in January (perihelion) and farthest
away in July (aphelion). As a result, the Sun's rays reach the northern hemisphere most directly
on June 21st, the summer solstice, and the southern hemisphere most directly on December
21st, the winter solstice.

Fig. The Milankovitch cycle

Source:https://www.google.com/search?q=Milankovitch+cycle&tbm=isch&ved=2ahUKEwi
98NLW_Jz4AhV6ktgFHSdJBH0Q2cCegQIABAA&oq=Milankovitch+cycle&gs_lcp=CgNp

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bWcQAzIFCAAQgAQyBAgAEEMyBQgAEIAEMgUIABCABDIFCAAQgAQyBQgAEIA
EMgUIABCABDIFCAAQgAQyBQgAEIAEMgUIABCABDoGCAAQHhAHOgYIABAeE
Ag6BggAEB4QBVDEBlizI2DDNGgAcAB4A4ABnwGIAcIMkgEEMC4xNJgBAKABAao
BC2d3cy13aXotaW1nsAEAwAEB&sclient=img&ei=pB-

Atmospheric Carbon dioxide variation

Nitrogen, oxygen, argon, and carbon dioxide are the main gaseous components of the Earth's
atmosphere. Small amounts of neon, helium, methane, krypton, hydrogen, xenon, and ozone
gases, as well as water vapour and particulate debris, are also present. The composition of the
atmosphere remains stable over extended periods, except for relatively rare natural phenomena
such as volcanic eruptions.

Humans have burned vast amounts of fossil fuels including coal, oil, and natural gas to power
factories, create electricity, and power automotive engines throughout the previous century.
These activities have greatly raised the concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere
because carbon dioxide is always created during the combustion of carbon-based fuel. Many
scientists now assume that rising carbon dioxide concentrations will amplify the greenhouse
effect, causing global warming. If global warming occurs, a variety of environmental changes
may occur. Some models forecast the melting of the polar ice caps, increased water volume in
the oceans, and coastal city flooding. Changes in ocean currents and wind patterns, as well as
the distribution of the Earth's major climate zones, are also depicted in models. Such incidents
would have disastrous effects on human agriculture, fishing, city development, and the natural
environment. Scientists and policymakers are still debating whether or not anthropogenic
global climate change is happening.

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Source:https://www.google.com/search?q=composition+of+earth%27s+atmosphere&tbm=isch
&ved=2ahUKEwi9iqDx_Jz4AhWiArcAHRyIASwQ2cCegQIABAA&oq=composition+of+ear
th&gs_lcp=CgNpbWcQARgCMgUIABCABDIFCAAQgAQyBQgAEIAEMgUIABCABDIFC
AAQgAQyBQgAEIAEMgUIABCABDIFCAAQgAQyBQgAEIAEMgUIABCABDoECAAQ
QzoLCAAQgAQQsQMQgwE6CAgAEIAEELEDOggIABCxAxCDAToHCAAQsQMQQ1CS
CFiMTGDDZ2gAcAB4A4ABkAGIAcIfkgEEMC4zNZgBAKABAaoBC2d3cy13aXotaW1ns
AEAwAEB&sclient=img&ei=3BgYr2sFaKF3LUPnJCG4AI&bih=781&biw=1600&rlz=1C1C
HBF_enIN968IN968#imgrc=mK6yZHVlAFRe-M

Much of the incoming short-wavelength solar energy is reflected or absorbed by gases in the
outer atmosphere, such as ozone. Much of the sunlight that reaches the Earth's surface is re-
radiated as longer-wavelength infrared energy or heat into the atmosphere. The greenhouse effect
occurs when gases in the middle and lower atmosphere, such as carbon dioxide and water vapor,
absorb infrared radiation and raise the temperature of the atmosphere. This stored heat drives
atmospheric and oceanic circulation, keeps the oceans aerated, and keeps global climate zones
in place. The greenhouse effect keeps the planet sustainable for living organisms and microbes.

Volcanic eruption

Volcanoes have three different ways of changing the climate:

• Enhanced dust ejection into the stratosphere

• Increased carbon dioxide

• Increased sulfate aerosols

Major volcanoes have been discovered to cool the climate at ground level, with compensating
and slightly stronger warming of the stratosphere. Because less solar radiation reaches the earth's
surface, a dust cloud in the high atmosphere absorbs sunlight, heating the stratosphere but cooling
lower altitudes. Previous eruptions have been shown to have had a significant impact on the
climate.

The consequences of a single eruption last roughly 2-3 years. Major eruptions cause a significant
decline in summer temperatures for two or three years, and the effect on winter temperatures is
warming, owing to the rising westerly circulation to mid-to-high latitudes.

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Fig. Volcanic eruption leads to surface cooling,

Source;https://www.accuweather.com/en/weather-blogs/climatechange/improved-method-to-
measure-impact-of-volcanic-eruptions-on-the-climate/18597

Variation in Solar Output

Satellites have been tracking the Sun's energy output for more than 40 years, and it has
fluctuated by less than 0.1 percent over that time. The Sun does not always shine at the same
brightness; it brightens and dims significantly during one solar cycle, which lasts 11 years. The
Sun endures various changes in activity and appearance over each cycle. Solar radiation levels
fluctuate, as does the amount of material ejected into space by the Sun, as well as the size and
number of sunspots and solar flares. These changes have a range of consequences in space, the
atmosphere, and on the surface of the Earth.

Fig. Increased intensity of solar output

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Source:https://www.google.com/search?q=Increased+intensity+of+solar+output+&tbm=isch
&ved=2ahUKEwje44W5_Zz4AhW2jNgFHcniALsQ2cCegQIABAA&oq=Increased+intensit
y+of+solar+output+&gs_lcp=CgNpbWcQAzoKCAAQsQMQgwEQQzoFCAAQgAQ6BAgA
EENQ2QhY3CVg0TBoAHAAeACAAc8BiAH4DpIBBjAuMTQuMZgBAKABAaoBC2d3c
y13aXotaW1nsAEAwAEB&sclient=img&ei=ciCgYt7iN7aZ4t4PycWD2As&bih=781&biw=
1600&rlz=1C1CHBF_enIN968IN968#imgrc=b253RzHcDZslbM&imgdii=mp-YH-
UZ2WYM

Land ocean-atmosphere system

The oceans play a vital role in keeping our planet warm, which has an impact on weather and
climate. The ocean absorbs the majority of solar energy, especially in tropical areas around the
equator, where the ocean behaves as a vast, high-temperature solar panel. Land regions absorb
some sunlight as well, and the atmosphere aids in the retention of heat that would otherwise be
lost to space after sunset.

The ocean not only stores solar energy but also participates in the distribution of heat around
the world.

Ocean currents dominate weather patterns outside of Earth's equatorial regions. Currents are
continuous flows of ocean water caused primarily by surface winds, but also by temperature
and pressure gradients, the Earth's rotation, and tides. Ocean currents carry warm water and
precipitation from the equator to the poles and cold water from the poles back to the tropics,
much like a conveyor belt. Ocean currents thus serve to manage global climate by balancing
the uneven distribution of solar radiation reaching the Earth's surface. Regional temperatures
would be more extreme without ocean currents—extremely hot at the equator and cold at the
poles—and considerably less of Earth's land would be habitable.

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Fig. Factor affecting global climate change

Source:https://www.google.com/search?q=.+Factor+affecting+global+climate+change+&tb
m=isch&ved=2ahUKEwis887l_Zz4AhVf0HMBHXOzBPIQ2cCegQIABAA&oq=.+Factor+a
ffecting+global+climate+change+&gs_lcp=CgNpbWcQAzoECAAQQzoICAAQgAQQsQM
6CwgAEIAEELEDEIMBOgUIABCABFAAWLFFYNFNaABwAHgAgAGCAYgBtxySAQ
QwLjMymAEAoAEBqgELZ3dzLXdpei1pbWewAQDAAQE&sclient=img&ei=0CCgYqzL
F9-
gz7sP8aSkA8&bih=781&biw=1600&rlz=1C1CHBF_enIN968IN968#imgrc=uqaSF4BfIbuI
VM

Human activities

 Most of the human actions are causing Earth to warm. For example, Deforestation for
human settlement
 Natural resources are being overused and exploited.
 Pollution is brought about by human activities.
 Industries and factories
 Overuse of vehicles leads to pollution.
 CFCs, Methane (CH4), Nitrous oxide (N2O), Carbon dioxide (CO2), and Ozone are
the principal greenhouse gases of concern (O3).
 Other gases, such as nitric oxide (NO) and carbon monoxide (CO), easily react with
greenhouse gases, lowering their concentration in the atmosphere.
 Carbon dioxide has the highest greenhouse gas concentration in the atmosphere.

Fig. causes of climate change

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Source:https://www.google.com/search?q=causes+of+climate+change+images+cartoon&tbm
=isch&ved=2ahUKEwjHz_qZgJ34AhXyktgFHSZ6AqQQ2-
cCegQIABAA&oq=causes+of+climate+change+images+cartoon&gs_lcp=CgNpbWcQAzoE
CAAQQzoGCAAQHhAHOgQIABAeOgYIABAeEAVQhANYryVg1yhoAHAAeACAAec
DiAGiC5IBBzAuOC40LTGYAQCgAQGqAQtnd3Mtd2l6LWltZ8ABAQ&sclient=img&ei=
VyOgYofIAfKl4t4PpvSJoAo&bih=781&biw=1600&rlz=1C1CHBF_enIN968IN968

Geological factors affecting global climate

Global climate can be influenced by geological changes on the Earth's surface. The shape, or
topography, of the Earth's surface controls winds and ocean currents, and the distribution of
continental landmasses and ocean basins impacts the pattern of global atmospheric and oceanic
circulation. The Cretaceous period was the hottest and wettest in Earth's history. There were
no polar ice caps during the Cretaceous, shallow oceans covered many continental interiors,
and tropical vegetation and animals inhabited all continents. The continents move, ocean basins
expand and shut, and mountain ranges form over time, according to the generally recognised
and well-supported theory of plate tectonics.

Another example of a plate tectonic event that caused major climate change is the collision of
the Indian subcontinent with Asia and the development of the Himalayan mountain range
around 40 million years ago. During the Cretaceous Period, for example, continents covered
the poles and a warm ocean known as Teethes ringed the equator.

Fig. shows how plate tectonic leads to climate change.

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Source:https://www.google.com/search?q=plate+tectonic+leads+to+climate+change&tbm=is
ch&ved=2ahUKEwjkqrOggJ34AhXyktgFHSZ6AqQQ2-
cCegQIABAA&oq=plate+tectonic+leads+to+climate+change&gs_lcp=CgNpbWcQAzoLCA
AQgAQQsQMQgwE6BQgAEIAEOgYIABAeEAg6BAgAEBhQ9QpYwXdgkHpoAXAAeA
OAAc0BiAHhM5IBBjAuNTUuMZgBAKABAaoBC2d3cy13aXotaW1nsAEAwAEB&sclie
nt=img&ei=ZCOgYuToIPKl4t4PpvSJoAo&bih=781&biw=1600&rlz=1C1CHBF_enIN968I
N968#imgrc=ABCHXflx7pKRrM

9.5 EFFECT OF CLIMATE CHANGE

Effect of Climate Change

1. Weather-related changes
 Increased rainfall and precipitation due to more evaporation.
 Extreme heat waves due to global temperature rising
 Tropical cyclones and storms
 Weather-related effects like a flood, drought, wildfire, etc.
2. Changes in ocean-like
 Sea level rise
 Ocean warming
 Ocean acidification
 Marine heat waves
3. Melting of the glaciers, polar ice, and sea ice decline.
4. Coral bleaching
5. Global warming

Fig. effect of climate changes

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9.6 GLOBAL WARMING

Global warming is defined as an increase in global average temperatures.

The average temperature of the Earth, which has been growing for many years, is one of the
most significant aspects that scientists discovered. This is known as global warming. The
worldwide air and ocean surface temperature have increased by around 0.8°C (1.4°F) since the
early twentieth century, with about two-thirds of the increase occurring since 1980. Each of the
last three decades has been warmer at the Earth's surface than the previous decade.

Causes of Global Warming

1. CO2 levels rise as a result of:

 Increased industrialization
 Increased human population, and associated activities
 Land use patterns, deforestation
 Land clearance for agriculture, and so on.
2. Increased Methane Concentration
 Increased Cattle Population (Cows, Sheep, etc.)
 Coal mining
 Landfills, garbage dumps
 Paddy Fields (Rice) (which is 20 times as potent as a greenhouse gas like carbon
dioxide). Other fluorinated industrial gases, such as hydro fluorocarbons (HFCs)
and sulfur hexafluoride (SF6), are also present. Contribute to the warming of the
planet. Another greenhouse gas is water vapor.

Effect of global warming

 Biodiversity — as global warming continues, 14 percent of the world's species may go

extinct by 2050.
 Rising sea levels - India's sea shoreline is nearly 7000 kilometers long, and the sea level
is rising. It may have an impact on cities such as Kolkata and Mumbai
 Flooding and draughts
 Storms and Hurricanes
 Melting of ice and glaciers, among other things.
 Heat-related illnesses and disorders.

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Green House effect

People have been messing with the planet's energy balance for the past century or two,
primarily through the burning of fossil fuels, which releases carbon dioxide into the
atmosphere. Carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere have been steadily growing for decades,
trapping more heat at the Earth's surface and rising temperatures. The greenhouse effect
describes how "greenhouse gases" generate heat near Earth's surface. These temperatures
absorbing gases act like a blanket around the earth, keeping it warmer than it otherwise would
be. Carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxides, and water vapour are all examples of greenhouse
gases. Carbon dioxide's warming effect is believed to play a role in the maintenance of Earth's
atmosphere temperature. The terrestrial greenhouse effect would be destroyed if carbon dioxide
were removed. Earth's surface would be 33°C (59°F) cooler if carbon dioxide were not there.
Greenhouse gases are part of the natural constitution of our atmosphere.

Fig. Green House Effect

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Fig. Difference between the greenhouse effect and global warming.

Fig. effect of global warming

Source:https://www.google.com/search?q=effect+of+global+warming&tbm=isch&ved=2ahU
KEwiY6ZuohJ34AhVVj9gFHWicBQUQ2-
cCegQIABAA&oq=effect+of+global+warming&gs_lcp=CgNpbWcQAzIICAAQgAQQsQM
yBQgAEIAEMgUIABCABDIFCAAQgAQyBQgAEIAEMgUIABCABDIFCAAQgAQyBQ
gAEIAEMgUIABCABDIFCAAQgARQ8wRYkB9g0j9oAHAAeASAAZEBiAGyGpIBBDA

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uMjmYAQCgAQGqAQtnd3Mtd2l6LWltZ7ABAMABAQ&sclient=img&ei=piegYpjKNWe
4t4P6LiWKA&bih=781&biw=1600&rlz=1C1CHBF_enIN968IN968#imgrc=PP7K0AOOKS
jdiM

9.7 CARBON FOOTPRINT

The phrase "carbon footprint" refers to the quantity of carbon dioxide (CO2) that each of us emits
in a given period of time. CO2 is the major gas responsible for global warming and the serious
changes in our climate that have resulted. Human activities are contributing to rising CO2 levels
in the atmosphere, which is going to accelerate climate change. Understanding the effects of
daily consumption and knowing how to lower our collective carbon footprint is critical for
reducing CO2 emissions and slowing human-caused climate change.

The extent of one’s carbon footprint is determined by factors such as transportation, diet, and
purchases.

Fig.

sources of carbon emission

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Source:https://www.google.com/search?q=.+sources+of+carbon+emission&tbm=isch&ved=
2ahUKEwi9rtjFhJ34AhXRk9gFHdghAu8Q2cCegQIABAA&oq=.+sources+of+carbon+emis
sion&gs_lcp=CgNpbWcQAzIECAAQHjIECAAQHjIECAAQHjIGCAAQHhAFMgYIABAe
EAUyBggAEB4QBTIGCAAQHhAFMgYIABAeEAUyBggAEB4QCDIGCAAQHhAIOgcI
ABCxAxBDOgUIABCABFCVBVi0HmDMKGgAcAB4BIABrAGIAbEQkgEEMC4xN5gB
AKABAaoBC2d3cy13aXotaW1nsAEAwAEB&sclient=img&ei=5CegYr2sHdGn4t4P2MOI
A4&bih=781&biw=1600&rlz=1C1CHBF_enIN968IN968

9.8 ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION

Environmental protection is the practice of groups, individuals, or governments working

together to conserve the natural habitat. This allows us to conserve, reverse the present trends,
and restore damages the environment. The natural environment is sometimes irreversibly
deteriorated as a result of the high pressures of population increase, overconsumption, and
technology. Many organizations have already programmed parameters for activities that
contribute to environmental degradation. Increased air pollution, water pollution, plastic
pollution, and other forms of pollution necessitate effective environmental policies for all
countries.

In other terms, environmental protection is the prevention and protection of undesirable

changes to the ecosystem's constituent parts caused by human activity. Environmental
protection measures are taken to prevent over-exploitation of natural resources and reduce
various sorts of pollution.

Importance of environmental protection

A lot of environmental degradation is permanent and are either irreversible or will take
hundreds of years to repair. If the environment is not properly preserved, we will begin to lose
species to extinction, contaminating key natural resources such as water and air, and eliminating
many organisms' natural habitats. The fundamental keys to environmental protection are
making people aware of the impact of environmental concerns and how to protect them by
changing their behavior and attitude toward life.

Different techniques have been proposed by governments of various countries to decrease the
impact of various types of environmental degradation. Various global agencies including the

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Environment Improvement Trust consider environmental impact, and impact factors, and
formulate legislation for other environmental aspects.

1. Voluntary environmental agreement: Voluntary environmental agreements provide

a stage for advancing beyond regulatory principles and thereby enabling the
establishment of the best environmental protection in nations with rapid industrial
growth. International agreement on the environment: Several governments from
various countries sign agreements to manage or prevent the impact of human activities
on natural resources. This could include agreements that affect rivers, oceans, and
climate, among other things. If a country does not respect the code of conduct,
international environmental agreements have legal consequences. Some of the most
well-known international environmental agreements include the Paris Agreement and
the Kyoto Protocol.

 By altering the features of services and products

 Changing manufacturing techniques
 Separate garbage disposal or treatment facilities for environmental protection
 Using recycling
 By altering our consumption habits
 Keeping the environment and ecosystem from deteriorating
2. The Environment Protection Act: The Environmental Protection Organization is an
agency responsible for protecting human and environmental health. It makes legislation
and sets standards to protect the environment and people's health. The EPA's only
purpose is to conserve and protect natural resources while also enhancing human health
by reducing the use of pollutants.

Violations of the regulation will result in fees that must be paid through the collection of fines,
sanctions, and other procedures.

Role

 The Environmental Protection Agencies control the processing, manufacture,

and distribution of chemicals and other contaminants.
 It backs initiatives that promote energy efficiency, water and air quality, and
environmental stewardship.

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 It also provides for environmental sustainability and pollution control.

 Some of the laws enforced by the agency for environmental protection include
the Clean Air Act, the National Environmental Education Act, the Clean Water
Act, and the Safe Drinking Water Act.
 The EPA is also in charge of environmental crime prevention and detection, as
well as formulating laws for the industry for those industries which are using
toxic chemicals and monitoring pollution.

Steps taken for Environmental Protection

There are many ways to conserve and protect the environment.

 Conserve energy
 Use renewable resources like wind, water, and solar energy.
 Save water
 Use eco-friendly product
 Recycle, reuse, and reduce
 Pick up litter
 Say no to plastic
 Use public transport to reduce air pollution
 Spread awareness
 Plantation
 Use biodegradable products.

Fig. steps taken to protect the environment

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Source:https://www.google.com/search?q=.+steps+taken+to+protect+the+environment&tbm
=isch&ved=2ahUKEwiP-oSQhZ34AhVP_zgGHbu7A3sQ2-
cCegQIABAA&oq=.+steps+taken+to+protect+the+environment&gs_lcp=CgNpbWcQAzoG
CAAQHhAHOgQIABAeOgYIABAeEAU6BggAEB4QCFDiCVjxIWD-
QmgAcAB4BIABgwGIAZsRkgEEMC4xOZgBAKABAaoBC2d3cy13aXotaW1nsAEAwAE
B&sclient=img&ei=gCigYo-6GM_-4-
EPu_eO2Ac&bih=781&biw=1600&rlz=1C1CHBF_enIN968IN968#imgrc=mMJMzUIPN6C
goM

Role of Government in environment protection:

(1) Enactment of environmental protection acts, and

(2) Implementation of environmental policy through an administrative system.

The Environmental protection act (1986)

This law was passed in 1986 and is known as the Environmental Protection Act. This act is
divided into four chapters, each with 26 sections. The following are the goals of this act:

 Environmental protection and enhancement (water, air, and land).

 Hazards to all living things (people, plants, and animals), as well as property.
 The preservation of peaceful interaction between humans and their surroundings.

The Air Act (1981)

According to a report presented at this year's World Economic Forum in Davos, India has the
worst air pollution in the world, defeating China, Pakistan, Nepal, and Bangladesh. India scores
dead bottom in the 'Air (impact on human health)' rating out of 132 countries whose
environments were surveyed.

 Maintain the quality of air

 The establishment of boards for the prevention and control of air pollution.

The Wildlife protection act (1972)

 Protect flora and fauna of the country

 Prohibition on the haunting of wild animals, birds, and plants.
 Setting up and management of wildlife sanctuaries and national parks.
 Control of trade and commerce of wildlife and wildlife products.

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The Forest conservation act (1980)

 It is an act to provide for the conservation of forests and matters connected with the
protection of trees from illegal felling and destruction.
 Restriction on use of forest land
 Constitution of forest advisory committee.
 Offenses by govt. departments and authorities.

The Water act (1974)

 Aim of prevention and control of water pollution

 Set surface water quality standard
 Regulate discharge pollutants
 Control boards were created
 Sewage pollution cannot be discharged into water bodies.

Role of NGOs

There are a variety of non-governmental organizations concerned with environmental

concerns. Charity organizations, advisory committees, and a variety of other professional
organizations are all considered non-governmental organizations. In India, NGOs are found all
over the country and maintain tight links with local communities. They participate in a wide
range of developmental initiatives, from raising environmental awareness to developing
watersheds; from disaster management to sustainable livelihoods; from shared forest
management to policy input. They run from clubs that promote nature camping to organizations
that conduct research and monitoring.

Role of individuals and agencies in environment protection

The role of government in protecting environment is limited without/if intension and efforts at
individual level is inadequate. Therefore some individuals and some groups in India and Odisha
have shown interest in protecting environment by agitation or by some movement.

The Silent Valley Movement, Kerala

The silent valley is located in Palghat district of Kerala. It is surrounded by different hills of
the State stretched over a total area of 8950 hectares. The flora and fauna of the valley is natural
and very rich in biodiversity. The valley has contributed varieties of genes for pest and disease

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control of rice. The idea of a dam on river Kunthipuja in this hill system was conceived by the
British in 1929.

Therefore there was protest by all political and apolitical groups not to destroy the natural
habitat. Finally, the Kerala Government made Silent Valley a national Park considering the
importance of valuable rich flora and fauna which needs conservation and proper management.

Chipko Movement, Uttar Pradesh

Chipko Movement started in April, 24 1973 at Mandal of Chamoli district of Gharwal division
of Utter Pradesh is of non-violence protest raised out of ecological destabilization in the hills.
In 1973 the State Forest Department gave a lease of forest trees for manufacturer of sporting
goods. On March 27 decision was taken to ‘Chipko” that is ‘to hug’ the trees that were
threatened by axe and thus the chipko andolan (movement) was born. In 1974 Sunderlal
Bahuguna the “Chipko Messenger” visited the entire region taking the Chipko message from
village to village. In subsequent period the local people did not allow any one from cutting trees
even for home industries.

