Nutrition and Diet Therapy

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TERMS AND DEFINITIONS  Breakdown  the
of synthesis of
molecules all
NUTRITION to obtain compounds
 The study of food in relation to energy. needed by
health. the cells.
 Vital component to overall NOTE: Anabolism is the set of metabolic
wellness and health pathways that construct molecules from smaller
 Diet affects energy, well-being units. These reactions require energy, known
and many disease states. also as an endergonic process. Anabolism is the
 A well-balanced diet can prevent building-up aspect of metabolism, whereas
such conditions and improve catabolism is the breaking-down aspect.
energy levels and overall health
and wellness. ENZYMES
 an organic catalyst that are protein
in nature and are produced by
FOOD living cells
 Any substance when ingested or NOTE: Digestive Enzymes play an important
eaten nourishes the body. role in ensuring you are able to absorb nutrients
from food by helping you break them down.
When our bodies aren’t working properly and
NUTRIENT we do not have sufficient digestive enzymes: It
 A chemical component needed by can lead to poor absorbency, deficiency and a
the body to provide energy, to whole host of illnesses.
build and repair tissues and to
regulate life process. CATALYST
 Speeds up or slows down chemical
reaction without itself undergoing
DIGESTION change.
 A mechanical and chemical
breakdown of food into smaller
components. NNUTRITIONAL MALNUTRITION
STATUS
 is the  It is the
ABSORBTION condition of condition of
 A process where the nutrients the body the body
from foods are absorb by the body resulting resulting
into the bloodstreams. from the from lack of
utilization one or more
of essential essential
METABOLISM nutrients. nutrients or
 A chemical process of  Is the due to
transforming foods into other current excessive
substance to sustain life. body status nutrient
CATABOLISM ANABOLISM of a person supply

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or a ⮚ Food is broken down by chewing
population and chemical action of salivary
group, amylase
related to
their state of NOTE: The digestive process begins in the
nourishment mouth. Food is partly broken down by the
(the process of chewing and by the chemical
consumptio action of salivary amylase (these enzymes
n and are produced by the salivary glands and
utilization breakdown starches into smaller molecules)
of nutrients)

CALORIE ESOPHAGUS
 Fuel potential in a food
⮚ Long tube that runs from the mouth
 Unit of energy
 the amount of heat needed to raise to the stomach
the temperature of one gram of ⮚ Uses rhythmic, wave like muscle
water by one degree Celsius.
movements (peristalsis) to force food
 Calories in food provide energy in
from the throat into the stomach
the form of heat so that our bodies
can function NOTE: After being chewed and swallowed, the
 Our bodies store and food enters the esophagus.
"burn" calories as fuel
The esophagus is a long tube that runs from the
 Most adults need a minimum of
mouth to the stomach.
2000 calories to sustain
metabolism, muscle activity, and It Uses rhythmic, wave like muscle movements
brain function. However, too many (peristalsis) to force food from the throat into the
calories can lead to weight gain stomach
and a variety of diseases. 
This muscle movement gives us the ability to eat
NOTE: The total number of calories within
or drink even when we’re upside down
a particular food is the sum of the amount of
energy released by each of the components,
minus the fiber content.
STOMACH
THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
⮚ sac-like organ that holds, mixes, and
grind food
MOUTH
⮚ Secretes acid and powerful enzyme
⮚ Digestive process begins in the that carry on the process of breaking
mouth down