ENVIRONMENTAL MOVEMENTS IN ODISHA

The state of Odisha, particularly the southern belt, i.e., undivided Koraput, Bolangir and
Kalahandi districts, is endowed with 1733 million tonnes (70%) of the total bauxite resources
of the country. Since 1986 several attempts have been made in western Odisha to explore
bauxite ore (Government of Odisha, 2000). Any such mining projects will have an adverse
impact on the life and livelihood of the local and the environment of the region. Therefore, in
the local organisation of the agitations women’s groups took an active part through picketing,
processions and public hearings. The emergence of an indigenous leadership made all these
movements more widespread. In fact, in this process of micro movements, the forest-dependent
communities are trying to re-establish the functional importance of their indigenous institutions
in the environmental protection and to determine the forest based regional needs of the people.
50 Development Policies, Environmental Impact and Collective Action.

Ecological and Bio-Diversity Protection Movement in Niyamgiri Hills of Odisha

Niyamgiri, a range of hills stretched over 250 sq. km, is popularly known as DongariaKondha
land. Socio-culturally Niyamgiri hills are a single hill country, but from administrative point of

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view this land is divided under three districts of Kalahandi, Rayagada and Koraput.
Anthropologists consider Niyamgiri as the original abode of the Dongariakandhas, which is
one of the original sub-groups of the Kandhas, who consider themselves as the descendants of
Niyam Raja (Patnaik and Das Patnaik, 1982). The Dongarias have a distinguished heritage,
dress style, mode of living, indigenous skills, cultural pattern, and social system interlinked
with nature. Niyamgiri carries most pristine forests of Odisha, vulnerable wildlife species, and
proposed south Odisha Elephant Reserve and Wild life sanctuary of the State. Vedanta Alumina
Limited of M/s Sterilite Industries (India) Limited jointly with Odisha Mining Corporation
(OMC) has signed agreement on 4th June, 2004 to set up an Alumina Complex of 1.0 MTPA
Alumina Refinery Plant, 3.0 MTPA of bauxite mining for a period of 23 years and 75 MW
Captive Power Plant at Lanjigarh in Kalahandi. Taxonomists who assessed the flora of
Niyamgiri hills viewed that the flora of the hill range exhibits a very rich and varied assemblage
of plant species owing to its diversified topography with High Mountain peaks and enumerable
deep valleys and gorges, abundant springs and diverse vegetation resources. DongariaKandhas
fought against Vedanta Company establishing the linkages between the natural environment
and their rights. Through struggle, the local communities and the like minded forces appealed
to the Supreme Court of India to restore the rights of the tribal people and to preserve the forest
resources of Niyamgiri Hills. It is provisioned that no land in this area can be transferred to
non-tribals (CEC Report, 2005). However, the local people in order to protect their own rights
are determined to stop the mining in Niyamgiri Hills.

9.9 LET US SUM UP

1. Volcanic eruption leads to surface cooling Source; Google Variation in Solar Output
The current scientific agreement, according to the United Nations' Intergovernmental
Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), is that long and short-term variations in solar activity
play only a minor effect on Earth's climate.

2. The way solar radiation is reflected, absorbed, and transmitted by the atmosphere has a
big impact on the Earth's climate.
3. Global climate can be influenced by geological changes on the Earth's surface.
4. Long-term changes in temperature and weather patterns are referred to as climate
change.
5. Ocean currents thus serve to manage global climate by balancing the uneven
distribution of solar radiation reaching the Earth's surface.

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6. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has accumulated sufficient

data to warn that global warming-induced climate change would increase extreme
weather events and weather disturbances around the world.
7. Global warming is defined as an increase in global average temperatures.
8. The oceans play a vital role in keeping our planet warm, which has an impact on
weather and climate.
9. The reason behind Environmental Protection

 highly increased population

 Ozone layer depletion
 Climate change
 Global warming
 Increased emission of CFCs
 Industrial growth which produces smog
 Soil erosion
 Barren land, these are the reasons why the environment should be protected.

9.10 GLOSSARY

Ecology- Ecology is the study of organisms and how they interact with the environment
around them. An ecologist studies the relationship between living things and their habitats.

Climate change - Climate change refers to long-term shifts in temperatures and weather
patterns. These shifts may be natural, such as through variations in the solar cycle.

9.11 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. What is climate?
2. What is climate variation?
3. What do you mean by carbon footprint?
4. What are the anthropcroreogenic causes of climate change?
5. What are the natural causes of climate change?
6. What are the effects of climate change?
7. What are the steps taken for environmental protection?
8. What are the causes of climate change?

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9. What is global warming? What are the causes and effects of global warming?

9.12 REFRENCES

 https://climate.nasa.gov/solutions/adaptation-mitigation/
 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change
 https://www.tribuneonlineng.com/130019/
 http://wearerestless.org/2015/12/10/the-impact-of-climate-change-on-nigeria/
 Biologicaldiversity.org. (2019). Transportation and Global Warming. [online]
Available
https://www.biologicaldiversity.org/programs/climate_law_institute/transportation
 Climate Change: Vital Signs of the Planet. (2019). The Causes of Climate Change
[online] Available at: https://climate.nasa.gov/causes/ [Accessed 25 Aug. 2019].
 Sciencedirect.com. (2019). Recycled Paper - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
[online] Available at: https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-
planetarysciences/recycled-paper [Accessed 25 Aug. 2019].
 Ecology Global Network. (2019). Paper Chase | Ecology Global Network.
[online]Available at: https://www.ecology.com/2011/09/10/paper-chase/ [Accessed 25
Aug.2019].

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UNIT-10: LOSS OF BIODIVERSITY (WATER AND AIR)

Structure

10.1Learning objectives
10.2 Introduction
10.3Concept/definition of biodiversity
10.4Threat to biodiversity
10.5Loss of biodiversity
10.6Scope for studying loss of biodiversity
10.7Causes of biodiversity loss
10.8Levels of biodiversity
10.9Biodiversity in India
10.10 Need of biodiversity conservation
10.11 Conservation of biodiversity
10.12 Let us sum up
10.13 Glossary
10.14 Check your progress
10.15 References

10.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVE

After studying this Unit, you will be able to:

 the concept of biodiversity

 what are the threats to biodiversity
 the steps needed for the conservation of biodiversity
 the conservation strategy for biodiversity.

10.2 INTRODUCTION

At all levels of biological organization, the earth's biosphere exhibits tremendous diversity.
Biodiversity is the wide range of species, creatures, species, and vast biological communities
or biomes that exist. Biodiversity loss is the term used to describe the loss brought on by the
decline or reduction in this variety due to various circumstances. Human actions are to blame
for the current loss of biodiversity in even the tiniest biological communities in a specific area.

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A region's loss of biodiversity may cause certain species to go extinct, which may cau se the
entire ecosystem in that area to do the same.

Species abundance, a measure of the variety or diversity of species, is typically used to define
biodiversity. Therefore, biodiversity loss is simply defined as the extinction of species from a
particular location, ecosystem, or biosphere, yet the effects of a species' biodiversity loss would
negatively affect the entire ecosystem or biome. This is due to the disturbance of the food chain
and greater dependency on one species for nourishment caused by the reduction in biodiversity.

10.3 CONCEPT/DEFINITION OF BIODIVERSITY

There are more than 50 million kinds of plants, animals, and microorganisms in the universe,
according to research. This includes more than 50 million species. So far, 1.4 million species
have been identified. From the bottom of the ocean to the top of a mountain, from polar ice
caps to tropical rain forests and deserts, each of these species has a specific environment to
which they have evolved. All of these variations in life are restricted to the biosphere, a layer
of lithosphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere that is just approximately one kilo metre deep.

Although the study of the environment and ecology has a long history, Walter Rosen used the
word biodiversity in 1986. Therefore, biological diversity, also known as biodiversity, is
defined as the variety and difference among living things as well as the eco systems in which
they interact.

Therefore, according to the definition, biodiversity refers to the diversity found within
individual species of animals, plants, and microbes as well as among ecosystems, which
include terrestrial, marine, airborne, and all other aquatic systems and environmental
complexes. Simple terms, biodiversity is the collection of many life forms. Even with the best
efforts of various methods and data sources, it is still challenging to correctly estimate
biodiversity. However, sometimes clear-cut solutions are needed to develop the necessary
information of where biodiversity is found, how it is changing over time and place, the factors
that cause this change, how this change is affecting ecosystem services and human well-being,
and the possible responses.

Measure the quantity of all organisms over time and space using taxonomy, such as the number
of species, functional characteristics, for example, the ecological type, such as nitrogen-fixing
plants, such as legumes, versus non-nitrogen-fixing plants, and the interactions among species
that affect their dynamics and function, such as hunting, parasitism, competition, and

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facilitation, like like. Estimating biodiversity turnover as opposed to just point estimates in
space or time would be more important. Currently, the information is insufficient, making it
difficult to perform this accurately. Even for the biodiversity's taxonomic component, where
data is best.

10.4 THREAT TO BIODIVERSITY

Human activities and habitat loss, deforestation, desertification, marine environments,

increased wildlife trade, and climate change are some of the major threats to biodiversity.

1. Human Activities and Habitat Loss: According to studies, human activities are destroying
biological variety among plants and animals at a rate that is 50 to 100 times more than what it
would be without human activity. Coral reefs and tropical woods are two of the most well-liked
species in diverse ecosystems.

While coral reefs are increasingly being threatened with extinction and polluted, tropical forests
are mostly in danger from transformation to other land uses. The estimated number of species
that the remaining forests might support would decrease by 5 to 10% compared to the forest in
the absence of human disturbance if the rate of progress of loss of tropical forests continued
for the next 30 years (approximately 1% per year).

Numerous actions, such as the following, can lead to biodiversity loss.

 The destruction and conversion of habitats;

 Excessive species exploitation;
 Isolated areas of the indigenous vegetation; and
 Water and air pollution.

Biodiversity loss also affects important ecological functions like pollination, soil fertility
restoration, flood control, water purification, waste assimilation, and the cycling of carbon and
other nutrients.

2. Deforestation: Forest ecosystems are habitat to up to 80% of the planet's terrestrial

biodiversity and are essential to the worldwide cycles of water, energy, and nutrients. They
also produce wood fibre and biomass energy. In many regions of the world, forest ecosystems
are being destroyed and deteriorated.

The implementation of sustainable forest methods will become increasingly challenging as the
demand for wood is predicted to roughly increase over the next 50 years. The deterioration of

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forests constitutes a significant potential source of greenhouse gas emissions, in addition to

challenges to biodiversity and potential shortages in the supply of forest products.

Three times as much carbon as is currently in the atmosphere is found in forest ecosystems,
with roughly one-third of that carbon stored above ground in plants and trees and the other two-
thirds in the soil.

3. Desertification: The main factors contributing to the loss of biodiversity are deforestation
and soil erosion. The expansion of agriculture has a significant impact on both processes. The
loss of precious plant and animal species is a direct result of deforestation. Poor land
management leads to the process of degradation, which can be made worse by climatic
changes. When converting uncontrolled land to agriculture, the soils are frequently tilled,
which causes an average reduction in soil organic matter of between 25 and 40 percent over
twenty-five years in temperate countries. Main factors contributing to the loss of biodiversity
are deforestation and soil erosion. The expansion of agriculture has a significant impact on both
processes. The loss of precious plant and animal species is a direct result of deforestation. Poor
land management leads to the process of degradation, which can be made worse by climatic
changes. When converting uncontrolled land to agriculture, the soils are frequently tilled,
which causes an average reduction in soil organic matter of between 25 and 40 percent over
twenty-five years in temperate countries.

Decreases in moisture retention, fertility, and the capacity to hold on fertilisers are frequently
seen in combination with decreasing soil organic matter, which is always an indicative of soil
degradation. Additionally, ploughing exposes soils to wind and water erosion, severe damage
freshwater resource pollution.

4. Marine Environment: The world's oceans are essential to maintaining the environment.
Since they make up 70% of the surface of the planet, they have an impact on things like the
economy, food supply, and climate. Despite these functions, the ecosystem along the coast and
in the ocean is rapidly deteriorating in many regions of the world.

The production of near-shore fisheries and aquatic biodiversity have significantly decreased in
coastal areas where human activity is concentrated due to pollution, destruction of natural of
resources, development of essential habitats like wetlands and mangroves, and water flow from
erroneous land-use practises.

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5. Growing Wildlife Trade: "Trade is another factor of biodiversity depletion that gives rise
to conflict between North and South," claims Nick Barnes. Over $20 billion USD is thought to
be traded in wildlife annually. A minimum of 40,000 primates, 90,000 African elephants' tusks,
1 million orchids, 4 million live birds, 10 million reptile skins, 15 million furs, and over 350
million tropical fish are all traded globally.

6. Temperature Change: In both hemispheres, animals will move to higher latitudes and
elevations as the climate warms. The physiological operation of plants and the makeup of
species are both affected by the rise in CO2 levels in the atmosphere. Additionally, aquatic
habitats are particularly susceptible to climate change, including coral reefs, mangrove
swamps, and coastal wetlands.

The most ecologically diversified marine ecosystem, coral reefs, are potentially susceptible to
changes in both sea level and ocean temperature. While the majority of coral systems should
be able to develop quickly enough to withstand a sea level rise of 15 to 95 centimetres over the
course of the next century, the long-term viability of many of these systems would be
threatened by a prolonged increase of several degrees centigrade.

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Source; what is the difference between threats to and causes of biodiversity loss - Bing images

10.5 LOSS OF BIODIVERSITY

Changes in habitat, population expansion, and technological advancements all seem to be

hastening the loss of biodiversity. Since 1970, the loss of biological diversity has gained
prominence as a scientific and political issue, and anthropologists have been taking notice.
Environmental ethics, one of the sub - disciplines of environmental anthropology, has made
the preservation of biodiversity into a topic of discussion. The "rights" and values of plants,
animals, and humans are all subject to diverse conceptions in anthropology, which may be
exposed by such conservation initiatives.

A variety of fields, including the forest, the marine ecosystem, pastoralism, and natural
resource management, among others, have benefited from anthropologists' contributions to
biodiversity protection. As scholars of indigenous knowledge and management, as managers
of conservation projects, and as defenders of the rights of indigenous peoples, anthropologists
are involved in the protection of both protected areas and agricultural resources.

Natural resources are frequently looted in military regimes and corrupt states, however in
democracies, there are certain channels open for the general public and the motivated people
to take some action. For instance, in democracies, PILs (Public Interest Litigations) brought by
environmentalists, along with public protests and media actions, can have some impact, but
such action cannot be conducted in dictats. For instance, India has a strong track record of filing
these lawsuits, but corruption is a major factor in the country's litigation landscape, frequently
negating the advantages of sound legislation and legal measures.

One way that legal acts can aid in the preservation of biodiversity is through intellectual
property rights, particularly in light of the growing commercial use of genetic materials.

10.6 SCOPE FOR STUDYING LOSS OF BIODIVERSITY

Since there are many different perspectives on biological diversity, there are many different
justifications for its conservation. As a result, there are many ways to comprehend biodiversity
via the lenses of distinct cultural values and views of the world. The various interpretations
range from cosmocentric (or ecocentric) to anthropocentric perspectives, as well as for the
moral, ethical, artistic, and economic factors of biodiversity's ecosystem services.

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These serve as the framework for conserving biological diversity. Two factors call attention to
current discussions about biological diversity: first, the importance of biodiversity is becoming
increasingly recognised, and second, biodiversity is being rapidly lost.

Values and levels can be used to understand the significance of biodiversity. The value
component takes into account biodiversity for both anthropocentric and intrinsic worth.
According to the former, biological diversity has an intrinsic value that should be protected
regardless of how important it is to humans. The latter sees biological diversity as economically
useful because it provides a variety of services to people that are important from an economic,
ecological, aesthetic, or recreational aspect. It views biodiversity as a resource that can be
utilized for the benefit the people.

Biological diversity can also be understood on the following levels: 1) locals; 2) environment;
and 3) humanity. These levels differ from one another in terms of the services and advantages
that biodiversity provides. First off, those who depend on nature for their living, such as tribals,
peasants, fisherfolk, etc., are intrinsically related to biodiversity. They are totally reliant on
biodiversity to survive.

Additionally, biodiversity offers protection against the future for these people. Second,
biodiversity contributes ecosystem services to the environment, such as maintaining
biogeochemical cycles, regulating climate, conserving soil and water, and performing
photosynthesis, recycling of substances including carbon, Sulphur, nitrogen, oxygen, and
water.

Last but not least, mankind as a whole advantage from biodiversity on many different levels
and in many ways. These benefits include ecosystem services that support life, a variety of
natural raw materials for consumption and the market, and the advantages of the local
population, who is an integral part of humanity. Additionally, cultural variety with varied
ecological conditions is supported by biodiversity.

Despite this, there is biodiversity erosion, which is currently expanding and accelerating
primarily due to anthropogenic reasons and to a lesser extent due to natural causes and climate
disruptions. There are numerous ways in which human actions contribute to the loss of
biodiversity. These include: 1) the expansion of an industrial culture across borders, 2) the
privatisation of resources, 3) resource overuse/exploitation, 4) habitat loss, 5) the supremacy
of Western science over indigenous ecological knowledge, and 6) the establishment of
"agribusiness" with monocultures.

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However, because they are so closely related, the decrease of cultural diversity also stems from
the loss of biodiversity. On the other hand, little is known about the biological diversity of
different ecosystems, and most species are still undiscovered.

Globally, 1.75 million species have been formally known and documented, according to a
report by the Convention on Biological Diversity (Global Biodiversity Outlook 1, 2001). It is
predicted that there are another 14 million species out there that have not been found, identified,
or documented. They might be more valuable to the earth and carry more goods or services.
Given the foregoing, it is essential to take action to conserve biodiversity, notwithstanding the
differences in values and justifications for biodiversity among various communities.

10.7 CAUSES OF BIODIVERSITY LOSS

1. Destruction of habitat: The natural habitat may be destroyed by man for human
settlement, agriculture, mining, industry, highway construction, dam building, etc. As
a result, the species must either adjust to the environment, migrate, or risk being killed
by predators, starvation, or diseases.
2. Hunting: Wild animals are hunted for their skins, horns, fur, meat, pharmaceuticals,
cosmetics, fragrances, and other commercially valuable things.
3. The exploitation of selected species: Many of the plants that are used for medicine
have been eradicated from their natural habitats as a result of exploitation. The pitcher
plants, including Nepenthes khasiana, Drosera sp., Gnetum sp., Psilotum sp., and
Isoetes sp., are ruthlessly sought out and gathered for use in teaching and laboratory
work.
4. Habitat fragmentation: The term "habitat fragmentation" refers to the "unnatural
separation or division of enormous regions of habitat into spatially segregated
fragments" that are unable to support the diversity of their many species for an infinite
future. One of the most important factors contributing to the loss of biodiversity is
habitat fragmentation. Fragmentation results in "terrestrial islands" that are man-
made. These fragments undergo microclimatic impacts that are noticeably different
from those that prevailed in the expansive tracks of habitats prior to fragmentation.
5. Research purpose: One of the most important factors contributing to the loss of
biodiversity is habitat fragmentation. Fragmentation results in "terrestrial islands" that
are man-made. These fragments undergo climatic and environmental impacts that are

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noticeably different from those that occurred in the expansive tracks of habitats prior
to fragmentation.
6. Introduction of exotic species: Exotic species can be defined as any species that is
not a native of the area but is intentionally or unintentionally introduced into the
ecosystem. Due to the introduction of exotic species, native species face competition
for food and habitat.
7. Pollution: Natural habitats are impacted by pollution. Estuarine and coastal
ecosystems' biotic components are particularly vulnerable to the effects of water
pollution. Aquatic ecosystems are harmed when toxic wastes enter water bodies and
disrupt the food chain. The plant and animal species are negatively impacted by
insecticides, pesticides, sulphur and nitrogen oxides, acid rain, ozone depletion, and
global warming.

It is also crucial to consider the effects of coastal pollution. It is evident that pollution
from industrialisation, oil transportation, and offshore mining along the coastal areas
is destroying coral reefs.
8. Control of Pests and Predators: Measures to manage pests and predators typically
lead to the extinction of predators that are essential to a healthy ecosystem, but they
can also indiscriminately kill non-target animals.
9. Natural calamities: Natural disasters like floods, droughts, forest fires, earthquakes,
volcanic eruptions, diseases, etc. can occasionally have a serious impact on plant and
animal life. In humid tropical areas of the world, floods are common and can
submerge most of the ground flora, trapping numerous animals and robbing the soil
of its nutrients. Trees are also harmed as the subterranean water table drops after two
or three years of consecutive monsoon failure. Animals also suffer because of plant
life.

Source; Learn about the causes of Biodiversity Loss - Student Center | Britannica.com

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10.8 LEVELS OF BIODIVERSITY

1. Genetic diversity is all the different genes contained in all the living species including
individual plants, animals,fungi, and microorganisms.
2. Species diversity is all the different species,as well as the difference within and
between species
3. Ecosystem diversity is all the different habitat, biological communities and ecological
processes, as well as variation within individual ecosystem.

IMPORTANCE AND VALUES OF BIODIVERSITY

The variety of organisms present in an ecosystem, as well as their distribution and abundance,
is referred to as biodiversity. It also shows the various stages of biological systems
organization.

Ecological and economic relevance can be found in biodiversity. It gives us food, shelter,
energy, clothing, and a variety of other things. Additionally, it makes money through tourism.
Therefore, in order to live sustainably, it is crucial to have a solid understanding of biodiversity.

Maintaining biodiversity is crucial for keeping life on earth alive. Several reasons for the
importance of biodiversity include:

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1. Ecological Stability:

Each species plays a particular function in an ecosystem. They create and break down organic
matter in addition to capturing and storing energy. Without the ecosystem's help, humanity
would not be able to survive. A varied ecosystem is more resilient to environmental stress and
more productive.

2. Economic importance
 Resources for the production of food, cosmetics, and medicines can be found in
biodiversity.
 Rich food sources include crops, cattle, fisheries, and forests.
 Wild herbs like Cinchona and Foxglove plant are utilised as medicines.
 Diverse plant species are the source of wood, fibres, scents, lubricants, rubber, resins,
poison, and cork.
 Tourists visit the national parks and wildlife sanctuaries. For many individuals, they are
a source of beauty and pleasure.
3. Economic importance
 Resources for the production of food, cosmetics, and medicines can be found in
biodiversity.
 Rich food sources include crops, cattle, fisheries, and forests.
 Wild herbs like Cinchona and Foxglove plant are utilised as medicines.
 Diverse plant species are the source of wood, fibres, scents, lubricants, rubber, resins,
poison, and cork.
 Tourists visit the national parks and wildlife sanctuaries. For many individuals, they are
a source of beauty and pleasure.
4. Value of Ethics

Every species has the right to exist. Their deliberate extinction should not be brought about by
humans. Different cultures and spiritual traditions are preserved by biodiversity. Therefore,
biodiversity preservation is crucial.

10.9 BIODIVERSITY IN INDIA

India is a megadiverse country that is home to almost 10% of all species in the world.
Additionally, it has a lengthy and rich heritage. The sociocultural traditions of the land are
intimately connected to a large portion of Indian biodiversity.

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At the global, regional, and local levels, species and ecosystems provide critical environmental
services. India is a megadiverse country that is home to almost 10% of all species in the world.
Additionally, it has a long cultural history that dates back thousands of years.

The land's sociocultural activities are closely linked to a large portion of Indian biodiversity.
Sadly, a number of species are in danger of going extinct because of the population boom,
climate change, and the low enforcement of environmental laws. Following is a detailed
summary of India's biodiversity:

INDIA'S FLORA AND FAUNA

The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) states that, while only
making up 2.4% of the planet's surface area, India is home to between 7-8% of all known
species, including both plant and animal species.

1. There are around 45,000 plant species in the globe, or 7% of all species. Of them,
33% are endemic.
2. There are 15,000 flowering plants, or 6% of all plants, in the biosphere. About
1,500 plant species are at danger of extinction.
3. There are 91,000 different animal species, or around 6.5% of all the fauna in the
globe. Among them are 500 molluscs, 60,000 insect species, 2,456 fish species, 1,230
bird species, 372 mammals, over 440 reptiles, 200 amphibians, with the majority
of them found in the Western Ghats.
4. There is a wide range of livestock. In India, there are 400 breeds of sheep, 27 types of
cattle, and 22 breeds of goats.
5. Some of Asia's rarest animals, including the Bengal Fox, Asiatic Cheetah, Marbled Cat,
Asiatic Lion, Indian Elephant, Asiatic Wild Ass, Indian Rhinoceros, Markhor, Gaur,
Wild Asiatic Water Buffalo, etc., have internationally significant populations in this
region.

INDIA: A MEGA BIODIVERSITY COUNTRY

Why India is one of the mega-diversity countries?

 India and its surrounding nations are home to four of the world's 34 biodiversity
hotspots.

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 There are several indigenous species in India. In the country, indigenous plants make
up about 33% of the recorded flora. Of the 49,219 plant species, 5150 are indigenous
and spread across 141 taxa and 47 families, making up around 30% of the flora that has
been scientifically catalogued.
 Nearly one-third of all flowering plants discovered and documented in India to date are
found in the 26 recognised endemism centres that make up the nation.
 The Palaeric and Indo-Malayan are India's two main realms, and the tropical humid
forests, tropical deciduous forests, and warm deserts/semi-deserts are its three biomes.
 There are 10 biogeographic regions in India. India is one of the 12 centres of origin of
cultivated plants.

BIODIVERSITY HOTSPOT

A region must meet both of the following requirements, according to Conservation

International, in order to be considered a hotspot:
The area should feature a high level of endemic species and at least 1500 different species of
vascular plants.
It must be in danger and still have at least 30% of its original habitat.
There are four main biodiversity hotspots in India that meet the requirements for being
designated as such:
1. The Himalayas
2. Burma-Indo Region
3. Sunderland
4. Western Ghats

The Himalayas
The Himalayas, which are regarded as the highest mountains in the world, span parts of Nepal's
central and eastern regions, Bhutan, and north-east India. 163 endangered species, including
the one-horned rhino and wild Asian water buffalo, have been recorded in this region (NE
Himalayas), along with 10,000 plant species, 3160 of which are indigenous. The size of this
mountain range is around 750,000 km2.
Burma-Indo Region
The Indo-Burma Region spans a surface area of 2,373,000 km2. Six new species of large
mammals have been found in this area over the past 12 years: the Large-antlered Muntjac,
Annamite Muntjac, Grey-shanked Douc, Annamite Striped Rabbit, Leaf Deer, and Saola.

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The indigenous freshwater turtle species found in this hotspot are also well-known, however,
the majority of them are endangered due to overfishing and severe habitat loss. The threatened
White-eared Night-heron, Grey-crowned Crocias, and Orange-necked Partridge are just a few
of the 1,300 diverse bird species that exist.

Western Ghat Mountains

Most of the deciduous woods and rain forests in peninsular India are covered by the Western
Ghats, which run along that boundary. It is home to at least 325 species of fish, birds,
amphibians, reptiles, and other animals that are threatened globally, according to UNESCO.
The vegetation in this area used to cover 190,000 km2 but has since shrunk to 43,000 km2.
Additionally, the region is well-known for its 229 plant species, 31 mammal species, 15 bird
species, 43 amphibian species, 5 reptile species, and 1 fish species of the flora and fauna that
are all globally endangered. Of the 325 species that are globally threatened, according to
UNESCO, "129 are designated as Vulnerable, 145 as Endangered, and 51 as Critically
Endangered."

Sundarland
In South-East Asia, Singapore, Thailand, Indonesia, Brunei, and Malaysia are all included in
the Sundaland hotspot. The United Nations designated Sundaland as a World Biosphere
Reserve in 2013. Famous for having a diverse terrestrial and marine environment, this area.
One of the biologically richest regions in the world is Sundaland, which has 25,000 species of
vascular plants, 15,000 of which are unique to this area.

10.10 NEED FOR BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION

We have fewer options for the future the more biodiversity we eliminate and the more
irreversibly we alter the planet. What makes biodiversity so crucial? Why should we be
interested in it? What is this value of biodiversity? Although the general public may not fully
comprehend all of its functions in our lives, they are undoubtedly aware of the value of
biodiversity. There are many factors that underlie the need to conserve biodiversity, such as,
• The current and potential applications of biological diversity's constituent parts,
particularly because we have no way of knowing or predicting what may be useful in the
future.

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• The maintenance of the earth's life support systems is necessary for the biosphere to
sustain human life.
• The preservation of the entire earth's biological diversity, including all other existents
(now existing) life forms, is crucial from an ethical perspective.
All aspects of biological diversity, including genes, species, and ecosystems, must be
preserved. Ecosystems will be more stable in the long run thanks to species variety.

10.11 CONSERVATION OF BIODIVERSITY

In order to gather resources for sustainable development, biodiversity must be protected and
managed.Three key goals of biodiversity protection are as follows:

 to maintain the variety of species.

 sustainable use of ecosystems and species
 to protect vital ecological processes and systems that support life.

The term "biodiversity" describes the diversity of life on earth. There are several ways to
conserve it:

1. Ex-situ conservation:
Breeding and maintaining endangered species in man-made habitats like zoos,
nurseries, botanical gardens, gene banks, etc. is known as ex-situ conservation
of biodiversity. Less organisms are competing with one another for food, water, and
available space.

The benefits of ex-situ conservation are as follows:

 The animals are given more time and opportunities for reproduction.
 It is possible to reintroduce the captive-bred species to the wild.
 It is possible to apply genetic approaches to protect threatened species.
2. In-situ conservation:
The preservation of species in their natural habitat is referred to as in-situ biodiversity
conservation. The natural ecology is preserved and safeguarded using this technique.
The benefits of in-situ conservation are numerous. The following are crucial benefits
of in-situ conservation:
 It is a practical and affordable way to protect biodiversity.
 Many different living things can be preserved at once.

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 The organisms can evolve more easily and can more readily adapt to various
environmental situations since they are in a natural habitat.

National parks, wildlife sanctuaries, and biosphere reserves are a few protected locations where
in-situ conservation is practiced.

National Parks

The government keeps a tiny amount of reserves. Its limits are clearly defined, and human
activities like grazing, forestry, habitat development, and farming are not permitted. Kanha
National Park and Bandipur National Park are two examples.

Wildlife sanctuaries

These are the only places on earth where wild animals can be found. Human activities like
logging, farming, gathering woods other forest products are permitted here as long as they don't
get in the way of the conservation initiative. Additionally, vacationers travel to these locations.

Biosphere Reserves

Biosphere reserves are versatile protected regions where native wildlife, local customs, and
domesticated flora and animals are all safeguarded. tourists and academics are permitted here.

10.12 LET US SUM UP

The lovely planet Earth has given us a lot of things that happen naturally. Natural resources
include things like rivers, valleys, oceans, many animal species, and lovely types of flora and
trees. In the modern society, we are preoccupied with improving our surroundings and
deteriorating our lovely environment. Most of the resources that nature provided in abundance
had already been fully utilised by humans. Consequently, there is a requirement to preserve
these natural resources. There is a critical need for biodiversity conservation among other
things.

10.13 GLOSSARY

Biodiversity: The variability among living organisms from all sources, including, inter alia,
terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they
are part. This includes diversity within species, between species and of ecosystems.

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Biodiversity hot spots: Hot spots are areas that are extremely rich in species, have high
endemism and are under constant threat.

Biosphere: It is a narrow layer around the surface of the earth where life can exist.

Convention: An agreement between states covering particular matters especially one less
formal than treaty.

Ecosystem diversity: The variation between different types of ecosystems.

Flora: A collective term for all the plant types that grow in a region

10.14 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. What is loss of biodiversity?

2. What are the causes of biodiversity loss?
3. What are the conservation method for biodiversity?

10.15 REFERENCES

 Bharucha Erach, 2003. The Biodiversity of India, Mapin Publishing Pvt. Ltd.
 Das, A.K. and Saxena, K.G. (1996). Conserving Biodiversity for Sustainable
 Development. New Delhi: INSA
 IUCN (1999) Resource Material on Biodiversity for General Certificate of
 Education.
 Kaushik, A. 2nd Ed. (2004) Environmental Studies, New Delhi: New Age
 International (P) Limited.
 Krishnamurthy, K.V. (2003). Textbook of Biodiversity. Enfield, New
 Hampshire: Science Publishers, Inc.
 National Biodiversity Action Plan and Strategy of India,(Draft of 2002).
 Rajagopalan, R. 3rd Ed. (2015) Environmental Studies, New Delhi: Oxford
 University Press.
 Shiva, Vandana. (2000). Tomorrow’s Biodiversity. London: Thames &
 Hudson.
 Speth, James Gustave. 2004). Global Environmental Challenges: Transitions
 to a Sustainable World, New Delhi: Orient Longman
 WCMC (1992) Global Biodiversity. Status of the earth’s Living Resources

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UNIT-11: DEFORESTATION

Structure

11.1 Learning objective

11.2 Introduction
11.3 Forest
11.4 Deforestation
11.5 Effect of deforestation on tribal communities
11.6 Conservation strategies
11.7 Forest conservation act
11.8 Case Study
11.9 Let us sum up
11.10 Glossary
11.11 Check your progress
11.12 References

11.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVE

After studying this Unit, you will be able to:

 Importance, benefits, and function of the forest.

 Deforestation, its cause, consequences, and impact.
 Conservation strategies to protect the forest.
 Effect of deforestation on tribal communities.
 About the Forest Conservation Acts

11.2 INTRODUCTION

Deforestation is the permanent removal or destruction of native forests. According to current

estimates, 21% of the earth's land surface is covered by native forests. In this chapter, we'll
learn about the value of forests as a resource, the problems associated with deforestation
worldwide, particularly in India, as well as its origins and effects. We'll also take a close look
to how deforestation affects tribal populations, as well as strategies to stop it, a few Forest
Conservation Acts, and a case study of the Chipko Movement in India.

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11.3 FOREST

Forests are both an ecological and socioeconomic resource. In addition to serving as a source
of a variety of goods and industrial raw materials, forests need to be managed wisely for
environmental protection and the many services they provide. Forests encompass about one-
third of the earth's surface. The forests offer a habitat for wildlife, access to resources like
wood, firewood, and drugs, as well as a wonderful atmosphere. Indirectly, forests help humans
by preventing soil erosion in watersheds, keeping rivers and reservoirs clear of debris, and
facilitating the ability for groundwater to recharge. The cycling of carbon, water, nitrogen, and
other components is significantly influenced by forests.

The complex ecosystem known as a forest, which is primarily made up of trees and maintains
a wide variety of life forms. The trees are the key element in the unique environment that
sustains a variety of animals and plants, making them the most significant part of the
ecosystem. The forest's main producers, trees also purify, cool, and regulate the climate.

There are two types of forests: natural forests and plantations or man-made forests. Natural
forests are those made up primarily of locally native (native) trees that have grown naturally,
whereas plantations are forests that have been created by growing trees intentionally.

The key elements that affect the type of forest are climate, soil composition, terrain, and elevation.
According to their nature and composition, the temperature they prefer, and how they interact
with their surroundings, forests are categorised. India offers a wide variety of forests, from the
rain forests of Kerala and the North-East to the deciduous forests in the plains, the mountain
forests to the alpine pastures of Ladakh, and the deserts of Rajasthan.

TYPES OF FOREST

The 2019 India State of Forest Report found that trees and forests covered 24.56% (8,07,276
sq km) of India's land area. 33 percent of the nation's landmass should be covered with forests,
according to a long-term target.

The forest is classified on the basis of;

On administration basis;

 Reserved forest
 Protected forest

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 Unprotected forest

On the basis of merchantability;

 Merchantable forest
 No-nmerchantable forest

Based on composition;

 Coniferous forest
 Broad leaf forest

Based on average annual rainfall ;

 Tropical evergreen forest

 Tropical deciduous forest( monsoon)
 Tropical thorn forest
 Montane forest
 Littoral/swamp ( mangrove)

Fig. Types of forest according to average annual rainfall

Source; 1619435891_image5.jpg (624×783) (drishtiias.com)

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IMPORTANCE OF FOREST

1. Forest helps to preserve biodiversity.

2. Forest are anatural habitats of plants and animals.
3. Forest provide timber, wood ,fuel, medicines ,paper, fodder ,etc.
4. Forest help to maintain ecological balance.
5. Forest helps to control climate and rainfall.
6. Forest helps to prevent soil erosion and control floods.
7. Forest helps to maintain oxygen.
8. They absorb carbon dioxide, so reduce global warming.
9. Forest has many spiritual, cultural and social value.
10. Tree cover in the forest stabilizes the soil.
11. Forest gives clean air to the environment.

Source; importance of forest - Bing images

FUNCTION OF FOREST

The following are the functions of forest;

1. Protective function
Forests protect the environment against soil erosion, drought, flood, noise, and radiation
reaction .

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Fig. Soil erosion, Drought, flood

Source; drought and flood - Bing images
2. Productive function
Forest produce timber, wood, latex,bamboo, fruits,spices, gums, medicinal herbs which
are used by industries .

Source; forest products - Bing images

3. Regulative function
The forest regulate carbon dioxide level, oxygen level in the atmosphere . it also help
in regulating temperature, rainfall and other climate variables. It also improves soil
fertility.

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Source; regulatory function of forest - Bing images

4. Accessory function
Forest act as habitat for many aniamals, birds, insects , it has aesthetic and recreational
value.

Source; forest habitation for wild animals - Bing images

11.4 DEFORESTATION

Deforestation is the long-term or permanent loss of forest cover and conversion of that area to
a non-forested usage. Deforestation is one of the world's most urgent land use issues, according
to the World Resources Institute (WRI). The speed at which deforestation is taking place is
another serious issue. During the time period, the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO,
2006).

The term "deforestation" refers to a variety of activities, including repeated lopping, felling,
and clearing of forest debris, foraging, grazing, and trampling of seedlings. It can also be

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described as the removal or destruction of forest vegetation to the point where it no longer
sustains the forest's native plants and animals.

Around 7.0 billion hectares of forests covered the earth at the beginning of the 20th century,
but by 1950, that number had dropped to nearly 4.8 billion. In 2000 A.D., the forest will only
cover 2.35 billion ha hectares if the current pattern continues.

According to a study by FAQ and UNEP, around 7.3 million hectares of dense tropical forests
are destroyed each year, along with 14 hectares of closed forest per minute.

India is an agricultural nation. Since forests are being cleared for farming, livestock grazing,
and plantation crops like tea and coffee, the nation is quickly losing its forest cover.

One of the worst and most widespread environmental issues India is currently dealing with is
deforestation. Early 1970s surveys carried out in India revealed a forest cover of just about
22.7% as opposed to the 33% desired by the "National Forest Policy."

Large forest regions were cut up by townships, roads, and canals shortly after independence as
a result of rapid growth and development. The exploitation of the forest's resources increased.
The annual Vanamahotsava tree-planting festival was first held in 1950 by the Indian
government. The first state to do so was Gujarat. However, the protection of India's forests and
wildlife didn't receive more attention until the 1970s. One of the first nations in the world to
start a social forestry program, India planted trees along canals, railways, and roadsides to help
reforest regions that were previously non-forested.

CAUSES OF DEFORESTATION

 Agriculture: Human has always modified the nature with their interest and needs, for
that environment become more favourable for growth using traditional method of
agriculture for that most forests are cleared and land water are reclaimed.
 Making roads by cutting trees: Forest are being cleared to make safe ways for
transportation.
 Logging: the activity or business of felling trees and cutting and preparing the timber
for industrial use .
 Industrialization , urbanization and developmental projects: Building industries,
railway lines, thermal plants, dams , township, electricity supply needs a lot of space so
the forest are being cleared.

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 Population explosion: as of now population of the world is increasing day by day , so

for human settlement , alot of forest are cleared for making house, buildings, flats etc.
 Mining/ mineral extraction: For mining and mineral extraction the forest need to be
clear .
 Shifting cultivation(slash and burn method): Forest destruction is frequently
attributed to shifting farming, also known as Jhum. In actuality, this type of farming is
a result of the soil's low fertility.
 Demand for firewood : Demand of firewood lead to deforestation.
 Forest fires: This is yet another significant factor in deforestation. Forest fires can be
caused by humans or by natural causes. The following are some of the main causes of
forest fires:
 The forest floor is covered in a thick layer of organic debris and dry humus,
which creates the perfect environment for surface or ground fires that are started
carelessly.
 Crown fire occurs in highly populated woods where tree tops may catch fire
from heat produced by the frequent rubbing against each other.
 Grazing of Animals: Trampling of the forest soil during overgrazing by animals has
far-reaching repercussions, such as loss of soil porosity, soil erosion, and desertification
reduced productivity of the once fertile forest region.

Source; CAUSES OF DEFORESTATION - Bing images

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CONSEQUENCES OF DEFORESTATION

Climate, ecological diversity, wild animals, crops, and medicinal plants are all strongly
connected to forests. Deforestation on a large scale has much more effects:

 Wild wildlife destroying their habitats. Animals that live in trees are without food and
shelter.
 A rise in soil erosion brought on by a decline in plant cover.
 A decrease in the amount of oxygen that plants produce during photosynthesis.
 The increased pollution brought on by the burning of wood and the decreased plant ability
to fixate carbon dioxide.
 A reduction in the supply of forest goods.
 Decreased diversity of microbial, animal, and plant species.
 A decrease in the supply of fuel wood and the standard of living for those who located
nearby to forests.
 The water table declining as a result of increased runoff and the consequent rise in
subsurface water demand.
 The burning of vegetation has increased the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere,
which has contributed to global warming, melting of ice caps and glaciers, and subsequent
flooding of coastal areas.

11.5 EFFECT OF DEFORESTATION ON TRIBAL COMMUNITIES

 One in every twenty people on the planet is a member of a tribe, which may be found
in around 70 different nations.
 As their lands are taken for economic development, many of the world's tribal
populations—representing 5000 different cultures—are declining.
 Large dams are being built in heavily forest areas or on ecologically sensitive regions,
such as the Himalayas, which are displacing a large tribal population and causing
increasing ecological issues over time.
 They are unable to maintain their traditional ways of life, and their home nation is
usually destroyed. Deforestation, which is when trees are cut down for purposes like
logging, affects their food and water resources, making it impossible for them to
cultivate. Tribes that live in rain forests hunt for food, just like their parents and
grandparents did.

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 They may lack our level of today ’s technology. They will lose their houses when the
trees are cut down, have nowhere to go, and won't be able to adapt to the lives people
lead in their countries' urban areas. Because of their history of living in tribes and
jungles, they will also have a very challenging time finding jobs.They lose their culture
which they have lasted for many generations.
 They abandon the traditional practises and beliefs that had allowed them to coexist
peacefully in the rainforest for many years.
 They are quite knowledgeable about therapeutic herbs and educate people on them.
 Tribal peoples are known to take greater care of their environment than anyone else.
It's time for a new approach to conservation, one that prioritises tribal peoples and
acknowledges their role as the best guardians of nature and conservationists. This
would be the greatest advance in actual environmental protection in recorded history.
For the survival of tribal peoples, the environment, and all of society.

FOREST RIGHT ACT (2006)

Since the Four Forest Rights Act's implementation 15 years ago, 46% of petitioners have
received titles for both individual and public claims, according to the Ministry of Tribal Affairs.

Even though the ministry is the implementation agency, the act's implementation procedure on
the ground paints a complicated picture because the forest department is equally vital to title
grants.

The scheduled tribes and other traditional forest dwellers (recognition of forest rights) Act,
2006 was passed to concede and protect the rights of scheduled tribes and other tribal
communities who have lived in the forest for generations but whose rights have never been
officially documented.

In addition to recognising their rights to claim and occupy forest land, this also grants them a
number of other rights to secure the control of the forest, including:

 The power of ownership

 access to minor forest produce for collection, usage, and disposal
 community rights
 Rights to habitation for ancient tribal peoples and non - agricultural communities
 Right to save any public forest resource, including those that have historically been
safeguarded and conserved for future use.

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The act's implementation procedure includes provisions for democratic principles.

 By holding a gramme sabha with two-thirds of the members present, the forest rights
committee, made up of village members, is established.

11.6 CONSERVATION STRATEGIES FOR FOREST CONSERVATION

1. Afforestation
2. Reforestation
3. Monitoring forest fire through ‘Fire Protection System ‘and ‘National Fire Management
Plant ‘.
4. Use of less paper
5. Use recycled product
6. Recycle paper and cardboard
7. Use of LPG and CNG.
8. Do not burn firewood excessively.
9. Raise awareness
10. Respect the right of tribal people.
11. Practice eco-forestry.
12. Support organizations fighting deforestation
13. Help restore degraded forests
14. Fight governmental corruption.

11.7 THE FOREST CONSERVATION ACT 1980

Forests are extremely vital in our lives. They supply us with a variety of valuable resources,
such as oxygen and raw materials for survival, settlement and to have enjoy a good quality of
life. However, humans are removing forests at an exponential rate. The Forest Conservation
Act, 1980 was implemented by the Indian government to restrict such inhumane practices
toward the forests. The initial legal document on the subject was the Indian Forest Act of 1865.
During the colonial period, it was later replaced by the Indian Forest Act of 1927. When
legislation is passed, the aim is to address the social problem for which it was enacted. The
similar aim was voiced when the Indian Forest Act of 1927 was established, but it was limited
to British interests.

The 1927 Act was primarily concerned with timber. The Act of 1927 was divided into 13
chapters and included 86 sections. It provided the state the authority to control tribal people's

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rights to use forests. Under this Act, the government able to develop restriction on forests. Its
goal was to manage forest products, tax on timber and other forest products.
The necessity to maintain forests grew stronger when India gained independence and the
President of India enacted the Forest (Conservation) Ordinance in 1980. But the order was
cancelled by Section 5 of the Forest (Conservation) Act of 1980, which comes into force on
October 25, 1980.

Constitution mandatory’s for forest conservation

When the Indian Constitution was adopted in 1950, the framers had no idea that difficulties
linked with forest protection might again arise in the future. This was realized later when the
Constitution (Forty-Second Amendment) Act, 1976 was passed, adding Article 48A to the
section of the Directive Principles of State Policy and Article 51A (g) as a fundamental duty
of every Indian citizen. According to Article 48A, the state must enact legislation to protect
and improve the environment in order to protect our country's forests. Article 51 A (g) states
that it is the responsibility of every Indian citizen to maintain and improve the natural
environment, particularly the country's forests.

Objective
 The Act's purpose is to protect the environment and our country's forests. This Act also
aims to rejuvenate the woods in our country by planting trees and increasing forest
growth.
 To save the forest, its flora and animals, as well as other ecological components.
 To safeguard the woodlands' integrity, territory, and uniqueness.
 To preserve trees and avoid deforestation, as deforestation resulting in land erosion and
consequent degradation.

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 To avoid the extinction of forest biodiversity.

 To avoid the conversion of forests into agricultural or grazing grounds, or the
construction of commercial or residential units.

The following aspects are included in this Act.

 The State government and other authorities are no longer allowed to make decisions in
specific areas without first seeking authorization from the federal government.
 The central government has complete authority to carry out the laws of this Act under
this Act.
 Violation of this Act's provisions is likewise punishable under this Act.
 An advisory group may be created under this Act to advise the Central
Government on forest conservation issues.