⮚ Food leaves the stomach in liquid or

paste consistency

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 CHYME other digestive enzymes produced by the inner
wall of the small intestine help in the breakdown
⮚ food in the stomach that is partly of food
digested and mixed with stomach
Small intestine has 3 parts:
acids
DUODENUM JEJUNUM &
ILEUM
NOTE:  continues  responsible
the process for the
acid= gastric acid of breaking absorption
Enzymes = pepsin/rennin/lipase down food of nutrient
of nutrient
churns = grind into the
bloodstream
The stomach is a muscular organ located on
the left side of the upper abdomen. The
stomach receives food from the esophagus. LARGE INTESTINE
As food reaches the end of the esophagus, it
⮚ Long muscular tube (5-6ft) that
enters the stomach through a muscular valve
connects the caecum (1st part of the
called the lower esophageal sphincter.
large intestine) to the rectum (last
The stomach secretes acid and enzymes that part of the large intestine)
digest food. Ridges of muscle tissue called
rugae line the stomach. The stomach ⮚ Stool from digestive process passes
muscles contract periodically, churning food through the colon by means of
to enhance digestion. The pyloric sphincter contraction or peristaltic movement
is a muscular valve that opens to allow food ⮚ Liquid state > solid form stool
to pass from the stomach to the small
intestine. NOTE: Undigested food passes in the large
intestine. In the large intestine, some of the
water and electrolytes (like sodium) are
SMALL INTESTINE removed from the food. Solid form stool
because water is removed from the stool.
⮚ Absorption of food takes place
It normally takes about 36hrs for the stool to
⮚ Bile, pancreatic enzymes, and other get through the colon.
digestive enzymes help in the
Large intestine has 5 parts:
breakdown of food
1. CAECUM
⮚ Long loosely coiled tube (>20 ft)
2. ASCENDING (right) COLON
NOTE: Absorption happens in the small
intestine. Bile (produced in the liver and stored 3. TRANSVERSE (across) COLON
in the gall bladder), pancreatic enzymes, and
4. DESCENDING (left) COLON

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5. SIGMOID COLON
3 ORGANS IN DIGESTING FOOD
1. PANCREAS
✔ Secretes enzymes into the small
intestine which break down protein,
fat, and carbohydrates from food
2. LIVER
✔ Produces and secrete bile w/c helps
in digestion and absorption of fat-
soluble vit.
✔ Cleanses and purifies the blood that
comes from the small intestine w/c
contains the nutrients absorbed from
food
3. GALLBLADDER
✔ Pear-shaped reservoir located just
under the liver
✔ Bile made in the liver travels to the
gallbladder through a cystic duct for
storage
✔ During meals, the gallbladder
contracts and sends bile to the small
intestine
3 GROUPS OF DIGESTIVE
ENZYME
1. AMYLASE – carbohydrate splitter
2. LIPASE – fat splitters
3. PROTEASES – protein splitters
RECTUM
⮚ End of the process
⮚ Solid waste is then stored in the
rectum until it is excreted via the
anus.
ANUS
⮚ End of the process
⮚ Solid waste is then stored in the
rectum until it is excreted via the
anus.
⮚ Upper lining of the anus is
specialized to detect rectal content
⮚ Pelvic floor muscle creates an angle
between the rectum and the anus that
stops stool from coming out when it
is not supposed to.
⮚ anal sphincter provide control in the
elimination of stool
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CCELLS
 BASIC structural, functional, and
biological unit of all living
organisms.
 Smallest unit of life
 take in nutrients from food,
convert
those nutrients into energy
 They are also considered as the
“building blocks of life”.
 Made up of water (70% or more),
inorganic ions, and carbon
containing molecules