Restrictions on forest reservations and non-forest uses

Section 2: This section forbids state governments and other authorities from enacting
legislation in the following areas without obtaining approval from the federal government:

 That they cannot de-reserve any forest land or any portion which is being enforced in
the State or any other part. That the forest land or any portion of it cannot be used for
non-forest purposes.
 They cannot assign any forest land or any portion of it by way of lease to any private
person, or anyone or organization not controlled by the Government of India

Advisory committee (section 3)

The central government has the authority under Section 3 of this Act to form an advisory
Committee to provide advice on topics relating to forest preservation.

Penalties (section 3A)

The change made in 1988 adds this Section 3A. According to this section, anyone who violates
or aids in the violation of any law in Section 2 is subject to simple imprisonment for any period
up to 15 days.

Offenses by authorities and government offices (section 3B)

The 1988 amendment has included in Section 3B to the bill. The malpractices of the authorities
and government departments are discussed in this section. According to section 3B(1),
whenever and wherever any offence under this Act is committed by any department of the

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government, the head of the government, any authority, or any person who was responsible in
conducting business, they will be held culpable.
However, the same individual can save himself by demonstrating that the crime was committed
without his knowledge and that he took all reasonable precautions to prevent it.

Section 4: Power to make rules

The Federal (Central) government has the power to carry out the laws established by this Act
by posting them in the official document. Any rule need presented in both houses of parliament
for thirty days before being implemented. Both houses of parliament must agree to amend or
they can discuss to create a new rule as a result of the Act.

11.8 CASE STUDY (CHIPKO MOVEMENT)

Chipko Movement, Uttar Pradesh

Movement started in April, 24 1973 at Mandal of Chamoli district of Gharwal division of Utter
Pradesh is of non-violence protest raised out of ecological destabilization in the hills. In 1973 the
State Forest Department gave a lease of forest trees for manufacturer of sporting goods. On
March 27 decision was taken to ‘Chipko” that is ‘to hug’ the trees that were threatened by axe
and thus the chipkoandolan (movement) was born. In 1974 Sunderlal Bahuguna the “Chipko
Messenger” visited the entire region taking the Chipko message from village to village. In
subsequent period the local people did not allow any one from cutting trees even for home
industries.

Fig. Chipko movement ( women embarrassing trees to protect forest)

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Source; Chipko Movement Pics - Bing images

11.9 LET US SUM UP

In this unit we have concluded that forest is a very important resource for human . so it need to
be conserved and protected. This unit have the details information about the forest, its
importance, deforestation its causes, consequences, their act etc.

11.10 GLOSSARY

Agro-forestry: It is a land use management system in which trees or shrubs are grown around
or among crops or pastureland.

Biomass: Weight of living material

Deforestation: Permanent removal or destruction of indigenous forests.

Forest cover: It is the presence of trees on lands more than one hectare in area with a tree
canopy of more than 10 percent, irrespective of ownership and legal status.

11.11 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. What is deforestation? What are its causes and consequences?

2. What is Forest Conservation Act?
3. What are the effect of deforestation on tribal communities?

11.12 REFERENCES

 Bharucha, E. (2005). Textbook of Environmental Studies for Undergraduate Courses,

Hyderabad: Universities Press (India) Private Limited.
 Centre for Science and Environment (2004). Rich Land and Poor People, New Delhi:
Centre for Science and Environment.
 Asthana, D. K. & Meera A. (2012). A Textbook of Environmental Studies. New Delhi:
S. Chand and Company Ltd.
 Kaushik, A. & Kaushik, C. P. (2006). Perspectives in Environmental Studies. India: New
Age Publications (Academic)
 Sulphey, M.M. (2016). Disaster Management, Delhi: PHI Learning Private
 Limited.

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UNIT-12: URBAN WASTES AND INDUSTRIAL WASTES

Structure

12.1 Learning Objectives

12.2 Introduction
12.3 Solid Waste Management
12.4 Different types of Solid Waste
12.5 Treatment of Solid Waste
12.6 Waste Disposal Methods
12.7 Types of Solid Waste
12.8 Urban Waste
12.9 Classification of Urban Waste
12.10 Industrial Waste
12.11 Industrial Waste Types
12.12 Effects of Industrial Waste
12.13 How to achieve Zero-Waste Management
12.14 Conclusion
12.15 Let Us Sum Up
12.16 Glossary
12.17 Check Your Progress
12.18 References

12.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After studying this Unit, you will be able to:

 Understanding about different types of waste and its management.

 Solid waste management
 Urban and industrial waste, its causes, impacts and control measures
 To gain idea about how to do zero-waste management
 A detail idea about different types of waste disposal method

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12.2 INTRODUCTION

In any developing countries, higher living standards, fast increasing population growth and
urbanization led to the production of massive amounts of waste. India is primarily an
agriculturally based country that is currently transforming into an industrial and provider
nation. To estimate the waste generation of any area simply by dividing the number of people
living in cities by the quantity of waste produced per person daily, one can estimate the
generation of solid waste. The statistics on waste production at the state level indicated that the
rate of waste generation is influenced by elements including population density, economic
standing, level of commercial activity in each city and culture/region pattern. In India, 62
million metric tons of waste are produced annually. With the growth of industry and
urbanization, the issue of solid waste generation is getting worse quickly. The largest producers
of waste in India belongs from the cities of New Delhi, Mumbai, and Chennai. United States,
Canada, Japan, England, Germany and France are the top producers of solid waste globally. As
per the annual report solid waste management by Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) in
India total solid waste generated estimated as 160038.9 tonnes per day (TPD) out of whi ch
95.4% is successfully collected. In general as per 2020-2021 report 50% (79956.03 TPD) was
treated, 18% (29427.2 TPD) is landfilled, 31.7 % (50655.4 TPD) and 50655.4 TPD waste is
an-accounted.

Figure: Absence of solid waste management in urban area

Source: https://www.flickr.com/photos/gtzecosan/6915329521/

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Characteristics and composition of Indian MSW (Municipal Solid Waste)

1. Biodegradable Waste consists of green waste (flowers, leaves, fruits-vegetables), waste from
kitchen, leftover food.
2. Recyclable Waste: Empty or broken glass, bottles, aluminium cans, plastics, paper, metals
etc.
3. Composite waste: Toys, waste clothes, tetra packs etc.
4. Domestic Hazardous Waste: Paints, nail polish remover, dyes, mothballs, pesticides,
prescription drugs etc.
5. Inert Waste: Bricks, asphalt, plaster, metals, cement concrete etc.

Waste Management and Policies

1. According to CPCB reports from 2013, no city in India can guarantee complete garbage
segregation. The average amount of waste collected in every cities is up-to 70%; the remaining
30% is abandoned in the urban environment. On the other hand only 12.45% of the total
waste collected is handled scientifically and remaining one is dumped in open landfills.

2. Under the Sections 3, 6 and 25 of the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986, the Central
Government published the Municipal Solid Wastes (Management & Handling) Rules 2000 with
the intention of handling municipal and urban wastes/garbage in an environmentally
responsible manner. It is the duty of each municipal body to create a system to create
more designed landfill and encourage composting of waste.

3. The roles and responsibilities of urban local authorities, village panchayats, waste generators,
and other associated stakeholders have been determined and defined with the notification of
Solid Wastes Management Rules, 2016 under Environment Protection Act, 1986, upgrading
the earlier Rules on the issue.

Waste Management Law in India

1. Municipal Solid Waste (Management and Handling) Rules 2000

2. The Hazardous Wastes (Management, Handling and Transboundary Movement) Rules,

2008

3. The Plastic Waste (Management and Handling) Rules, 2011

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4. Bio-Medical Waste (Management and Handling) Rules, 1998

5. The E- Waste (Management and Handling) Rules, 2011

6. The Batteries (Management and Handling) Rules, 2001

7. Polluter Pays Principle – Section 9 (3) of the Act

8. Plastic Waste (Management and Handling) Rules, 2009

Common disease linked to MSW

1. A few typical health risks for humans include diarrhoea, jaundice, cholera, skin conditions,
malaria, chicken pox, dysentery, and typhoid.

2. The Hg, Cd, Ni, Ar, Zn, and Ba present in batteries and automotive products are highly
hazardous carcinogens that stain fingers, teeth, and hair. Also cause overall weakness,
exhaustion and nose irritation.

Different types of Wastes

Waste can be divided into solid, liquid, and gaseous categories as well as biodegradable and
non-biodegradable categories in addition to classification depending on their sources of
origin. Typically, the waste could be arranged into the following classes:

1. Solid waste is any waste that comes from human culture and is considered to be
undesirable. Urban, rural, biomedical, and radioactive waste are all included in this.

2. Liquid Waste – Wastes produced during the washing, flushing, or manufacturing phases of
an any process are referred as liquid wastes.

3. Gaseous Waste - These are the wastes that are released as gases from vehicles,
manufacturing facilities or people using fossil fuels like oil. They occasionally result in
events like corrosive downpour and brown haze because they mix in various gaseous
conditions.

12.3 SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT

Every citizen should really have availability to solid waste management in their area as a basic
public service to get clean, hygiene surrounding to ensure a good quality of living. . In India,

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municipalities are in charge of waste collection, sweeping, storage, transfer, treatment, and
disposal of waste. Despite many mandated rules and regulations by the Ministry of Urban
Development, most cities and their local municipalities are having trouble in keeping a proper
solid waste management and handling system. Analysis of waste disposal in 22 Indian cities
was done by the Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce and Industry (FICCI) (2009)
which reveals that out of 22 cities, 14 cities shows that 75% of their waste has been sent to
dumpsites, which indicating a lack of adequate treatment and disposal facilities.

Different approaches for solid waste management

1. Centralized approach: This approach involved gathering municipal waste from all around
the neighbourhood and disposing of it outside the boundaries of the city or nagar panchayat
limit area. In this method, door-to-door gathering is examined. Employees of the Municipal
Corporation or Nagar Panchayat are the rubbish pickers.

2. Decentralized approach: The garbage is gathered on the basis of ward and the
source divided on the basis of biodegradable and non-biodegradable materials. At a nearby
facility, the biodegradable waste is composted using various aerobic and anaerobic composting
techniques. Paper, plastic, metal and other non-biodegradable waste are further categorised and
then recycling plants gather them to use in recyclable products.

Solid waste management practices

1. Segregation

2. Collection

3. Reuse/recycle

4. Transportation

5. Disposal
a. Open dumping
b. Landfilling
c. Landfill gas-to-energy plants
d. Biological treatment of organic waste (it includes- Aerobic composting, Vermi-
composting, anaerobic digestion

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e. Thermal treatment

6. Public–private partnership in MSWM in India

12.4 DIFFERENT TYPES OF SOLID WASTE

1. Municipal solid waste (Urban Waste)

a. Municipal solid waste (MSW) is produced by homes, workplaces, hotels, retail outlets,
educational facilities, and other institutions.

b. The main constituents are food trash, paper, plastic, rags, metal, and glass. However,
demolition and building debris are frequently added to collected rubbish, along with small
amounts of hazardous waste such used motor oil, light bulbs, batteries, and vehicle parts.

2. Solid industrial waste

1. Industrial solid waste, like other forms of trash, is made up of a variety of substances with
different environmental toxicity levels.
2. Typical examples of this range would be paper, packaging materials, food processing waste,
oils, solvents, resins, paints, and sludges, as well as glass, ceramics, stones, metals, plastics,
rubber, leather, fabric, straw, and abrasives.
3. Similar to municipal solid waste, the particular rates of creation for industrial solid trash are
generally unknown due to the lack of a systematic database.

3. Agricultural Residues and Waste

1. Natural consequences of increased agricultural production include more livestock waste,

agro-industrial by-products and crop wastes.

4. Hazardous Waste

1. The Indian is generating sizable amounts of harmful chemicals and producing significant
amounts of hazardous waste as a result of the country's rapid development in agriculture,
industry, commerce, hospitals and healthcare facilities.
2. Chemical, petrochemical, petroleum, metals, wood treatment, pulp-paper, leather, textile and
energy production plants (coal-fired and nuclear power plants and petroleum production

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plants) are the main high-volume sources of industrial hazardous waste.

12.5 TREATMENT OF SOLID WASTE

1. The goal of current treatment procedures is to recover and use as many of the components
found in the discarded wastes as a resource as feasible while lowering the amount of solid
waste that needs to be landfilled.
2. There are several methods for treating solid waste and the proper method to utilise depends
on the type of trash, the amount of land available, and the cost of disposal. Following below
are mostly used treatment methods:

a. Incineration: It is a controlled combustion process for producing gases and residue

including non-combustible material by burning solid wastes at high temperatures of
around 1000 degrees Celsius and above in the presence of excess air (oxygen). In general
the incineration process is commonly used to reduce the original amount of combustible
MSW by 80–90% is one of its most attractive features of this process.
b. Compaction: The trash has been compressed or compacted. Additionally, it dismantles
in large bulk.
Many garbage collection vehicles have a clear method where they discharge rubbish
near the bottom of a slope for best compaction and control of rising waste.
c. Pyrolysis: Pyrolysis is defined as the thermal degradation of wastes material in the absence
of oxygen and this thermal decomposition of waste create char, pyrolysis oil and syngas.
For an example- the conversion of wood to charcoal is thermal degradation of waste.
This procedure uses heat from an external source. Because most of the organic materials
are thermally unstable, they can be divided into gaseous, liquid and solid fractions by a
combination of thermal cracking and condensation reactions when heated in an oxygen-
free environment.
d. Gasification: Gasification is the process of converting MSW into a combustible gas (fuel
gas) rich in carbon monoxide and hydrogen, such as turning coal into town gas (made of
hydrogen and methane). This partial combustion of MSW is done in the presence of
oxygen, but in a lesser amount than that needed for complete combustion.
e. Composting: In many developing nations, composting is the most responsible technical
solution, particularly in those with arid climates and degraded soils. There are typically

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2 primary processes in the composting process followed by pre- or post-treatments

(crushing, sorting, humidification, mixing with other waste, etc.)
f. Vermicomposting: Vermicomposting is the practise of using earthworms to break down
organic matter. It is a form of controlled composting. Vermicomposting contributes to
the creation of compost with higher quality manure.

12.6 WASTE DISPOSAL METHODS

1. Landfills: Landfilling is the easiest and most cost-effective option if natural decomposition
takes place at the disposal location. It is most common practice followed by many
developing countries for solid waste disposal.
2. Sanitary Landfills: Sanitary Landfilling is the technique of disposing of MSW in an area
that has been scientifically prepared. The trash is spread out in thin layers, compacted to
the smallest volume possible, and then daily covered with soil. The anaerobic breakdown
of organic materials in solid waste results in the production of methane (rich biogas).
3. Underground injection wells: Waste is pressure-injected into deep-earth shafts made of
steel and concrete.
4. Waste piles: are accumulations of hazardous, non-flowing, insoluble solid waste. Pile
disposal can be either temporary or permanent.
5. Land treatment: is the process of applying solid waste to the soil surface or converting it
into waste sludge.

The following variables affect how much municipal garbage is produced:

1. The location (geographical area)

2. Season of year
3. Regularity of collection
4. Using waste grinders for the kitchen
5. Population characteristics
6. The volume of recycling and recovering.
7. Public opinion

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Objectives of Solid Waste Management

1. To minimize negative impacts on the environment

2. The material flow within the society need to be consider
3. Reduce the intake of raw material
4. Reduction in solid waste
5. The reusable material must be promote to re-use
6. Recovery of energy and material from waste
7. Proper solid management need to be follow on day to day life to reduce amount of waste
generation, piling of waste on roads etc.

Solid Waste Management – Major Issue for India

1. In 2000, the Government of India published the Municipal Solid Waste (Management and
Handling) Rules, which made collection, segregation, secondary storage in covered bins,
transportation in covered vehicles, processing through composting or waste-to-energy
technologies and disposal of rejects in engineered/sanitary landfills mandatory for all urban
local bodies in the nation but is not properly follow-up in every cities in India.
2. Lack of waste separation at the origin
3. Lack of community involvement in waste management and maintaining hygienic conditions
in their surroundings.
4. A lack of a plan for sewage management
5. A lack of institutional arrangements and technical expertise
6. Collection, even from public garbage bins, is irregular.
7. Dumping is done in landfills without any consideration for the environment or according to
scientific disposal standards.

Solution suggestions for Solid in India

1. Waste reduction and separation at origin point

2. Adopting the 5Rs principle of Reduce, Reuse, Recover, Recycle, and Remanufacturing.
3. Including rag collectors and kabadiwalas in the MSWM system
4. Focus on the establishment of centrally located waste processing facilities (for incineration,
gasification, and pyrolysis) or decentralised facilities (for biomethanation and
vermicomposting).

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5. Create a Common Regional Sanitary Landfill Facility to eliminate the need for additional
land.

Few International examples of Solid Waste Management:

1. Only 3% of Copenhagen's garbage is dumped in landfills, the majority is recycled.

2. Due to a scarcity of landfill space in Japan, incineration has become the main method of
garbage disposal, only 2% of the country's waste is transferred to landfills.

3. Extending the concept of recycling, the Kitgum town in Uganda collects leftover water from
homes and utilizes it to grow food and call it "grey water gardens."

`12.7 TYPES OF SOLID WASTE

Solid wastes can be classified into

1. Urban or municipal wastes

2. Industrial wastes
3. Agricultural wastes
4. Medical wastes
5. Mining wastes
6. Hazardous wastes
7. Construction or demolition debris waste
8. Commercial waste
9. Electronic waste

12.8 URBAN WASTE

Urban solid waste is also known as municipal solid waste. It is a kind of waste that is primarily
made up of domestic waste (gathered from residential area), with a small amount of commercial
waste, construction/demolition waste, sanitation waste and street waste. Industrial hazardous
waste is excluded from urban waste. If not handled or collected appropriately, they might cause
significant health risks. India is experiencing a crisis in urban waste management as a result of a
combination of rising municipal solid waste (MSW) generation, insufficient waste management

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infrastructure and failure in maintaining waste management regulations. This crisis is carried
forward by the factors including population growth, rapid urbanisation, and changing
consumption patterns which is linked to economic growth. In India, more than 90% of waste is
thought to be disposed of in open areas rather than at properly designed landfills. This activity
create impacts on the environment and public health. Municipal administrations are unable to
expand or upgrade the facilities needed for proper waste management as trash volumes are
increasing day by day. Garbage is left lying around on the streets and footpaths of many cities
and towns. Additionally, residents are not using the dust bins most of the time that have been
installed by the authorities as storage facilities. Recently, India main focus is to
achieve mainstream solution for whole country waste management concern and also wants to
generate more energy from waste by using waste-to-energy (WTE) technologies.

Few examples of urban wastes are listed below:

 Paper waste
 Solid wastes
 Metal waste
 Plastic waste
 Biological waste
Sources of Urban Waste

 Domestic wastes are a wide range of items discarded from households. For an
example food waste, used clothing, used paper products, glass bottles, polythene bags,
scrap metal, used plastic containers, and paints.
 Commercial wastes: This category comprises waste from facilities such as stores,
marketplaces, hotels, offices, and other businesses. Waste paper, packing materials,
cans, bottles, polythene bags, etc. are also few examples.
 Construction wastes: This category includes waste from building supplies, wood,
concrete, debris, etc.
 Horticulture waste
 Biomedical wastes: This category mostly consists of organic trash, anatomical waste,
infectious waste, glass, plastic, metal syringes, etc.

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 Solid waste has increased as a result of population growth, economic prosperity, and
technological improvement. A significant volume of solid trash is also being discharged
by mining activities.

Figure: A scene of not having a proper urban waste management in an urban area.
Source: https://www.hindustantimes.com/opinion/for-swachh-india-focus-on-solid-
waste-management/story-HKbOf9nc5XeWqgxX193NHO.html

12.9 CLASSIFICATION OF URBAN WASTE

Urban waste is divided into two groups:

1. Biodegradable wastes

Wastes that can be broken down by microorganisms.

• Food, produce, dried leaves, tea, etc. are few example.

2. Non-biodegradable wastes

Non-biodegradable wastes are urban solid wastes that cannot be broken down by
microorganisms.

• Glass bottles, discarded materials, polythene bags, etc. are few examples of this category.

12.10 INDUSTRIAL WASTE

In the 18th century, the industrial revolution turned rural areas into industrialized and urban ones.
However, this also brought up a major issue and a threat to our ecosystem that is industrial waste.
Industrial waste is the garbage created by industrial activities. The industry must strictly follow
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set rule criteria by government for industrial waste management. Numerous sources, including
industries, mills, mines, power plants, etc., produce a lot of waste. It generates solid, liquid, and
gaseous wastes such chemicals, ashes, industrial effluent, carbon dioxide, sulphur dioxide and
other substances that need to be decomposed or effectively handled to protect ourselves and our
environment. Industrial manufacturing processes differ significantly between
different industries. Hazardous and non-hazardous industrial wastes should be carefully
separated into two categories. Properties like toxicity, flammability, reactivity and corrosivity
define hazardous wastes. The industries must need to treat the waste before disposal or pass it
to any authorized waste disposal organizations for its proper disposal. Municipal solid waste
cannot be mixed with any industrial garbage, not even non-hazardous waste.

Sources of Industrial Waste

1. The primary producers of industrial wastes are the metal, chemical, and mineral processing
sectors.
2. Nuclear power plants produce radioactive waste.
3. Thermal power plants: These facilities create fly ash, a type of solid waste.
4. Chemical Industries: These industries produce a lot of harmful and hazardous compounds.
5. Other industries: Other industries generate packaging supplies, garbage, organic wastes, acid,
alkali, scrap metals, rubber, plastic, paper, glass, wood, oils, paints, dyes, etc.

12.11 INDUSTRIAL WASTE TYPES

There are two categories of industrial waste are as follows:

1. Biodegradable Industrial Waste: Wastes that can be broken down into simpler form by non-
harmful chemicals action of microbes are referred as biodegradable wastes. Many industries,
including those in the paper, food, sugar and wool sectors, produce industrial wastes that degrade
quickly. It is simple and inexpensive to manage these wastes.

2. Non – Biodegradable Industrial waste: Microorganisms cannot able to break down non-
biodegradable waste. These materials are the main source of pollutants in landfills. Non-
biodegradable wastes include chemicals, metals, plastics, paints, rubber and many others.
Without causing any damage, these materials can be used as landfills for a very long time. Metal
and plastic pollutants seep into the ground and contaminate the soil and water supplies.

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Management of Industrial Waste

Local authorities or governments are not responsible for managing industrial solid waste.
Industries that produce these solid wastes should handle them on their own. Additionally, they
must obtain permission from the pollution control board. In order to manage industrial waste,
several techniques and strategies are employed. These fundamental steps involved in industrial
waste management process that are listed below:

1. Analysis or Separation
2. Collection
3. Transportation
4. Recovery
5. Recycling
6. Disposal

12.12 EFFECTS OF INDUSTRIAL WASTE

Industrial waste is extremely hazardous to both the environment and humans. Several effects are
listed below:

1. The volume of liquid industrial waste that is dumped into the ocean is extremely hazardous
for marine organisms.

2. Industries generate a variety of air pollution-causing gases, including nitrogen oxides, carbon
dioxide, and sulphur dioxide.

3. Nitrates and phosphates are present in industrial effluent and frequently contribute to
eutrophication.

4. In general, the air around industries is highly polluted and causes problems of the skin, eyes,
nose, throat and lungs.

5. Industries use a lot of water, and they also discharge a lot of effluent that is filled with
dangerous chemicals and heavy metals. This pollution ultimately contaminates our environment
and health by contaminating natural water sources.

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6. It is a significant contributor to global warming.

12.13 HOW TO ACHIEVE ZERO - WASTE MANAGEMENT

Three main components form an integrated waste management plan:

1. Source limiting (reduction in usage of raw material)

2. Recycling the reusable material
3. Disposal of waste in proper way

1. Reduction in usage of raw material: Reduction on the utilisation of raw materials will also
help to reduce waste output in turn. Reduced demand for any metallic product will result in less
waste being produced and less metal being mined. It will help in natural resources conservation.
Saving money, energy, raw materials, land space, and decreasing pollution are all benefits of the
reduction, reuse,

2. Recycling the reusable material: Most of the people throw away reusable or refillable
containers after single use, which leads to piling of waste in dumping yards. For an example
Paper recycling will decrease the need to cut trees for new paper production. Government should
run ad or campaign to aware people to reuse container if it is refillable or reusable in nature for
storage purpose, it can be used as art and crafts. Recycling habit makes a nation to generate less
waste and lessen the manufacturing cost.

3. Disposal of waste in proper way: Recycling is the process of turning waste resources into
fresh, practical goods. For example, old glass bottles and aluminium cans are melted down and
then cast again to create new cans and bottles.

Figure: How to achieve Zero-Waste Management

Source: https://www.unisanuk.com/zero-waste-how-hard-is-it-to-achieve/

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12.14 CONCLUSION

Municipal solid waste (MSW) creation is increased as a result of urbanisation and rapid
industrial growth that is attracting more migration of people from rural to urban area settlement
to live a better standards of life and MSW is being handled in an unscientific manner, which
harms the urban environment and creates health risks. Similar to other developing nations,
India's perception towards solid waste management is influenced by the "not in my backyard"
mentality and public thought is the sole duty of local municipal bodies to take of this. The
management and segregation of solid waste at the origin source is completely absent. Without
the active involvement of the public, managing the growing garbage becomes extremely
challenging. It's crucial to be aware of safe waste disposal practises, to work in public-private
partnerships and to choose the right technology for the disposal of waste handling job.

12.15LET US SUM UP

The main causes of urban and industrial waste in India are fast urbanisation, rapid industrial
growth and unchecked population expansion. By 2031, it is predicted that metropolitan areas
will produce 165 million tonnes of waste yearly and by 2050, that number may rise to 436
million tonnes, according to the Planning Commission Report (2014). Around 23.5 107 cubic
metres of landfill space, or 1,175 hectares of land, would need to be added each year to handle
the waste that will be produced by 2031. To accommodate landfills heaped to a height of 20
metres, 43,000 hectares of space would be needed between 2031 and 2050.

12.16 GLOSSARY

Biomedical Waste: It includes infectious materials such discarded blood, unwanted

microbiological cultures and stocks, used bandages and dressings, discarded gloves, discarded
needles and used scalpels.

Industrial Waste: These are the waste created as a result of industrial activities including the
processing of raw materials for manufacturing of new products.

Solid Waste: A group of wastes produced due to landscaping activities, agricultural activities
and other processes like domestic and commercial purposes.

Urbanization: It refers to the growth of cities because people migrate from rural area to urban
in search of job and better life facilities.

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12.17 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. What is the full of CPCB?

2. Write 3 waste management related law in India.
3. Write 2 approaches for solid waste management.
4. Describe about the different treatment of solid waste?
5. What do you mean by industrial waste, its sources and effects?

12.18 REFERENCES

 Bharucha, E.; Kumar, S.; Nair, S. and Foulger, S. ”Text book of Environmental Studies
for Undergraduate Courses” University press (India) private Limited 3-6-747/1/A&3-6-
754/1 Hyderabad 500029,Telangana, India ISBN:978-81-7371-862-5.
 Kaushik, A.; Kaushik, C. P.; Perspectives in Environmental Studies.
 Waste Management Practices: Municipal, Hazardous and Industrial by John Pichtel.
 Advances in Biological Treatment of Industrial Waste Water and their Recyling for a
Sustainable Future by Ram Lakhan Singh & Rajat Pratap Singh

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Block-4
Environmental Protection

Unit-13: Environment protection efforts at the global

level
Unit-14: Efforts at national level
Unit-15: Role of Civil Society Organizations
Unit-16: Role of Corporate State Responsibility in
Environmental Protection
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UNIT-13 ENVIRONMENT PROTECTION EFFORTS AT THE GLOBAL LEVEL

Structure

13.1 Learning Objectives

13.2 Introduction
13.3 Environmental Protection
13.4 The Need for Environment Protection Treaties
13.5 International Agreements on Environmental Protection
13.6 Air and Atmospheric Pollution
13.7 Convention on Biological Diversity
13.8 United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification
13.9 Convention on Wildlife and Habitats
13.10 Efforts for General Environmental Concern
13.11 Issues with the Environment Protection Treaties
13.12 Let Us Sum Up
13.13 Glossary
13.14 Check Your Progress
13.15 References

13.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After studying this unit, you will be able to

 Assess the need for establishing the environmental protection treaties.

 Understand about the history of environmental protection at global level
 Discuss about some important international environmental protection treaties.
 Evaluate the issues in proper enactment of environmental treaties.

13.2 INTRODUCTION

Many of the most pressing environmental problems facing humankind today are global
problems which need to be addressed on an international front, rather than localized issues
which can be addressed by individual countries acting alone. For this reason, international
environmental law is becoming increasingly important as an instrument in attempting to
counter global environmental problems like ozone depletion, climate change, species
extinction and desertification. In recent past, numerous environmental problems have become

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critically significant for mankind. These include air, water and land pollution, spread of toxic
wastes, deforestation, mass extinction of wild life, the problem of human settlement, climate
change depletion of ozone layer and over exploitation of natural resources. An important 3
aspect of environmental problems is that these have international repercussions, i.e. their
impact is not confined to their source area alone but spills over far and wide. Pollution does
not observe political territories and legislative jurisdictions. Thus, environmental problems are
intrinsically global in nature. Therefore, to fight with the environmental problems we need not
only legislation at national level but also mutually beneficial agreements at international level.

In this unit, we will learn about the importance of environment protection, history of
environment protection and about the number of environment protection efforts taken at the
global level. It will include the efforts for general environmental concerns, air and atmospheric
pollution, biological diversity, climate change, convention to combat desertification,
convention on dangerous wastes and chemicals, protection for marine environment, ozone
layer depletion, convention on wetlands, and convention on wildlife habitats.

13.3 ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION

Environmental protection is the practice of protecting the natural environment by individuals,

organizations and governments. Its objectives are to conserve natural resources and the existing
natural environment and, where possible, to repair damage and reverse trends. It is widely
acknowledged that the developed and developing nations face different aspirations where
environmental protection is concerned an asymmetry often reflected in the North-South
conflict in international environmental negotiations. At the root of this North-South divide lies
the fact that the nature of environmental problems in developing countries is not the same as
that in the developed countries. Protecting the environment in the developing countries is
viewed, most often than not, as a struggle between the environment and meeting immediate
socio-economic needs for daily subsistence. Developed countries are deemed to value
environmental quality more than the developing countries, which are considered to have a
“high degree of tolerance to environmental hazard” and a low willingness to pay for improved
environmental quality. In view of the crucial role played by International Environmental
Agreement (IEAs) in enhancing International Environmental Cooperation (IEC), the theme of
IEA participation and alliance building has long been a concern of environmental economists.

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13.3.1 HISTORY OF ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION

Until the late 1960s, environmental problems were mainly conceived as peripheral matters of
exclusive domestic competence of states, thus governed by a strict notion of sovereignty
(MCCORMICK, 1991). The initial milestone for this “entry” of the environment into the
international relations agenda was the “United Nations Conference on the Human
Environment”, held in Stockholm in June 1972 (MCCORMICK, 1991; LE PRESTRE, 2011).
Since then, humanity has been able to cooperate in environmental matters through three main
tracks. First, the consolidation of scientific organizations that provide detailed information on
environmental issues - such as the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), created
in 1972, and the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), created in 1989.
Secondly, the creation of bodies of political dialogue and coordination - such as the “Vienna
Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer” in 1985; the Climate Change (UNFCCC)
and Biodiversity Convention (CBD) signed in 1992 and the United Nations Convention to
Combat Desertification (UNCCD) in 1994. And finally, the establishment of universal legally
binding regulatory mechanisms - such as the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the
Ozone Layer of 1987, the Basel Convention on the Control of trans boundary Movements of
Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal of 1989 and the Kyoto Protocol to mitigate Climate
Change of 1997.

13.4 THE NEED FOR ENVIRONMENT PROTECTION TREATIES

The ecosystem is the earth’s life. We must value, nurture and preserve our environment as its
role and contribution in our sustenance is invaluable. Economies around the world have
witnessed tremendous economic progress over the 19th and the 20th centuries, and have been
pushing harder for more. As a result of this, environmental and ecological consciousness has
been pushed into a corner. However, nowadays the public and businesses have started paying
greater attention to the glaring environmental realities. There has been an emergent concern
towards global environmental problems, particularly in the developing world, in the wake of
their near-crisis situation – economic and environmental. Against this backdrop, different
nations from around the world have come forward and joined hands at the multilateral level, to
conserve and protect the environment that directed to the acceptance of International
Environment Protection Treaties. Over 400 multilateral agreements addressing climate change
have been established and new treaties are being incessantly negotiated to address a vast array
of environmental problems. This has led to what has been referred to as "treaty congestion" by

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the United Nations Environment Programme. The numbers are quite impressive. Over the last
50 years, close to 500 globally recognized agreements have been signed by the international
frontrunners. Of these agreements, 61 are related to the atmosphere; 155 cater to biodiversity;
179 address issues related to chemicals, waste and hazardous substances; 46 are land related
conventions; and 196 are conventions broadly addressing water related issues. Environment is
now the supreme zone of global rule making, after trade.

13.5 INTERNATIONAL AGREEMENTS ON ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION

Various international environmental instruments do specify the general need for all persons to
“protect and preserve the environment”. The importance of the environment demands that
protection is enhanced at the international level with sufficient and effective deterrent and
enforcement mechanisms. International environmental law is the law of international
cooperation. International environmental law itself is clearly contributing to the protection of
substantive human right to environment, given that it contributes to the protection of all
environmental values protected in the scope of right to environment. International
environmental law can be defined as a set of principles, institutes and rules of international law
governing the protection of the environment at global and regional level as well as in the area
of outer space. Its standards are designed to help protect the biosphere from significant
deterioration, prevent its imbalance and, in the current circumstances, primarily to ensure
sustainable development of the environment.

13.6 AIR AND ATMOSPHERIC POLLUTION

Earth’s atmosphere is dynamic and so are the pollutants released in the atmosphere. Whenever
the pollutants are released into the atmosphere from a source, they tend to diffuse and drift
away horizontally with the wind and cross international boundaries. So air pollution affects the
populations all over the globe, even far away from the source. Air pollution may be defined as
any form of contamination of the atmosphere which disturbs the natural composition and
chemistry of the air. Air pollution is irrecoverable after its inception due to its long life. Long
Range Trans boundary Air Pollution - is the observed effect that air pollutants can travel several
thousand kilometres before deposition and damage occurs (acidification, eutrophication,
tropospheric ozone and dispersion of hazardous substances). To protect the human
environment from air pollution and to gradually reduce and prevent air pollution, an

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international treaty namely “The Convention on long-range trans boundary air pollution” was
signed.

(i) Convention on Long-Range Trans boundary Air Pollution

The Convention on long-range trans boundary air pollution was convened at Geneva
(Switzerland) on 13th November, 1979 and came into force on 16 March, 1983. The convention
is implemented by the European Monitoring and Evaluation Programme (EMEP) (short for
Cooperative Programme for Monitoring and Evaluation of the Long-range Transmission of Air
Pollutants in Europe). Air pollution means the introduction by man, directly or indirectly, of
substances or energy into the air resulting in deleterious effects of such a nature as to endanger
human health, harm living resources and ecosystems and material property and impair or
interfere with amenities and other legitimate uses of the environment, and “air pollutants” shall
be construed accordingly; Long-range trans boundary air pollution means air pollution whose
physical origin is situated wholly or in part within the area under the national jurisdiction of
one State and which has adverse effects in the area under the jurisdiction of another Sta te at
such a distance that it is not generally possible to distinguish the contribution of individual
emission sources or groups of sources.

The Convention has been extended by eight protocols that identify specific measures to be
taken by parties to cut their emissions of air pollutants:

 Protocol on Long-Term Financing of the Cooperative Programme for Monitoring and

Evaluation of the Long-range Transmission of Air Pollutants in Europe (EMEP) (1984)
 Helsinki Protocol on the Reduction of Sulphur Emissions (1985)
 Nitrogen Oxide Protocol (1988)
 Volatile Organic Compounds Protocol (1991)
 Oslo Protocol on Further Reduction of Sulphur Emissions (1994)
 Protocol on Heavy Metals (1998)
 Aarhus Protocol on Persistent Organic Pollutants (1998)
 Gothenburg Protocol to Abate Acidification, Eutrophication and Ground-level Ozone
(1999)

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13.7 CONVENTION ON BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY

This was initiated in the wake of the growing commitment of the international community
towards a harmless future. With its mandate of sustainable development, it is seen as a sturdy
step towards the preservation of biological diversity, the sustainable usage of its components,
and the reasonable and equitable sharing of benefits rising from the usage of genetic resources.
The Convention was opened for signature on 5 June 1992 at the United Nations Conference on
Environment and Development (the Rio “Earth Summit”). It remained open for signature until
4 June 1993, by which time it had received 168 signatures. The Convention entered into for ce
on 29 December 1993, which was 90 days after the 30th ratification.

Convention on Biological Diversity defines biodiversity as “the variability among living

organisms from all sources including, inter alia, terrestrial, marine and other aquatic
ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are part; this includes diversity within
species, between species and of ecosystems”.

The objectives of this Convention, to be pursued in accordance with its relevant

provisions, are:

1. Conservation on Biological Diversity (or biodiversity);

2. Sustainable use of its components; and

3. Fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from genetic resources.

The Conference of the Parties (COP) has established seven thematic programmes of work
(listed below) which correspond to some of the major biomes on the planet. Each programme
establishes a vision for, and basic principles to guide future work. They also set out key issues
for consideration, identify potential outputs, and suggests a timetable and means for achieving
these. Implementation of the work programmes depends on contributions from parties, the
Secretariat, and relevant intergovernmental and other organizations.

The seven thematic programmes are:

1. Agricultural Biodiversity

2. Dry and sub-humid Lands Biodiversity

3. Forest Biodiversity

4. Inland Waters Biodiversity

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5. Island Biodiversity

6. Marine and Coastal Biodiversity

7. Mountain Biodiversity

Some of the issues dealt under the Convention are

1. Measures and incentives for the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity.

2. Regulated access to genetic resources.

3. Access to and transfer of technology, including biotechnology.

4. Technical and scientific cooperation.

5. Impact assessment.

6. Education and public awareness.

7. Provision of financial resources.

8. National reporting on efforts to implement treaty

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) was adopted in New
York in May 1992 and entered into force on 21 March 1994.

The objectives of the UNFCCC are:

 to stabilize greenhouse gas concentration in the atmosphere to a level that would prevent
dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system, within a time-frame sufficient
to allow ecosystems to adapt naturally to climate change;

 to ensure that food production is not threatened; and

 to enable economic development to proceed in a sustainable manner

The Convention divides parties into three categories, which determine the obligations of the
parties. The categorization essentially divides parties into developed and developing nations.
The Convention itself places information and data collecting requirements on all parties, while
the developed nations are required to adopt policies and take corresponding measures with the
aim of returning to 1990 levels of emissions.

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(i) Kyoto Protocol (KP) to mitigate Climate Change of 1997

The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) proposed the KP
in 1997, which commits its Parties through internationally obligatory emission depletion
commitments. The protocol was accepted on 11 December 1997 in Kyoto, Japan and came into
power on 16 February 2005. The list of rules for the application 8 of the Protocol were accepted
at Committee of Parties (COP) 7 in Marrakesh, Morocco, in 2001, and are known as the
“Marrakesh Accords”. The first obligation period began in 2008 and came to an expiration in
2012. KP, operationalized the UNFCCC convention, by committing 37 industrialized countries
and the European community to bring about an average 5 per cent emissions reduction over
the 5 year period (2008 to 2012) in comparison to the 1990 levels. It binds only the developed
countries as it finds that they are mainly accountable for the current high levels of GHG
emissions in the atmosphere, which are the result of over a hundred years of industrial action.

Though the Parties are required to meet the prescribed targets primarily through national
measures, the Protocol offers three market-based mechanisms to facilitate emissions reduction
by nations. These are:

 International Emissions Trading,

 Clean Development Mechanism, and

 Joint Implementation

The Protocol places a huge burden on developed nations emphasizing their responsibility for
climate change, but through its market-based mechanisms incites GHG diminution to start
where it is most cost-effective, such as in the developing world. KP is guided by the
fundamental principle of “common but differentiated responsibility”.

13.8 UNITED NATIONS CONVENTION TO COMBAT DESERTIFICATION

The United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD) was adopted in Paris on
17th June 1994 and comes into effect on 29 December 1996. It was ratified by South Africa on
29 August 1997. The objective of the Convention is to combat desertification and mitigate the
effects of drought in countries experiencing serious drought and/or desertification, particularly
in Africa, through effective action at all levels, supported by international co-operation and
partnership arrangements, in the framework of an integrated approach which is consistent with
Agenda 21, with a view to contributing to the achievements of sustainable development in

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affected areas. The convention defines desertification is a process of land degradation, partly
due to human-induced factors. Activities such as over-cultivation, over-grazing, deforestation
and poor irrigation practices are turning once-fertile soils into barren patches of land. It has
enormous economic and social costs and can lead to poverty, forced migration and conflict.

In November 1999, the Recife Initiative was adopted, which calls for drafting a declaration on
how to strengthen programmes for combating desertification. The idea is to set a timeframe for
progress on a number of priority thematic and sectoral areas; to integrate anti-desertification
activities more fully into mainstream national developmental strategies of affected countries,
developed country Parties and other development institutions; and to encourage rapid work on
developing benchmarks and indicators for evaluating progress against desertification.

(i) Basel Convention on the Control of trans boundary Movements of Hazardous

Wastes and their Disposal of 1989

Awakening environmental awareness and corresponding tightening of environmental

regulations in the industrialized world in the 1970s and 1980s led to increasing public
resistance to the disposal of hazardous wastes – in accordance with what became known as the
NIMBY (Not in My Back Yard) syndrome – and to an escalation of disposal costs. It was
against this background that the Basel Convention was negotiated in the late 1980s, and its
thrust at the time of its adoption was to combat the “toxic trade”, as it was termed. India ratified
it on 24th June 1992 and it came into force in India on 22nd September1992. It has 170 member
countries (Parties) and it aims to protect human health and the environment against the adverse
effects resulting from the generation, management, trans boundary movements and disposal of
hazardous and other wastes.

The Conference of the Parties (known as the COP), of which all the States that are party to the
Convention are members, is the primary organ of the Convention. The Conference of the
Parties develops the policies that guides for the implementation of the Convention, also the
COP can adopt amendments to the Convention, as well as new instruments, such as Protocols,
if it considers that these would assist in the achievement of the goals of the Convention. The
COP meets at least once every two years, and seeks to reach its decisions by consensus.

The aims and objectives of the Basel Convention are as follows:

Aims and Objectives:

 To protect human health and environment against adverse effects of Hazardous wastes.

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 Reduction of hazardous waste generation and the promotion of environmentally sound

management of hazardous wastes, at the places of disposal of wastes.
 Helping developing countries with the environmentally sound management of the
hazardous and other waste they generate.
 The restriction on the trans boundary movement of hazardous wastes except where it is
perceived to be in accordance with the principles of environmentally sound
management; and
 A regulatory system applying to cases where trans boundary movements are
permissible.

13.9 CONVENTION ON WILDLIFE AND HABITATS

(i) Washington Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of

Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES)

Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora

(CITES) was adopted in Washington DC in 1973 and entered into force on 1 July 1975.

The objectives of the treaty are:

 to ensure, through international co-operation, that the international trade in species of wild
fauna and flora does not threaten the conservation of the species concerned; and

 to protect certain endangered species from over-exploitation by means of a system of import

export permits issued by a management authority under the control of a scientific authority.

(ii) Berne Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural

Habitats (Council of Europe)

The Berne Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats, also
known as the Bern Convention (or Berne Convention), is a binding international legal
instrument in the field of Nature Conservation, it covers the natural heritage in Europe, as well
as in some African countries. The Convention was open for signature on 19 September 1979
and came into force on 1 June 1982. It is particularly concerned about protecting natural
habitats and endangered species, including migratory species.

The main objectives for the Berne Convention are,

 to conserve wild flora and fauna and their natural habitats

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 to promote cooperation between states

 to give particular attention to endangered and vulnerable species including endangered and
vulnerable migratory species

13.10 EFFORTS FOR GENERAL ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERN

(i) UN Conference on Human Environment, 1972

The UN Conference on Human Environment, 1972 held in Stockholm was the first major UN
effort towards environmental protection. It recognized and acknowledged environmental
problems and adopted Stockholm Declaration. The Conference was held from June 5 -16 in
1972 wherein over 11 days the nations of the world deliberated on environmental issues and
adopted the Stockholm Declaration which contained 26 General Principles. This apart, the
Conference resulted in adoption of 109 specific recommendations which constituted Action
Plan on Environment (Veit Koester, 1990). The Stockholm Declaration contained general
principles and it paved the path for adoption of legal rules concerning international
environmental problems. Stockholm Declaration also created a separate independent
international environmental law regime. Though the principles laid down in the Declaration
were not legally binding yet they proved to be catalyst in development of International
Environmental Governance. Declaration focuses not only on interrelations between States but
also on relations with individuals and international organizations, as well as on socio-economic
factors. The Principles enunciated in the Declaration called for safeguarding natural resources
i.e. air, water, land, flora and fauna, ecosystems etc.; promotion and protection of the
environment; wildlife conservation; management of toxic substances; preventing pollution of
the oceans etc. Stockholm Declaration has become a foundation of International Environmental
Law.

(ii) Rio Declaration, 1992

One of the significant international effort dealing with environmental pollution was the Earth
Summit held on Rio de Janeiro in 1992. The International Conference on Human Environment
of 1992 discussed in detail various issues like Greenhouse effect, desertification, global
warming, deforestation, ozone depletion and other issues. Earth Summit provided groundwork
for entering into various multilateral treaties, agreements and guidelines dealing with
environmental issues.

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The Earth Summit resulted in approval of three key documents i.e.

 Rio Declaration on Environment and Development which contained nonbinding guiding

principles on environment and development

 An action plan in the form of Agenda 21 dealing with Sustainable Development. The
institution for monitoring the implementation of Agenda 21 was also created i.e. Commission
on Sustainable Development

 An authoritative statement of Principles for a global consensus on the management,

conservation and sustainable development of forests. The statement is not legally binding

Rio Declaration provided a great impetus of international environmental law and it led to the
adoption of United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, Convention on
Biological Diversity and the negotiation on Convention on Desertification. Earth Summit also
paved the way for future summits/conferences on Agenda 21 and accordingly, Earth plus five
summit was held in 1997 at New York wherein resolution for further implementation of
Agenda 21 was adopted.

13.11 ISSUES WITH THE ENVIRONMENT PROTECTION TREATIES

Regardless of the vast media attention received by the environmental treaties, the system of
creating and executing them is hardly functioning. The global environmental treaty-making
system—the set of instruments by which countries fashion agreements to encourage more
sustainable development—is not functioning very well. The system is actually quite
undeveloped. There are some, if any rules concerning the no. of countries that should sign a
treaty beforehand it can come into action. The penalties for not meeting the treaty compulsions
are hardly made explicit, and the degree to which countries that have not signed a treaty, would
be legally bound by the principles that the rest of the world has accepted, is still a matter of
speculation. Execution of global environmental treaties practically does not exist. Global
environmental agreements will always indicate political as well as scientific thoughts. This
means that decision-making is always politicized: Some countries are bound to resent the
claims of others (and of non-governmental entities) that they see as danger to their sovereignty.
In general, during the treaty making process, politics leads scientific considerations.

No particular institution has the accountability for establishing institutional treatymaking

capacity. There isn’t any central agency, no UN Environmental Treatymaking and Enforcement

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body to overlook multilateral treaties dealing with natural resources or sustainable

development. The UN Development Programme, the World Bank, the UN Environment
Program, and a long list of global agencies have all weighed in at different times, but there is
very little coordination among the many independent treaty secretariats.

13.12 LET US SUM UP

Without access to a safe environment, human populations may not be able to exist at even a
basic level. The deliberate destruction of habitat or of access to clean and safe water or food on
a significant scale could represent a breach of the fundamental human rights of the individuals
within the targeted group, as would some other acts of environmental destruction. Similarly, it
is clear that the deliberate despoliation of the environment can have catastrophic effects, not
only in ecological terms but also on human populations. Actions that have been strategically
planned to destroy an important part of the environment represent a breach of the basic human
rights of the targeted individuals. The relationship between human security and a safe and
habitable environment is fundamental, particularly in relation to access to natural resources.
There is a rising concern around the globe to preserve and protect the nature and environment.
So, the need of the hour is that all nations come together and initiate strong action in this
direction. Different nations around the world have started to act jointly on this issue, which has
led them to adopt and sign various Environment Protection Treaties to preserve and protect the
earth’s environment. Over the past 5 decades more than hundred such treaties have been
adopted.

13.13 GLOSSARY

UN Conference on Human Environment- The 1972 United Nations Conference on

the Environment in Stockholm was the first world conference to make the environment a major
issue.

Rio Declaration- the Rio Declaration consisted of 27 principles intended to guide countries in
future sustainable development. It was signed by over 175 countries.

13.14 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1) Explain about the Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution

2) Describe the objectives of UNFCCC.
3) Write a short note on UN Conference on Human Environment, 1972.

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4) Discuss about Rio Declaration, 1992.

13.15 REFERENCES

o Abas et al, (2019). Cooperative control of regional transboundary air pollutants,

Environmental System Research, 8:10, pp.1-14.
o Jacobsson, M. 2009. Folkra ¨tten, havet och den enskilda ma ¨nniskan. [International law,
the sea and the individual man]. Liber, Stockholm. (In Swedish).
o MCCORMICK, J. Reclaiming paradise: the global environmental movement.
Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 1991.

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UNIT-14: EFFORTS AT NATIONAL LEVEL

Structure

14.1Learning Objectives
14.2Introduction
14.3The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974
14.4The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981
14.5The Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972
14.6The Environment (Protection) Act, 1986
14.7The Forest Conservation Act, 1980
14.8Let Us Sum Up
14.9 Glossary
14.10 Check your progress
14.11 References

14.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After studying this Unit, you will be able to:

 Brief discussion on why it is important to introduce different Environmental laws in

India.
 The scope and objectives of water, air, wildlife, forest conservation and the environment
act.
 Related case studies to analyze why a country need different environmental protection
laws.

14.2 INTRODUCTION

In this unit we are going to discuss about the concept of Environmental Laws to reduce the
environmental degradation and protection of Environment, Forest, Air, Water and Wild Life in
India. After attending United Nations Conference on Human Environment, Stockholm 1972,
India planned to enact some environment protection laws. Keeping this in mind, government of
India executed the 42nd amendment of constitution (1976) in which two clauses/sub clauses
were introduced i.e. Article 48A, part of the Directive Principles of State which read, “The State
shall endeavour to protect and improve the environment and to safeguard the forests and wildlife

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of the country.” And Article 51 A (g), part of fundamental duties of the citizens states that “It
shall be the duty of every citizen of India to protect and improve the natural environment
including forests, lakes, rivers and wild life, and to have compassion for living creatures”.
Nevertheless, in pursuance of clause (1) of article 252 of the Constitution resolutions have been
passed by all the Houses of the Legislatures of the States of Assam, Bihar, Gujarat, Haryana,
Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan,
Tripura and West Bengal to the effect the matters aforesaid should be regulated in those States
by the Parliament by law. In the Parliament in the Twenty-fifth Year of the Republic of India the
Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974 was enacted. This is the first act directly
focused on environmental protection by India except the wild life protection act which was
enacted two years back to this law. The Water Act introduces Pollution Control Boards act as
the nodal agencies with special powers and functions to regulate environmental degradation at
state level.

This unit will describe how human health and environment is getting protected by environmental
laws as discussed above in our constitution under the Article 48 A and 51 A (g). The following
are some of the specific environment-related legislations passed by the Central Government over
time in various areas (Meheta, 1994, Trivedi et al 1995). To combat issues related to conservation
of natural resources and our environment these laws are mandatory to check on the issues like
climate change, acid rain, global warming, greenhouse gas emissions, deforestation, to check on
hunting of endangered species, pollution from different sources and depletion of natural
resources.

To combat environmental degradation the following laws related to various sectors of the
environment are:

 Water Pollution
The River Boards Act, 1956

The Merchant Shipping (Amendment) Act 1970

The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974 and Cess Act, 1977

 Air Pollution
The Indian Boilers Act 1923

The Factories Act, 1948

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The Mines and Minerals (Regulation and Development) Act, 1947

The Industries (Development and Regulation) Act 1961

The Air (Preservation and Control of) Pollution Act, 1981

Radiation (Air Pollution)

The Atomic Energy Act 1962

Radiation Protection Rules 1971

 Pesticides (Water and Soil Pollution)

The Poison Act 1919

The Factories Act 1948

The Insecticides Act 1968

 Forest & Wild life Protection

The Indian Fisheries Act 1897

The Indian Forest Act 1927

The Prevention of Food Adulteration Act 1954

The Ancient Monuments and Archaeological sites and Remains Act 1958

The Wildlife (Protection) Act 1972

The Urban Land Ceiling and Regulation Act 1976

The Forest Conservation Act 1980

 General
The Indian Penal Code 1860

The Environment (Protection) Act, 1986

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14.3 THE WATER (PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF POLLUTION) ACT, 1974

Source-https://www.livelaw.in/tags/water-(prevention-and-control-of-pollution)-act-

An act was established for a system for collecting levy and access fees on water used by certain
industries. The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act of 1974 is a detailed law
governing organizations responsible for monitoring water pollution as well as the range of
pollution control boards at the central and state levels. The Indian parliament passed the Water
(Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974 with the goal of preventing and controlling water
pollution in India.

Objectives and Scope

• The requirement of this act was felt in the year 1962. A board was set up in 1962 to draw
a draft sanctioning for the avoidance of water contamination.

• The Act was the first law in the series of law dealing with pollution which was passed by
government of India.

• The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act was enacted in 1974 but it was
amended in 1978 then again in 1988.

• This act ensure discharge of effluents into any water bodies need permit of State Board as
water is a state subject under the Indian constitution under Entry 17, List II of VII
Schedule.

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• The reason behind the formation of this act was given as the pollution problems of rivers
and streams holds a considerable importance and urgency in recent years as a result of the
growth of industries and the increasing tendency towards urbanization.

• The object for legislating the act was given as "It is fundamental to guarantee that the
domestic and industrial effluents are not permitted to be released into the water courses
without sufficient treatment. Contamination of waterways and streams making expanding
harm to the nation's economy."

The Act is divided into eight parts, each with 64 segments. Part II describes the Central and
State Pollution Regulate Boards; Chapter IV illustrates the Boards' authority, Chapter V
explains how to prevent and control water contamination and Chapter VII depicts punishments
and discipline methods when these principles are violated.

The Act provided a comprehensive definition of the word –Pollution with regards to water
pollution. The definition reds as under:

 “Pollution is defined as any contamination of water, alteration of its physical,

chemical, or biological properties or discharge of any sewage, trade effluent, or other
liquid, gaseous, or solid substances into water (whether directly or indirectly) that
may, or is likely to, create a nuisance or generate such harmful water, or injuries to
public health or safety, or domestic, commercial, industrial, agricultural, or other
legitimate uses, or to the life of a person.”

Water Pollution includes:

1- Water contamination

2- Alternation of Physical, Chemical or Biological properties of Water.

3- Discharge of sewage, trade effluents or any other liquid, gaseous of solid substance into
water.

Prevention and Control of water Pollution

1-Allow the State Government to limit the Act's application to specific areas (Section 19)

2-The ability to obtain information

3-The ability to collect effluent samples and the procedures to be followed under (Section 21)

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4-Analysis results on samples taken under the age of 21 must be reported under (Section 22)

5-Entry and inspection authority under (Section 23)

6- Disposal of contaminating waste in a stream or well is prohibited under (Section 24)

7-Restrictions on new discharges and outlets under (Section 25)

Power and Function of Boards to control water pollution under The Water (Prevention
and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974

Functions of Central Board

(1) The Central Board's primary responsibility is to promote the cleanliness of streams and
wells in various parts of the States.

The Central Board may carry out all or some of the following responsibilities:—

(a) Provide advice to the Central Government on any topic relating to water pollution
prevention and control.

(b) To co-ordinate the activities of the State Boards and resolve dispute among them.

(c) Provide technical assistance and guidance to the State Boards conduct and sponsor
investigations and research relating to problems of water pollution and prevention, control,
or abatement of water pollution.

(d) Plan and organize personnel training.

(e) Organize a comprehensive water pollution prevention and control programme through the
mass media.

(f) Collect, compile and publish technical and statistical data relating to water pollution and
the measures devised for effective prevention and control, as well as prepare manuals,
codes or guides relating to sewage and trade effluent treatment and disposal, and distribute
information related to it.

(g) Establish or change standards for a stream or well.

(h) Plan and oversee the implementation of a national water pollution prevention, control, and
abatement programme, I perform any other duties that may be assigned.

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(3) The Board may establish or recognize a laboratory or laboratories to analyses water
samples from any stream or well, as well as sewage and industrial effluent samples.

Functions of State Board

(1) A State Board shall have the following duties, subject to the provisions of this Act:

(a) Establish a comprehensive programme for the prevention, control, or abatement of pollution
of streams and wells in the State.

(b) Any matter concerning the prevention, control, or abatement of water pollution;

(c) To collect and disseminate information relating to water pollution and the prevention,
control, or abatement of same.

(d) Encourage to conduct and participate in investigations and research relating to problems of
water pollution, prevention, control or abatement of water pollution.

(e) To partner with Central Board to design and implement training program and mass education
programmes.

(f) Inspect sewage, trade effluents from industries and plants for the treatment of sewage and
trade effluents. Review plans, specifications or other data of a industry or plant related to
treatment of water, purification of water and the system for the disposal of sewage or trade
effluents.

(g) Establish or modify annul effluent standards.

(h) Develop cost-effective sewage and trade effluent treatment systems.

(i) Develop methods for using trade effluents and sewage in agriculture.

(j) Develop effective sewage and trade effluent disposal systems on land.

(k) To establish treatment criteria for sewage and trade effluents to be discharged into a specific
stream.

(l) To issue, modify or cancel any order:

(i) For preventing, controlling or reducing waste discharge into streams or wells.

(m) To establish effluent standards that need to followed by people who discharge sewage, sludge
or both or try to establish, alter effluent standards for sewage.

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(n) To provide advice to the State Government on the placement of any industry whose operation
is likely to harm a stream or well.

(o) To conduct other activities that may be specified or assigned to it by the Central Board or
the State Government from time to time.

(2) The Board may establish or recognize a laboratory or laboratories to help in carrying out its
responsibilities under this section, including the analysis of water samples from any stream
or well, as well as sewage and trade effluent samples.

14.4 THE AIR (PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF POLLUTION) ACT, 1981

Figure Source-https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QpM6TgODH1E

The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act of 1981, or simply the Air Act, was enacted
by India's Parliament to prevent and control the adverse consequences of air pollution. This act
is viewed as the government of India's first concrete step toward combating air pollution. Air
pollution can cause global warming, respiratory difficulties, smog, climate change, and
biodiversity and ecological disruption.

Objective and scope

 In the early 1970s, the effects of climate change produced by various types of pollution
became serious matter of concern. Many countries thought to pass their own rules to
mitigate negative impacts of pollution.

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 In June 1972, at the United Nations General Assembly on Human Environment in

Stockholm, provides a resolution by urging all nations to protect natural resources such
as air.
 Air pollution was a problem in India due to a various factors including stubble burning,
inappropriate industrial practices, environmental variables and so on. The Air (Prevention
and Control of Pollution) Act of 1981, enacted under the Indian Constitution, was
intended to fight these factors.
 Various pollutants are present above certain limits in the air comes through industrial
emission and from the human activities like incineration, traffic, domestic fuel use,
heating etc. which poses a detrimental adverse effect on human health as well on fauna -
flora and other properties. The Central Government approved a bill to carry out the
decisions made in Stockholm in June 1972 at the United Nations Conference on the
Human Environment on the preservation of air quality.
 The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act of 1981 is divided into seven chapters
and has 54 sections.

Distinguish between an "air pollution" and "air pollutant"?

 Any solid, liquid or gaseous substance that may harm or disrupt the environment,
humans, other living beings, plants, or even property is defined as an "air pollutant" in
Section 2(a). Noise was added to the list of compounds that are judged to be damaging
to the environment by a 1987 amendment. As a result, noise pollution is likewise
regulated under this Act.
 The presence of any air pollutant in the atmosphere is defined as "air pollution" under
Section 2(b).
 Air pollution is defined by the Clean Air Act as the presence of any harmful pollutant
that makes the air un-breathable. The Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) was also
established under Section 2 (g) of the Act, with jurisdiction over the entire country. The
act also mandated the establishment of State Pollution Control Boards (SPCB) for each
state to carry out the CPCB's directives.

Prevention and control of air pollution- The Air (prevention and control of pollution) Act,
1981: Section 22 of the Act says that no individual or industry shall produce air pollutants in

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excess to the Pollution Control Boards' guidelines. The Board can even go to court to get a
restraining order against an industry that was causing pollution.

Power and function of Boards to control Air pollution

Function of Central Board

I. The CPCB's role is to advise the Union government on matters related to air quality
and the prevention, control and abatement of air pollution.
II. To create and implement a national programme for the prevention, control, and
abatement of air pollution.
III. The CPCB is responsible for coordinating the work of State Boards and resolving
any disagreements emerging between them.
IV. The CPCB's role is to provide State Boards with technical help and guidance, as well
as to sponsor events, investigation and research on the issues linked to air pollution.
V. To design and coordinate training for those who are involved or are likely to be
involved with programmes for air pollution prevention, control, and elimination.
VI. Organize air pollution prevention and control programmes through mass media
campaigns.
VII. To establish ambient air quality standards.
VIII. To collect, compile, and publish technical and statistical data relating to air pollution,
as well as measures for prevention and abatement.
IX. To collect and disseminate information relating to air pollution.
X. To perform other functions time to time
XI. Gather and spread information about issues linked to air pollution
XII. If the State Boards fail to comply with the CPCB's orders and grave emergency
results, the CPCB may discharge the powers of the State Boards in the public
interest.

Sulphur Dioxide, Oxides of Nitrogen, Suspended Particulate Matter (SPM), and Respirable
Suspended Particulate Matter (RSPM/PM10) are the four air pollutants monitored by the
CPCB's under National Air Quality Monitoring Program, which is being carried out at 342
operating stations across 127 cities in various States and UTs.

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Function of State Board

I. To collect and share information about air pollution.

II. To develop and implement programmes for air pollution prevention, control, abatement
and eradication.
III. To advise the State government on matters relating to air pollution.
IV. To inspect air control equipment production plants and issue appropriate directions
concerning air pollution prevention, control, and abatement.
V. To coordinate and collaborate with CPCB in organizing training of persons engaged in
air pollution prevention, control, and abatement.
VI. To check air pollution control areas, assess the quality of air, and issue appropriate
directions.

14.5 THE WILDLIFE PROTECTION ACT, 1972

Figure source-Image Source- https://bit.ly/2woIuzB

India is home to a diverse variety of plants and animals. It is a land that contains 10% of the
world's biodiversity. India accounts for 7-8 percent of all species, including plants and animals,
according to the International Union for Conservation of Nature. The statistics are as follows:

 There are around 45,000 plant species in the India, accounting for 7% of the total.
 There are around 15,000 flowering plants in India, accounting for about 6% of the total.

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 Insects, fish, birds, mammals, reptiles, amphibians, and molluscs make up around 91,000
animal species in India. It included 60,000 insect species, 2,456 fish species, 1,230 bird
species, 372 mammals, over 440 reptiles and 200 amphibians and 500 molluscs.
 Sheep, cattle, and goats are among the approximately 449 species of livestock.
Large constructions are replacing forests throughout the world, putting the ecological balance at
danger and leads to natural disasters. In India, wild animals are rapidly disappearing. Many birds
and animals, like as the pink-headed duck, Indian aurochs, and Asiatic cheetah, are extinct in our
country, while others, such as the Bengal tiger, Asiatic lion, and Indian rhinoceros, are
threatened. It was a serious source of concern that leads to the introduction of wildlife protection
legislation.

The Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972 was approved by India's Parliament on August 21, 1972,
and on September 9, 1972 it comes in effect. This Act was passed to save plant, bird, and animal
species. The Wildlife Protection Act is a broad statute designed to save wild animals and plants.
There were very few national parks before this Act was passed. This Act covers laws for plant
and animal preservation, hunting, harvesting, and a variety of other related issues. It has six
schedules that cover the entire country. Various types of sanctions are also stipulated in this Act
for violations of the provisions included therein. There are 66 sections and six schedules in this
Act.

Some of the popular wildlife sanctuaries in India

1. Keoladeo Ghana National Park, Rajasthan

2. Ranthambore National Park, Rajasthan

3. Sariska National Park, Rajasthan

4. Nagarhole National Park, Karnataka

5. Corbett National Park, Uttarakhand

6. Bandipur National Park, Karnataka

7. Kaziranga National Park, Assam

The Wild Life (Protection) Act 1972

Objectives

 One of the key goals is to make hunting of wild animals, birds, and other animals illegal.

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 It establishes a variety of penalties for breaking rules and regulations in order to maintain
proper control over human activities and to satisfy the Act's varied objectives.
 Several Schedules in this Act provide absolute protection for particular endangered species,
allowing them to be safeguarded.
 To give refuge and protection for animals that are not in danger but nevertheless require
security and protection.
 Ducks, deer, and other specifically protected animals that can be pursued. The hunter must
obtain a license from the District Officer before hunting such animals. If the license is
approved, he will be allowed to shoot the animals in a specific area and during a specific
season. Any acts that result in a license being infringed upon will be terminated.
 One of the primary goals is to empower officials with the authority to punish those who
violate the Act.
 To assist state and central governments in designating areas as sanctuaries or national
parks.
 Planting trees and creating protected animal parks to ensure that such creatures are
safeguarded in natural settings.
 Establishing wildlife advisory boards and wildlife wardens, as well as appointing members
with responsibilities and authority.
 To support the International Convention on the Trade in Endangered Species of Fauna and
Flora (CITES 1976).
 To prohibit the trade and commerce of certain endangered species.
 Providing a permission for ownership, sale, and transfer of some wild species in order to
facilitate trade and commerce.
 To preserve the country's flora and fauna while also maintaining a healthy ecological
balance.
There are 66 sections in this Act, which are split into seven chapters and six schedules. It was
on the state list before this Act was created, thus the state passed legislation for wildlife
protection and conservation. Using the provisions of Article 252 of the Indian Constitution,
Parliament approved this Act.

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Breif detail of authorities appointment rules, duties under the Wild Life (Protection) Act,
1972

Section 3

This section addresses the appointment of various officers, including a director of wildlife
preservation, assistant directors of wildlife preservation, and any other officers deemed
essential. The directors so chosen must utilise their rights and functions in conformity with the
Central Government's rules or specific orders. The assistant director named here will be the
director's subordinate.

Section 4

The government can designate a chief wildlife warden, wildlife wardens, and one honorary
wildlife ward in each district under this section.

All officers designated by the government must execute their rights and functions in accordance
with the State Government's regulations or special directions, or rules published in the Official
Gazette. All staff, including the wildlife warden and one honorary warden, will report to the
chief wildlife warden.

Section 5

This section discusses the delegation authority of powers. With the previous agreement of the
State Government, the director, the chief wildlife warden, can transfer all or all of his powers
and duties to any officer who is subordinate to him.

Section 6

The wildlife advisory board's constitution is discussed in this section. This provision indicates
that it is the administrator's responsibility to form a wildlife advisory board with the following
members after the Act has been implemented.

 It should be made up of two members of the State Legislature or two members of the
Union Territory Legislature, depending on the situation.
 Secretary of state government or in charge of the government of Union territory's forest.
 The State Forest Department's will appoint the Forest Officer.
 The Director Chief Wildlife Warden has to nominated an officer.

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 This board shall also comprise not more than five officers from the State Forest
Department.
 It shall also include a maximum of three tribe representatives on the board, as well as a
maximum of ten people who will charge in the view of the state, needed to engage in
wildlife protection.
 The Vice-Chairman of the Board will be appointed by the State Government.
 As secretary of the Board, the State Government shall select the forest in-charge of the
forest department or the chief warden.
 The allowance will be paid to board members for performing and exercising their duties
and obligations.

Section 7: This section lays forth the procedure that the board must follow. The board is required
to assemble twice a year at a location determined by the State Government.

Section 8: explains the Wildlife Advisory Board's responsibilities. It states that the State
Advisory Board's role is to advise the State Government on issues such as the selection of areas
for designation as sanctuaries, national parks, and closed areas, as well as to assist the
Government in developing policies for the protection and conservation of wildlife and certain
plants.

Wild animal hunting is prohibited

Hunting, as defined by the Wild Life (Protection) Act of 1972, includes poisoning, killing, or
attempting to trap any wild animal. It also includes driving or utilizing any animal for
transportation, damaging any wild animal or any of their body parts, murdering reptile or bird
eggs, or disrupting a reptile or bird's nest or eggs. Any animal listed in Schedule 1, Schedule 2,
Schedule 3, or Schedule 4 is prohibited from being hunted.

Sanctuary restriction

The grant of permissions for the sanctuary is discussed in Section 28. Any person may be
granted permission to dwell or enter a sanctuary by the chief wildlife warden for the purpose
of wildlife research, scientific research, tourism, wildlife photography, or the initiation of
lawful business with a person who is staying inside the sanctuary's boundaries.

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Certain prohibitions and restrictions established under the Wildlife Conservation Act for the
management and protection of sanctuaries are discussed in Sections 29, 30, 31, and 32. These
provisions indicate that no one shall light or leave a fire in the sanctuary, and that no one shall
bring any weapon, explosive, dangerous substance, or chemical to the sanctuary.

National Park Service

 The declaration of a national park is governed by Section 35 of the Wildlife Protection

Act.
 The state government can proclaim an area a National Park by official notification if it
determines that it is suitable for establishing a national park and fostering wildlife or
the environment due to its ecological, faunal, floral, or zoological associations.
 Except with the authorization of the Chief Animals Warden, no one should destroy,
exploit, or remove any kind of wildlife in the National Park.
 Within the National Park's restricted region, cattle grazing are prohibited. Only the
individual who has authorization to enter is an exception to this rule.

Zoo Recognition and the Central Zoo Authority

Section 38

 The Central Government has authority to declare any area a National Park, Sanctuary,
or Zoo. Section 38A, Section 38B, Section 38C, Section 38D, Section 38E, Section
38F, Section 38G, Section 38H, Section 38I, and Section 38J are all included in this
section.
 It addresses the recognition of zoos, the procurement of animals by zoos, the prohibition
of teasing, and the exploitation of animals in zoos.
Section 38A

 This section discusses the establishment of the central zoo authority. The Central
Government is required by this section to establish a body known as the central zoo
authority to carry out the powers and tasks allocated by this Act. This board should
have a Chairperson, no more than ten members, and one Member Secretary elected by
the Central Government.

Section 38B

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 The term of office and conditions of service for members of the Central Zoo Authority
are defined in this section.
 Every member, including the chairperson, is limited to three years in office.
 If a member or the chairperson wishes to retire from their position, they must notify the
Central Government in writing.
Section 38C

 The Central Zoo Authority is tasked to conduct the following responsibilities under this
section:
 It should outline the zoo's veterinary care standards as well as the minimal housing
conditions.
 It should monitor the zoo's operations on a regular basis and assess its commitment to the
rules and regulations.
 It should identify and keep track of endangered wild animal species for captive breeding
purposes.
 Trade and commerce in wild animals, trophies and articles
Section 39

 The government owns all wild animals, according to this provision. Anyone in possession
of government property should return it to the nearest police station or designated officer
within 48 hours.
Prevention and detention of offences

Section 50

 If a person accused of operating unlawfully under this Act fails to show the appropriate
documentation, permits, or licenses, or fails to prove his innocence, he will be found
guilty under this Act.
 When an authorized official seizes an uncured trophy, wild animal, meat, plant, or
derivative thereof, the authorized officer can arrange for its sale and acquire and utilize
the proceeds as provided by this Act. If it is established that the property does not belong
to the government, the proceeds of the sale will be distributed to the owner.
 No one lower than Assistant Director or Wildlife Chief Warden has the authority to issue
the warrant, compel someone to produce any document, receive any evidence, or execute
a search warrant.

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Property seized rules due to unlawful hunting and trading

A new chapter, Chapter 6, was inserted into the Wildlife Amendment Act of 2002. (A). The
property acquired by any individual, group of persons, or trust as a result of illegal hunting or
forbidden trading of wild animals under this Act would be forfeited by the State Government by
the approved officer, according to this chapter.

14.6 THE ENVIRONMENTAL (PROTECTION) ACT, 1986

Figure Source- Image Source: https://bit.ly/2Slsvug

Man has strived to conquer nature to a large extent, and his efforts have been successful. As the
quality of life starts to deteriorate, environmental concerns have grown. Increasing pollution,
loss of biodiversity, loss of vegetative cover, rising risks of environmental mishaps and toxic
substances in the ambient atmosphere pose threats to the environment. The Indian legislature
has passed several acts dealing with certain types of pollution. The Environment (Protection)
Act of 1986 is the most essential statute because it is the general environmental legislation.

It was passed under Article 253 (enactment of legislation for giving effect to international
agreements), 48A and 51 A(g) of the Indian constitution and as per the term "environmental
quality" was expressed at the Stockholm United Nations Conference on the Human
Environment in June 1972. The Indian government has spoken out strongly against

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environmental issues and has passed numerous environmental laws. This act includes almost
all sectors of environment by notifying various rules and regulation under the provision of this
Act. Important Notifications issued under EPA the Coastal Regulation Zone Notification
(1991), which regulates activities along coastal stretches. In December 2018, the Union cabinet
approved the Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ) Notification, 2018, Hazardous waste (Handling
and Management) rules, 1989. The Environmental Impact Assessment of Development
Projects Notification and many laws under regulated this act. The Environment (Protection)
Act, 1986 covers water, air, land, and other interconnections. The MoEF was designated as the
nodal agency for pollution control by the Act. Therefore this Act protects whole environment
and it is called Umbrella Act in India.

Objectives

The Environmental (Protection) Act of 1986 has the following goals:

I. It was adopted to work on resolution taken at the United Nations Conference on the
Human Environment in Stockholm in June 1972.
II. Establishment of a government protection authority.
III. Coordination among several regulatory authorities is required by law.
IV. The major aim is to develop general environmental legislation that could be
implemented in locations where serious environmental concerns actual exists.
V. Imposing severe penalties on individuals who promote damaging the human
environment, safety or health.
VI. Sustainable development should be the primary environmental goal, and it can be
considered one of the objectives of the Environment (Protection) Act of 1986.
VII. Achieving the act's mission and purpose, as well as the protection of life under Article
21 of the Indian Constitution, is all part of sustainable development.
VIII. Establishment of a government-protection authority.
IX. Coordination of the actions of several regulatory authorities, as required by law.

Scope and commencement of the Act

The Environment Protection Act of 1986, which covers the entire country, comes into force on
November 19th. Section 2 of the Environmental Protection Act of 1986 (EPA) deals with some
of the information on the Act's definitions, which are as follows:

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 The term "environment" refers to the interaction of water, air, and land, as well as the
interdependence of their existence. Humans, as well as other living species such as
plants, microorganisms, and property are included.
 Any material in the form of solid, liquid, or gaseous can be harmful to the health of
living creatures and it will consider an "Environmental Pollutant."
 "Handling" refers to the way a substance that is being created, processed, collected,
used, offered for sale, or otherwise handled.
 Environmental pollution-The presence of environmental pollutants in the environment
in any form such as solid, liquid or gas.
 Hazardous material means a product or a preparation process that has the potential to
harm humans or other living creatures such as plants, bacteria, or the environment.
 Occupier refers to a person who has authority in a factory or premises over its
operations.
Central government power

The central government has the authority to adopt whatever reasonable and lawful steps and
measures for the environmental conservation and enhancement within the country. These steps
are performed to avoid, control and reduce pollution in the environment. Few measures are
discussed below in term of environmental protection:

 Developing environmental standards.

 Coordination of legal actions among state officers and other authorities.
 Execution and appropriate planning of the global national programme for
environmental pollution prevention, control, and abatement.
 Any restrictions that must be applied on any industry, procedure, or activity must be
followed.
 The government has the authority and responsibility to establish procedures to
safeguards and prevent numerous unavoidable mishaps that could result in increased
pollution.
 Proposals for remedies should be made in order to safeguard people and prevent
future tragedies.
 The responsibility of authority is to establish procedures and safeguards for handling
the hazardous substances.
 To gather and disseminate information about environmental pollution.

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 Preparation of manuals, rules, and instructions that are deemed suitable for
environmental pollution control.
 The establishment of laboratories.

The Environmental Protection Rules, 1986

The guidelines for environmental protection went into effect on November 19, 1986, and they
include the following:
 Air, soil, and water quality guidelines are set for many places with rules, regulations
and penalties for protection.
 The standard was established to determine the limitations of environmental
contaminants.
 The technique and protections required to handle the hazardous substance are outlined
in the rules.
 Handling hazardous substances at various places and premises is a subject to
restrictions and prohibitions which is also mentioned here.
 Procedures and protections needed to prevent mishaps that could result in
environmental pollution, as well as remedies.
 The prohibitions and limitations on the location of industries in certain localities.

Environmental pollution prevention, reduction, and control

Section 7 of the act establishes specific rules that must be followed, including the need that no
one harm the environment, and that if someone is found guilty of harming the environment by
polluting, they must pay a penalty. According to Section 7 of the Environment Protection Act
of 1986, no individual in the country shall engage in any activity or operation that produces a
considerable concentration of gases or other substances that may cause excessive
environmental pollution.

Section 8 stipulates that anyone handling a hazardous chemical must need to follow every
safety procedural protections measures.

The procedure for legal proceedings under the Environmental Protection Act should be
followed.

For legal processes, the following method must be followed.

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 The notification must be delivered to the occupier or to the agent. It must state the
information for analysis of the subject in question.
 In the presence of the occupier or agent, samples of the extent of pollution must be
taken for checking purpose.
 Without any delays in the procedure, the sample should be transmitted directly to the
laboratory.
 The sample should be preserved in a labelled container with the signatures of both the
occupying party and the person who took the sample.
Under this act, the central government must recognize at least one or two laboratories, and the
analysis report can be utilized as proof of the facts stated in any procedure performed under
this act.

Penalties for Violations of the Act's Rules and Orders

Section 15- If someone fails or violates them, what will be accountable and punishment.
Every detail is discussed below in term of punishment and penalties.

 In terms of imprisonment, up to a five-year extension is possible.

 With a fine that can be increased to one lakh rupees.
 Alternatively, the person who is responsible must face both sanctions.

Section 24: states that if an offence is punished under both the Environment Protection Act and
another law, the person is not accountable under the Environment Protection Act.

14.7 THE FOREST CONSERVATION ACT 1980

Figure source- https://www.thequint.com/explainers/explainer-how-the-govt-is-trying-to-

weaken-indias-forest-act

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Forests are extremely vital in our lives. They supply us with a variety of valuable resources,
such as oxygen and raw materials for survival, settlement and to have enjoy a good quality of
life. However, humans are removing forests at an exponential rate. The Forest Conservation
Act, 1980 was implemented by the Indian government to restrict such inhumane practices
toward the forests. The initial legal document on the subject was the Indian Forest Act of 1865.
During the colonial period, it was later replaced by the Indian Forest Act of 1927. When
legislation is passed, the aim is to address the social problem for which it was enacted. The
similar aim was voiced when the Indian Forest Act of 1927 was established, but it was limited
to British interests.

The 1927 Act was primarily concerned with timber. The Act of 1927 was divided into 13
chapters and included 86 sections. It provided the state the authority to control tribal people's
rights to use forests. Under this Act, the government able to develop restriction on forests. Its
goal was to manage forest products, tax on timber and other forest products.

The necessity to maintain forests grew stronger when India gained independence and the
President of India enacted the Forest (Conservation) Ordinance in 1980. But the order was
cancelled by Section 5 of the Forest (Conservation) Act of 1980, which comes into force on
October 25, 1980.

Constitution mandatory’s for forest conservation

When the Indian Constitution was adopted in 1950, the framers had no idea that difficulties
linked with forest protection might again arise in the future. This was realized later when the
Constitution (Forty-Second Amendment) Act, 1976 was passed, adding Article 48A to the
section of the Directive Principles of State Policy and Article 51A (g) as a fundamental duty
of every Indian citizen.

 According to Article 48A, the state must enact legislation to protect and improve the
environment in order to protect our country's forests.
 Article 51A (g) states that it is the responsibility of every Indian citizen to maintain and
improve the natural environment, particularly the country's forests.

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Objective

 The Act's purpose is to protect the environment and our country's forests. This Act also
aims to rejuvenate the woods in our country by planting trees and increasing forest
growth.
 To save the forest, its flora and animals, as well as other ecological components. To
safeguard the woodlands' integrity, territory, and uniqueness.
 To preserve trees and avoid deforestation, as deforestation resulting in land erosion and
consequent degradation.
 To avoid the extinction of forest biodiversity.
 To avoid the conversion of forests into agricultural or grazing grounds, or the
construction of commercial or residential units.

The following aspects are included in this Act.

 The State government and other authorities are no longer allowed to make decisions in
specific areas without first seeking authorization from the federal government.
 The central government has complete authority to carry out the laws of this Act under
this Act.
 Violation of this Act's provisions is likewise punishable under this Act.
 An advisory group may be created under this Act to advise the Central government on
forest conservation issues.

Restrictions on forest reservations and non-forest uses

Section 2: This section forbids state governments and other authorities from enacting
legislation in the following areas without obtaining approval from the federal government:

 That they cannot de-reserve any forest land or any portion which is being enforced in
the State or any other part.
 That the forest land or any portion of it cannot be used for non-forest purposes.
 They cannot assign any forest land or any portion of it by way of lease to any private
person, or anyone or organization not controlled by the Government of India.

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Advisory committee (section 3)

The central government has the authority under Section 3 of this Act to form an advisory
committee to provide advice on topics relating to forest preservation.

Penalties (section 3A)

The change made in 1988 adds this Section 3A. According to this section, anyone who violates
or aids in the violation of any law in Section 2 is subject to simple imprisonment for any period
up to 15 days.

Offenses by authorities and government offices (section 3B)

The 1988 amendment has included in Section 3B to the bill. The malpractices of the authorities
and government departments are discussed in this section.

According to section 3B(1), whenever and wherever any offence under this Act is committed
by any department of the government, the head of the government, any authority, or any person
who was responsible in conducting business, they will be held culpable.

However, the same individual can save himself by demonstrating that the crime was committed
without his knowledge and that he took all reasonable precautions to prevent it.

Section 4: Power to make rules

The Federal (Central) government has the power to carry out the laws established by this Act
by posting them in the official document. Any rule need presented in both houses of parliament
for thirty days before being implemented. Both houses of parliament must agree to amend or
they can discuss to create a new rule as a result of the Act.

14.8 LET US SUM UP

In this block we have briefly discussed the requirement of introducing different environmental
laws in India to save and minimize the destruction of natural resources directly or indirectly
influenced by human involvement. It throws light on various rules, penalties, duty and power
of government under water, air, wildlife, environment and forest protection and conservation
acts.

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14.9 GLOSSARY

Environment Protection Act - Environment Protection Act, 1986 is an Act of the Parliament
of India. It was enacted in May 1986 and came into force on 19 November 1986. It has 26
sections and 4 chapters. The Act is widely considered to have been a response to the Bhopal
gas leak.

The Biological Diversity Act - The Biological Diversity Act, 2002 is an Act enacted by the
Parliament of India for the preservation of biological diversity in India, and provides
mechanism for equitable sharing of benefits arising out of the use of traditional biological
resources and knowledge.

14.10 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. Identify two Indian nodal advisory bodies that check on air and water pollution.
2. Define Article 51 (g).
3. Describe the Water Act of 1974.
4. Describe the Air Act of 1981.
5. Describe the Wild Life (Protection) Act of 1972.
6. Describe the roles of CPCBs and SPCPs of under the Water and Air Act.

14.11 REFERENCES

 Development of Environmental Laws in India by Manju Menon and Kanchi Kohli

 Principles of International Law by Jacqueline Peel and Philippe Sands.
 Environmental Law Case Book by P. Leelakrishnan
 Environmental Law in India by P. Leelakrishnan

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UNIT-15: ROLE OF CIVIL SOCIETY ORGANIZATIONS

Structure

15.1 Learning Objectives

15.2 Introduction
15.3 Civil Society Organization
15.3.1Meaning, definition, types and role of CSO
15.4 What is Environment Protection?
15.5 Role of CSO in Environmental Protection
15.6 Case Study: CSOs Initiative for Environmental Protection
15.7 Let us sum up
15.8 Glossary
15.9 Check your progress
15.10 Reference

15.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After studying this unit, you will be able to

 the meaning of CSO and Environmental protection

 type and role of CSOs in welfare measures
 type and agencies of environmental protection
 role of CSOs on Environment protection
 forms of environmental protection under CSO

15.2 INTRODUCTION

This unit is all about the role of Civil Society Organizations (CSO) in environmental protection.
The present unit is the third part of Block – 4: Environmental Protection. This unit will help
students learn basic ideas about Civil Society Organizations, their role, practices, and types,
and how it has played a significant role in environmental protection. At present, civil society
organisations have been considered important actors in development and governance. Still, also
they are the dynamic forces for greater cooperation and public mobilisation for a larger societal
goal. Particularly the civil society organisations' roles in environmental protection are diverse
from policy formulation, project implementation, planning, monitoring, and research to

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advocacy. In this context, the present unit will help the learners understand the role of civil
society organisations in environmental protection.

15.3 CIVIL SOCIETY ORGANIZATION (CSO)

15.3.1 Meaning, definition, types and role of CSO

Civil society is generally classified as an organisation, institution, and persons aiming to

express or advance a common purpose through their demands, actions and ideas on
governments. It considers a self-propelled and self-generated non-state organisation typically.
It regulates the conduct of citizens for the greater good of society through collective actions by
its members.

Michael Bratton defines civil society as 'social interaction between the household and the state
characterised by community cooperation, structure of voluntary association, and a network of
public communication.'

Thomas Hobbes considers civil society as a 'defense against unwarranted intrusions by the
state on a newly realised individual rights and freedoms, organised through the medium of
voluntary associations.'

According to Antonio Gramsci, civil society is viewed as 'the site of rebellion against the
orthodox as well as the construction of cultural and ideological hegemony, expressed through
the families, school, universities, and the media as well as voluntary associations, since all
these institutions are important in shaping the political dispositions of citizens.'

Neera Chandhoke refers to civil society as 'the networks and relationships of those groups that
are not organised or managed by the State. It is expected to identify major problems in society,
articulate current issues, empower the disadvantaged, serve as an independent voice in
strategic debates, and provide a constructive forum for exchange of ideas and information
between the key actors in the policy process.'

So the concept and the term civil society is generally considered as a group of the population,
organised voluntarily to address the common purpose or problems for the betterment of a
particular society and its citizens.

The history of civil society can be traced back to the 17 th century. Since the emergence of the
idea of civil society in European society, the point of reference is always associated with the
day-to-day issues in society. Particularly scholars associated with the idea deal with the right

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and responsibilities of a citizen, the nature of a good society, practices of government and most
importantly, how to live in an orderly society with collective aspiration. Classical thought and
tradition viewed that State and civil society is indistinguishable because both considered as a
type of political organisation or association that regulates the social problems and conflicts in
the society by imposing regulations which controlled individuals from affecting other.
However, from 1750 to 1850, the ideas shifted towards new fundamental thinking in response
to the crisis in the social order. In this period, it is considered a defence against the State's
power over individual rights and freedoms through voluntary associations. Whereas in modern
society, civil society's idea focuses on morality and reason based on the conscience of an
individual or group. Civil society actors or groups are also known as the institutions of civil
society or civil society organisations (CSO). The term also represents civil institutions, non-
government organisations, third sector, voluntary organisations, non-profit organisations,
social movements and independent advocacy groups. Simultaneously its membership was also
found to be diversified in nature, varying from individuals to institutions and issue-based
focused organisations. However, the Agenda 21 of the Sustainable Development Commission
classifies civil society into eight major groups. These groups include Women, Children and
Youth, Indigenous People and Communities, NGOs, Workers and Trade Unions, Scientific and
Technological Community, Business and industry, and Framers.

In the book Civil Society (2014), Michael Edwards describes civil society organisations' three
major developmental roles. These include the role towards social, political and economic areas.
Civil society's social role is considered the reservoir of caring, cultural life and intellectual
innovation, teaching people the skills of citizenship and nurturing a collection of positive social
norms that fosters stability, loosely collected under the rubric of social capital. Here the role
of civil society is to create and maintain the social tie among the groups through collective
actions for the effective function of society. In the political role, civil society is considered an
important factor in bringing good governance by counterbalancing the power of the State and
corporate. Here civil society and its members effectively checked the abuse of State and
corporate power and protected the public sphere through the people's power. In an economic
role, it helps citizens protect their livelihood, provide services and nurture institutions and a
social value that helps establish trust and cooperation for a better market economy. Besides
these three development roles of civil society, it also has diverse interests and normative ends,
from women's development, protection of human rights, child welfare, and environmental
protection to issues of physically handicapped and other humanitarian actions.

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15.4 WHAT IS ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION?

Environmental degradation and risk are considered the most crucial challenge to current
development practices in today's globalised society. Over the past few decades, environmental
issues and movement has taken on leaps and bounds worldwide. Our environmental problems
are diverse, including disruption of ecology, wildlife and fishery habitats; pollution of air, land
and water; forest depletion; global warming; natural resources depletion; climate change; loss
of biodiversity; acid rain; and other forms of environmental hazards.

Resources, including air, land, water, plants, and animals, make up man's natural environment.
Man has impacted his surroundings and harmed the environment as industrialisation and
civilisation have advanced. The important fact is that the corporate and industries have been
adversely impacting the local environment and human ecology at large. To stop environmental
degradation in society, diverse organisations have implemented various protection measures.
Environmental protection refers to the activities and practices that seek to reduce vulnerabilities
and risks and maintain or restore the quality of the environment. This also includes the laws,
policies and programmes aimed at protecting, preventing, managing, restoring and conserving
natural resources and the environment.

One of the main issues of global society today is the preservation and management of the
environment. With the Stockholm Declaration in 1972, global environmental management and
conservation awareness have grown. It is regarded as the Magna Carta of sustainability and
environmental protection. Then, several worldwide initiatives have been made to conserve the
environment. As a result, environmental protection is now considered a worldwide issue and
one that is local, regional, or national in scope. Scientists' warnings and a growing public
consciousness of environmental concerns over the past few decades have prompted calls for
legislation to safeguard the environment, which is essential to human well-being.

Environmental problems have received the attention of various agencies and stakeholders
worldwide for their prevention and protection. The agencies and stakeholders include
government, corporate, the voluntary sector, the judiciary, and the community. Though every
agency has its own importance, but the present section discusses the role of civil society in
environmental protection and sustainability.

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15.5ROLE OF CSO IN ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION

Civil society organisations have been recognised as important contributors and actors
worldwide in protecting the environment. The civil society organisations' engagement with
environmental protection and governance is diverse in nature. From policy, practices, and local
to the international scenario, they have been associated with sustainable development,
environmental protection, animal welfare, climate change and other associated issues of the
environment. The role of civil society organisations as a stakeholder towards environmental
protection also gets considered by different worldwide organisations (like the UN) and
conferences (like Earth Summit, Rio Conference, or UNCED). Their involvement as a
stakeholder in environmental protection and governance has enhanced the process and
strengthened the results in different ways. Various scholars have presented and described
different functions and roles of civil society organisations towards environmental protection.
Sheila Jasanoff (1997), in his analysis of NGOs and the Environment, highlighted three major
functions of NGOs in environmental governance within the framework of the knowledge-
action link. The functions include criticism, epistemic network, and technology transfer. In the
first function, NGOs criticise established frameworks for environmental knowledge and
governing principles. The NGOs that perform this duty most prominently on a global scale
typically build their credibility through technical proficiency. In this function, NGOs could
help ignite the discussion by challenging the consensus among experts or by incorporating
pertinent local knowledge into the information base to create better environmental principles.
In the second function, NGOs can influence the shift from knowledge to action by building
more inclusive "epistemic networks" around locally or globally outlined environmental goals.
In the third function, NGOs can participate in the development of strong knowledge-action ties
by sharing information and transferring technologies. Environmental action frequently
necessitates transferring knowledge, abilities, technologies, or other material resources from
locations where they are easily accessible to others where they are relatively scarce. Although
the skills and capabilities of specific organisations limit their realms and modalities of
influence, NGOs of all kinds have shown that they can contribute constructively to such
diffusion.

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Source: Jasanoff, 1997

Besides the above three broad functions of civil society originations in environmental
protection, there are two common explanations provided by Bernauer & Betzold (2012) for the
growing significance of civil society in international environmental diplomacy.

i. Possibly assisting governments in becoming more effective in environmental

protection and governance.
ii. Help to fill the democratic gap in international policymaking by giving legitimacy
to intergovernmental negotiations.

In addition to the functions and significance of civil society in environmental protection and
governance, Barbara Gemmill and Abimbola Bamidele-Izu (2002) identify five important roles
of civil society and NGOs in environmental governance at the global level. This role includes
information-based duties, policy inputs, operational functions, assessment & monitoring, and
advocacy for environmental justice.

a) Information-based duties:

The information-based duties of civil society and NGOs play a significant role in enhancing
environmental governance and protection. In this part, they have been engaged in collecting
information, disseminating and analysing data relating to environmental protection and
governance. In this context, they have played a key role at the international, national and

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regional level meetings, agreements and conferences (like UN Convention on Biological

Diversity and UN Framework Convention on Climate Change) for better environmental
governance.

b) Policy inputs

In the recent decade, the policy input roles of civil society originations towards environment
protection have increased worldwide. Civil society organisations have been playing
instrumental roles from agenda setting to policy development and highlighting new issues in
front of the government, public and international organisations. Civil society activism and
voluntary organisation activities help bring environmental issues to the forefront of the public
during the 1970s. They are considered the major pressure groups for public policy formation.
Since then, they have been playing a key role in highlighting environmental issues and
participating and helping in designing the agenda and policy for the betterment of
environmental governance.

c) Operational functions

Civil society organisations are especially helpful in operational contexts because they can
provide implementation adapted to unique conditions and make the impossible feasible by
doing what governments cannot or will not do. This is particularly true concerning the
management of natural resources, which is frequently handled best by community-based
groups because they have an interest in local environmental conditions and are free from many
of the conflicting demands experienced by governments.

d) Assessment and monitoring

NGOs' and civil society originations environmental assessments and monitoring programmes
may hold international decision-makers responsible for their actions in ways that the
intergovernmental system could never manage. The development and execution of
environmental programmes is a field in which NGOs engage in creative research and activities.
Their efforts to track achievements and disseminate them help the programme run smoothly
and promote active citizen participation in the process of growth.

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e) Advocacy for environmental justice

Civil Society organisations and NGOs act as ombudsmen for the affected individuals and
societal issues and make an effort to influence government policies and programmes on behalf
of disadvantaged groups. They take action using a variety of strategies, from publicising study
findings to demonstrating how government plans and policies should be formed and
implemented. NGOs have successfully highlighted differences in who pays for environmental
costs and who gains from environmental investments during the past few decades in many
different countries. A few organisations have published reports. Other people have filed public
interest lawsuits to protect environmental rights and clarify and uphold the law.

15.6CASE STUDY: CSOS INITIATIVE FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION

Case 1: Centre for Science and Environment (CSE), New Delhi

The CSE is a public-interest research and advocacy organisation based in New Delhi, India.
CSE conducts research, advocates for, and conveys the importance of equitable and sustainable
development. The goal of CSE is to bring changes using knowledge. The aim is to raise these
concerns, participate in seeking answers and – more importantly – in pushing for answers and
transforming these into policy and practice. We do this through our research and by
communicating our understanding through our publications, education and training.

Case 2: Foundation for Ecological Security (FES)

Foundation for Ecological Security (FES) is a Gujarat-based organisation working for

ecological security in different parts of India. FES works towards the ecological restoration
and conservation of land and water resources in the uplands and other eco-fragile, degraded
and marginalised zones of the country, and to this end, to set in place the processes of
coordinated human effort and governance and provide relief to the poor, in particular. It
ensures the ecological integrity of all actions by working, as far as possible, with entire
landscapes and with all the interrelated communities within it, through a range of arrangements
on their land and aquatic resources, whether Commons, Public, or Private. FES also
collaborates with Panchayat Raj and other democratic village institutions, as well as

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appropriate civil society organisations, to fulfil the society's objectives and provide technical
and financial assistance to them. The organisation undertakes and sponsors studies and research
related to understanding ecological processes, the biology and ecology of endemic and
endangered species and the various aspects of the political economy of the associated human
communities. It also assists in creating a coherent perspective on forest and water-related land-
use policy as well as a conducive legal and regulatory environment and disseminates
knowledge and information through dialogue with policymakers, legislators, administrators,
professionals, and other agencies and the public at large.

15.7 LET US SUM UP

This unit first discussed and provided a brief idea of civil society organisations' meaning, type
and roles. It analyses the issues of environmental issues and their protection. In highlighting
the role of civil society organisations in environmental protection, this unit discusses the civil
society organisation functions, significances and global role in environmental governance.
Lastly, the unit brings two civil society organisations cases associated with and working with
environmental issues in India.

15.8 GLOSSARY

Civil Society Organizations (CSO): Civil society organisation is generally considered as a

group of the population, organised voluntarily to address the common purpose or problems for
the betterment of a particular society and its citizens.

Environmental Protection: Environmental protection refers to the activities and practices that
seek to reduce vulnerabilities and risks and tries to maintain or restore the quality of the
environment.

15.9 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1.What is Civil Society?

2. What are the developmental roles of civil society organisations?
3. What is Environmental Protection?
4. Note down the list of Agencies working on Environmental Protection.
5. Highlight the functions of civil society in environmental protection.

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6. Why civil society organisations are important for environmental protection?

15.10 REFERENCES

 Bernauer, T., & Betzold, C. (2012). Civil society in global environmental

governance. The Journal of Environment & Development, 21(1), 62-66.
 Chandhoke, N. (2007). Civil society. Development in Practice, 17(4-5), 607-614.
 Chandhoke, N. (2009). Putting civil society in its place. Economic and Political Weekly,
12-16.
 Chandhoke, N. (2011). Civil society in India. The Oxford handbook of civil society, 171-
181.
 Chandhoke, N. (2012). Whatever has happened to civil society?. Economic and Political
Weekly, 39-45.
 Edwards, M. (2014) Civil Society. UK: Polity Press
 Gemill, B. and A. Bamidele-Izu, (2002) The role of NGOs and civil society in global
environmental governance. In: Global Environmental Governance: Options &
Opportunities, D.C. Esty and MH Ivanova (eds.), Yale School of Forestry &
Environmental Studies, Yale, New Haven, CT, pp. 77–100. Available at
http://www.yale.edu/environment/publications.
 Jasanoff, S. (1997). NGOs and the environment: from knowledge to action. Third World
Quarterly, 18(3), 579-594.
 Lipschutz, R. D., & Mayer, J. (1996). Global civil society and global environmental
governance: The politics of nature from place to planet. Suny Press.
 Sharma, L. N. (2015). Concept, structure and functions of civil society. Indian Journal
of Public Administration, 61(4), 601-610.
 Turnock, D. (2004). The role of NGOs in environmental education in south-Eastern
Europe. International Research in Geographical & Environmental Education, 13(1),
103-109.

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UNIT-16: ROLE OF CORPORATE SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY IN

ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION

Structure

16.1 Learning Objectives

16.2 Introduction
16.3 What is CSR?
16.3.1 Meaning and definition of CSR
16.4 CSR Practices in India
16.5 Environment Protection
16.6 CSR and Environment Protection
16.7 CSR projects and expenditure on Environment protection in India
16.8 Case Study: CSR Initiative for Environmental Protection in India
16.9 Let us sum up
16.10 Glossary
16.11 Check your progress
16.12 References

16.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES

After studying this unit, you will be able to

 the meaning of CSR and Environmental protection

 the past and present forms of CSR practices
 type and agencies of environmental protection
 the CSR projects and expenditures on Environment protection in India
 forms of environmental protection under CSR

16.2 INTRODUCTION

This unit is all about the role of Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) in environmental
protection. The present unit is the fourth part of Block – 4: Environmental Protection. This unit
will help students learn basic ideas about CSR, its practices, and how it has played a significant
role in environmental protection. Before going into the contents of this unit, let us have an idea
of corporate and why corporates are essential players in environmental protection and

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sustainability. The corporate is the actor and part of the market system. In this context, it is an
organization and a legal entity that produces goods and services in the market by collecting
resources from different fronts like human skills, financial instruments, and physical facilities.
Simply, it is an organization engaged in mobilizing resources for productive uses to create
wealth and other benefits for its multiple constituents or stakeholders. The corporate,
particularly industries, have not only severely impacted the environment. At the same time,
with vast resources and technology, they are emerging as an alternative player in environment
protection and sustainability through Environmental Management and CSR activities. In this
context, the present unit will help the learners understand the role of CSR in Environmental
Protection.

16.3 WHAT IS CSR?

16.3.1 Meaning and Definition of CSR

The term "corporate social responsibility" is not new. The term has many nomenclature and
synonymous terms, such as ethics, citizenship, responsibility, philanthropy and corporate
giving, social responsiveness, and creating shared value, similar in their meaning and roles in
business-society relationships. Numerous academic articles and papers are available on the
definitions of CSR and its discourse by scholars like H.R. Bowen, Jeremy Moon, AB. Carroll,
and M. Blowfield. While explaining CSR, Jeremy Moon argues that in CSR, "C" stands for the
policies, practices, and impacts of businesses; as these impacts on society increase,
corporations are now held to a higher standard of accountability. The "S" in CSR stands for a
company's obligation to the larger society. The letter "R" represents a company's responsibilit y
and accountability for its social contract and actions in the final sentence.

In Social responsibility of Businessmen, H. R. Bowen (1953) writes, ‘the obligations of

businessmen to pursue those policies, to make those decisions, or to follow those lines of action
which are desirable in terms of the objectives and values of our society.’

The World Business Council for Sustainable Development (1991) defines CSR as ‘the
continuing commitment by business to behave ethically and contribute to economic
development while improving the quality of life of the workforce and their families as well as
of the local community and society at large.’

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According to D. Matten & J. Moon (2008), CSR refers to 'Policies and practices of
corporations that reflects business responsibility for some of the wider societal good. Yet the
precise manifestation and direction of the responsibility lie at the discretion of the
corporation.’

From the above meanings and scholars' definitions, we can say that CSR relates to how
business enterprises or corporate houses manage to positively contribute to their stakeholders
and for a greater societal benefit through their plans, policy, and actions.

16.4 CSR PRACTICES IN INDIA

In India, CSR as an idea and concept is not new. The CSR concept and practice have been
conceptualized and progressed through different periods of development. The social
responsibility practices of businessmen or companies were primarily seen through charity and
philanthropy activities. The concept of Philanthropy and Charity (P&C) in India is evolved
from a rich cultural heritage and is antique to the country. The theory of Purushartha promoted
the concept of giving through the idea of the significant debts to be repaid by the individual in
his lifetime. The royal tradition of the country also embedded this culture of P&C, which was
later boosted through missionary activities during colonial rule. The rise of indigenous
industrial giants like the Tata's, Birla's, and business communities got weeded to this tradition
and continued the P&C activities through various charitable organizations. The business
communities and corporate houses were strongly influenced by the socio-economic, cultural
conditions, and religious ideas to perform charity and philanthropy activities in their regions.
With changes in socio-economic situations, religious customs, the establishment of nation and
state, the rise of volunteerism, and the implementation of distinct development models, P & C
has been evolving regularly in India. However, this concept got set back during the
corporatization process following globalization and the rise of global capitalism. The parallel
development of neoliberal ideology again led to a compulsory rise of the concept of P&C when
the state started reseeding from the welfare activities and shifting the welfare activities to the
corporate. Most P&C activities were voluntary, self-driven, and strategic to corporations. The
last decade witnessed the development of the state's involvement in framing guidelines and
policy to mandate and regulate companies ‘voluntary activities through the CSR banner. The
most important guideline was introduced through Section 135 of the Companies Act 2013. The
act mandated and legalized CSR activities in India. The CSR practice is mandated for the

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corporate (both public and private) having a net worth of rupees five hundred crores or more,
or turnover of one thousand crores or more, or a net profit of rupees five crores or more during
a financial year. Corporate houses must spend a minimum of 2% of their average net profit of
the last three consecutive years on CSR activities listed in the Schedule VII of the companies
act. The Act's Schedule VII includes a variety of CSR initiatives, including disaster relief,
disaster management, education, health care, protection of the environment, rural development,
gender development, women empowerment, slum area development, promotion of culture, and
skill development.

Check Your Progress Exercise 1.1

Note:
I. Use the space given below for your answer.

1.What is Corporate Social Responsibility?

2. Highlights the CSR activities listed in Schedule VII of the Companies Act 2013

Answer:

16.5 ENVIRONMENT PROTECTION

Environmental degradation and risk are considered the most crucial challenge to current
development practices in today's globalized society. Over the past few decades, environmental
issues and movement has taken on leaps and bounds worldwide. Our environmental problems
are diverse, including disruption of ecology, wildlife, and fishery habitats; pollution of air, land,
and water; forest depletion; global warming; natural resources depletion; climate change; loss
of biodiversity; acid rain; and other forms of environmental hazards.

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Resources, including air, land, water, plants, and animals, make up man's natural
environment. Man has impacted his surroundings and harmed the environment as
industrialization and civilization have advanced. The critical fact is that the corporate and
industries have been adversely impacting the local environment and human ecology at large.
The protection of the environment is considered even more prominent in the present decade,
with increased industrialization resulting in excessive extraction of natural resources and
rowing pollution in society. To stop environmental degradation in society, various protection
measures have been implemented by diverse organizations. Environmental protection refers to
the activities and practices that seek to reduce vulnerabilities and risks and tries to maintain or
restore the quality of the environment. This also includes the laws, policies, and programs
aimed at protecting, preventing, managing, restoring, and conserving natural resources and the
environment. In general, it can be defined as improving and preserving the components of the
environment, preventing their degradation, and reducing pollution.

One of the main issues of global society today is the preservation and management of
the environment. The Stockholm Declaration in 1972 has grown global environmental
management and conservation awareness. It is regarded as the Magna Carta of sustainability
and environmental protection. Then, several worldwide initiatives have been made to conserve
the environment. As a result, environmental protection is now considered a worldwide issue
that is local, regional, or national in scope. Scientists' warnings and a growing public
consciousness of environmental concerns over the past few decades have prompted calls for
legislation to safeguard the environment, which is essential to human well-being.

Environmental protection has been considered the role & responsibility of the
government than the private organization. However, with the changing role of government in
this neoliberal world, the private sector or corporations have become emerging partners in
environmental protection. Environmental problems have got the attention of various agencies
and stakeholders worldwide. The agencies and stakeholders include government, corporate, the
voluntary sector, the judiciary, and the community. Though every agency has its importance,
the present section discusses only the role of corporate and their CSR activities in
environmental protection and sustainability.

16.6CSR AND ENVIRONMENT PROTECTION

The sustainability of a corporate and its CSR activities largely depends on the transparency,
cooperation of stakeholders, stakeholder sensitization, strengthening legal framework, and

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commitment to protecting the local environment in the long run. Particularly, protecting the
environment is a crucial component for corporations to look into environmental problems
through their social responsibility practices. In the neo-liberal age, corporations, their modern
forms of production, their use of technology, and the growing needs of stakeholders have been
threatening the natural environment. At the same time, they have been adopting, practicing,
and following various national and international guidelines, regulatory management systems
such as ISO 5001 or 14001 or SA8000, and acts such as the Environmental (Protection) Act,
1986, to protect the environment through their policy and practices. The corporations have been
engaged with different environmental protection activities at different levels of business
activities like in business cycle, supply chain, operation, product, and facilities, eliminating
emissions and wastes, afforesting, and plantation. The rise of pro-environment concerns by
corporations is due to pressure received from activists, environmentalists, government,
international organizations, civil society, voluntary organizations, and widespread protests over
environmental risks and their adverse impacts on the earth. So in this context, corporate as a
stakeholder has an equal responsibility to the government and other stakeholders to protect
against environmental hazards and preservation of natural resources through their CSR and
business activities

One of the cornerstones of CSR is environmental conservation and protection. The

significance of environmental conservation is also linked to the creation of a distinctive socio-
economic value that results from the sustainability of fundamental natural processes and the
maintenance of environmental balance. Environmental protection makes access to limited
natural resources possible, as is the utilization of natural resources in a way that will long-term
conserve the ecosystem. It refers to the capacity to satisfy the fundamental societal demands of
the present and future generations.

16.7CSR PROJECTS AND EXPENDITURE ON ENVIRONMENT PROTECTION IN

INDIA

From tradition, business communities, industrialists' and corporations' focus on environmental

protection was not the primary concern in their philanthropic practices. The growing changes
in development practices and the rise of stakeholders' protests over environmental risks created
by corporations forced corporations to enter into the field of environmental protection
strategically through social responsibility activities. However, the legalization of CSR in India
with Section 135 in the Companies Act 2013 made it mandatory for corporations to invest in

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various projects listed in Schedule VII. The environment and natural resources conservation
are one of the areas in Schedule VII where corporations can implement the project.

Corporate engagement in environmental activities has been witnessed in diverse fields (See
Table 01). These diverse fields can be subdivided into three dominant actors and their actions.
The first action includes Corporate Programmes and Interventions. Second are the Community
Programmes and Corporate Interventions, and third is the Corporate Intervention in
Government Programmes. All the programs in the first action are designed and implemented
by the corporate house or its associated organizations – State, Voluntary Organizations, Non-
Governmental Organizations, Self Help Groups, or its foundation, any other association or
groups, according to programs. These environmental programs include the Plantation and
Distribution of Saplings, Environmental Protection and Awareness Programmes, Solar Street
Light Installation, Clean Lighting, Dust Suppression, Animal Welfare, Water Harvesting, and
the Adoption of Modern Machineries for Environmental Protection. In the second action, the
community plays a dominant role in designing and implementing the environmental programs,
and corporate provides monetary support. Sometimes in these actions, corporate design the
program, and the community implement and regulate the program. These programs include
Community and Avenue Plantation, Watershed Development, Natural Resource Management
and Conservation, Promotion of Agro Forest, and Cleaning Water Reserves. Whereas in the
third action state design the program, location, and beneficiaries, the corporate play a minimal
role only by donating funds or implementing the programs in the field. These programs include
Clean Ganga Fund, Swacha Bharat Kosh, Pradhan Mantri Ujwala Yojana, Swachh Bharat
Mission, Open Defecation Free Villages, and Donations to National Relief Funds; these are the
areas where the government recently launched different programs. In all environmental
activities, corporate responsibility can be divided into two parts. In the first part, the corporate
is actively involved in the whole process of program implementation and its assessment. In the
second part, the corporate withdraws its responsibility and distributes the fund to other agencies
to carry out the program. In both, the responsibilities of corporate houses are to allocate funds
to carry out the programs.

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Table 01
List of Environment Activities under CSR in India

CSR Sector Environmental Activities

Environment Community and Avenue Plantation, Watershed Development, Natural

and Natural Resource Management and Conservation, Urban Plantation, Distribution of
Resources Saplings, Water Harvesting, Waste Management, Environment Protection,
Conservation and Awareness Programme, Promoting Agro-Forestry, Solar Street Light
Installation, Clean Lighting, and Dust Suppression, Cleaning Water
Reservoirs (Pond, River, and Lake), Swacha Bharat Kosh, Pradhan Mantri
Ujwala Yojana, Swachh Bharat Mission, Open Defecation Free Villages,
Animal Welfare, and Donations to National Relief Funds.

Source: Mohapatra (2020)

Table: 02

CSR Expenditure in Environment Sector in India (In Cr.)

Environmental 2018- 2019-

2014-15 2015-16 2016-17 2017-18 2020-21
Sectors 19* 20
Animal Welfare 17.29 66.66 78.64 59.55 106.12 192.71
Conservation of
Natural 44.6 49.84 119.1 212.78 160.6 90.96
Resources 1704.62
Environmental
773.99 796.72 1076.46 1076.6 1470.26 1029.12
Sustainability
Agro-Forestry 18.12 57.86 43.45 12.17 67.38 19.24
Grand Total
854 971.08 1317.65 1361.1 1704.62 1804.36 1332.03
(INR Cr.)
Total CSR 14394.5 17098.2 20196.9 24954.7 25714.6
10065.87 14527.52
Expenditure 5 6 2 8 5
Percentage of
Environmental 8.48 6.68 9.15 7.96 8.44 7.23 5.18
Expenditure
* Sector-specific data are not available for the financial period 2018-19.

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Source: The data has been collected and compiled from the National CSR Portal of India and
Mohapatra (2020)

Chart: 01

CSR Expenditure in Environment Sector in India

Source: Data collected and compiled from the national CSR portal of India

The CSR expenditure in the environment sector has received less attention as well as
expenditure than other sectors listed in Schedule VII. During the financial year 2014-15 to
2020-21, the environment sector received only 7.36 percent of the total CSR expenditure in
India (See table 02). At the same time, data shows (chart 01) that the growth of CSR
expenditure slightly increased in the environmental sector but found to be insignificant
compared to the growing environmental problems in society. It has also been observed from
the National CSR Portal of India that CSR expenditure in the environment also received the
lowest attention both at the state and corporate levels. So from the data, it has been clear that
the corporate is less interested and concerned about investing in the environmental sector than
other sectors in their CSR projects.

16.8 CASE STUDY: CSR INITIATIVE FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION

YiPPee! Better World Trash-to-Treasure: This project has launched by the Sunfeast YiPPee
brand of ITC Ltd. company in partnership with the Way of Life NGO. This project is designed

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to educate and make aware students across 100 cities of the impact of plastic on the
environment and its waste management. This program intends to aware school-going children
about plastic waste management and its impact on the environment. in this project, students are
urged to gather home plastic trash and dispose of it at specified collection locations. The
gathered plastic will be recycled into 1,000 sets of tables and benches, which will be used in
schools without such furnishings. Over 80 recycled benches have already been installed in
classrooms throughout Bengaluru, with the full deployment scheduled by the end of March
2023.

The ITC also runs the project WOW - WELL-BEING OUT OF WASTE INITIATIVE. This
project also focused on waste recycling and resource conservation and was developed to create
larger environmental and societal value through collaborative action. The program has been
executed in major cities across the country, including Hyderabad, Delhi, Bengaluru, and
Chennai. The program has reached 77 lakh citizens, 33 lakh school children, and 2000
corporates since its commencement and has provided employment opportunities for 14,500
waste collectors.

Plantation and Afforestation: Tata Sponge Iron directly implemented this CSR project in the
areas of Anseikala, Birikala, Chamakpur, Kandara, Deojhar GP in Joda Block of Keonjhar
District and Chendipada of Angul district of Odisha. Tata Sponge’s mass Afforestation
programme has by far outweighed the reduction of forest cover in the area owned by it. Initially,
the company planted species like acacia, bakain, chakindi, etc. Later the plantation work was
changed to fruit-bearing plants and hardwood trees like sandalwood, rosewood, mahogany,
teak & bamboo. When the Tata sponge started this activity, most of the land was barren. The
company began planting trees with the help of volunteers like Company employees, their
family members, and the local community.

Biomass Cook Stove Project: Infosys has consistently directed its efforts to reduce
environmental pollution. To achieve its objectives, the company provided biomass cookstoves
to 37,200 families in the Gangam district of Odisha, a project that contributes to 11 out of the
17 United Nations Sustainable Development Goals. These cookstoves use 50% less firewood
and burn smoke-free. These stoves address the household health problems that were caused
due to smoke and contribute to climate change mitigation by reducing CO2 emissions by 2
lakh tonnes. The company is also going to help to maintain these stoves to ensure their effective
use of them for several years.

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16.9SUMMARY

This unit first discussed and provided the meaning and definition of CSR and environmental
protection. It also analyzed the CSR practices in India from ancient times to the present context
and highlighted the details of mandatory CSR guidelines in India. Further, the unit provided a
detailed analysis of CSR projects and expenditures in India's environmental protection and
conservation areas. Lastly, the unit brings three corporate house environment projects to the
discussion for a better understanding of environmental projects under CSR initiatives in India.

16.10 GLOSSARY

CSR: CSR refers to the business enterprises or corporate obligations towards

its stakeholders and for a greater societal and environmental benefit
through their plan, policy, and actions.

Environmental Protection: Environmental protection refers to the activities and practices

that seek to reduce vulnerabilities and risks and tries to maintain or
restore the quality of the environment.

16.11 HECK YOUR PROGRESS

1.What is Corporate Social Responsibility?

2. Highlights the CSR activities listed in Schedule VII of the Companies Act 2013
3. What is Environmental Protection?
4. Note down the list of Agencies working on Environmental Protection.

16.12 REFERENCES

 Babiak, K., & Trendafilova, S. (2011). CSR and environmental responsibility: Motives
and pressures to adopt green management practices. Corporate social responsibility
and environmental management, 18(1), 11-24.
 Ioan, R. M. (2011). The importance of environmental protection in CSR
policy. Economic Science Series, 20 (2), 778-784.
 Kolk, A. (2016). The social responsibility of international business: From ethics and
the environment to CSR and sustainable development. Journal of World
Business, 51(1), 23-34.

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 Marak, A. N. C., & Singh, O. P. (2014). Prospects of environmental protection and

sustainability through corporate social responsibility (CSR) in India. Prospects, 5(11).
 Mishra, L. (2021). Corporate social responsibility and sustainable development goals:
A study of Indian companies. Journal of Public Affairs, 21(1), e2147.
 Mohapatra, B. (2020). Corporate Social Responsibility and Environment: The
Emerging Discourses in India. The Orissa Journal of Commerce, Vol. xxxxi (1), 87-
95.
 Mohapatra, B. (2021) Satapathy, J. and Paltasinh, T. (2019) CSR in India: A journey
from compassion to commitment. Asian Journal of Business Ethics, 8 (2), 225-240.

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