NOTE: The human body contains around 30 to
40 trillion cells. (RBC, fat cells, brain cells, cells
in the heart, respi, etc)
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The majority of the cells in the human body
are red blood cells which make up over 80
percent,
but they are responsible for only around 4
percent of total body mass because they only
measure 8 micro meters in diameter.
COMPOSITION OF CELLS
1. CELL MEMBRANE
⮚ Known as plasma membrane
⮚ Selectively permeable and made up
of phospholipids, cholesterol, and
proteins
⮚ Act as enzyme to help substances
enter the cell
⮚ Serving as receptor sites for
hormones
NOTE: The cell membrane is a structure that
encloses the cell, made of the phospholipid
bilayer. The cell membrane has many functions.
First, it defines a cell by enclosing cellular
contents within the cell.
Secondly, it creates a barrier that selectively
controls what enters the cell from the
outside environment and what substances
leave the cell. Because of selective
permeability, only specific molecules are
able to cross the cell membrane. Essential
molecules such as nutrients are able to enter
the cell, while waste is able to exit the cell.
Molecule size also plays a role in this
permeability. Small molecules such as water
and oxygen are able to freely cross the cell
membrane, but larger molecules such as
sugars are regulated.
Lastly, the cell membrane aids in cell
communication. Receptors are proteins that
are found on the surface of cell membranes
or inside the cell. Receptors can serve as
either receiver of extracellular signals or
activators of intracellular processes.
2. CYTOPLASM
⮚ Watery solution of minerals, gasses
and organic molecules found
between the cell membrane and the
nucleus and is a location of chemical
reaction
NOTE: Many cellular processes also occur
in the cytoplasm, such as protein synthesis,
the first stage of cellular
respiration (known as glycolysis)
Glycolysis is one method that cells use to
produce energy. When glycolysis is linked
with other enzyme reactions that use
oxygen, more complete breakdown of
glucose is possible and more
energy is produced.
The cytoplasm helps to move materials,
such as hormones, around the cell and also
dissolves cellular waste.
3. CELL ORGANELLES are made of:
1. ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
⮚ Passageway for the transport of
materials w/n the cell
2. RIBOSOMES
⮚ Sites of protein synthesis
3. GOLGI APPARATUS
⮚ Synthesize carbohydrates
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⮚ a string of flat membranous sacs that
synthesize carbohydrates.
⮚ They package material for secretion
from the cell by breaking off some of
their small sac and fusing with the
cell membrane in order to release the
contained substance to the outside of
the cell.
4. MITOCHONDRIA
⮚ Site of energy production
⮚ Known as the “powerhouses of
the cell,” mitochondria produce
the energy necessary for the cell's
survival and functioning. Through a
series of chemical reactions,
mitochondria break down glucose
into an energy molecule known as
adenosine triphosphate (ATP), which
is used to fuel various other cellular
processes.
⮚ The Adenosine
triphosphate (ATP) molecule is the
nucleotide known in biochemistry as
the "molecular currency" of
intracellular energy transfer; that
is, ATP is able to store and transport
chemical energy within
cells. ATP also plays an important
role in the synthesis of nucleic acids.
5. LYSOSOMES
⮚ Contain digestive enzyme that
destroy engulfed bacteria and other
cellular debris
⮚ is an organelle that digests bacteria
that enter a cell, eliminates toxins,
and recycles needed cell materials. 
6. CENTRIOLES
⮚ Organize the spindle fiber during cell
division
⮚ aid in cell division by facilitating the
separation of chromosomes. For this
reason, they are located near the
nucleus.
7. CILIA and FLAGELLA
⮚ Sweep materials across the cell
surface
8. NUCLEUS
⮚ Control center of the cell
⮚ It controls the heredity
characteristics of an organism.
⮚ It is responsible for protein
synthesis, cell division, growth and
differentiation.
⮚ Stores heredity material in the form
of deoxy-ribonucleic acid (DNA)
strands.
NUTRIENTS
 Substances obtained from food
and used in the body to provide
energy and structural materials and
to serve as regulating agents to
promote growth, maintenance, and
repair.
 may also reduce the risk of some
diseases
 are chemical substances that are
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required for the proper functioning
of cells, tissues and different
organs in all living organism. Our
body requires an adequate
amount of nutrients which are
mainly required for various
functions of the body, including
growth, repair, and protection
against disease-causing microbes.
NOTE: Since our body cannot synthesize
these nutrients on its own, these need to be
supplied through external sources as food.
SIX CLASSES OF NUTRIENTS
ESSENTIAL NUTRIENTS
 Nutrients a person must obtain
from food because the body cannot
make them for itself in sufficient
quantities to meet physiological
needs
MACRONUTRIENT
 nutrients that the body needs in
large amounts.
 provide energy (calories)
 Found in all living things (organic-
alive)
 Provide energy to the body
 These energy-yielding nutrients
continually replenish the energy
you spend daily
Classification of Macronutrient:
1. CARBOHYDRATES
⮚ Organic compounds (saccharides-
starches and sugar) composed of
carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
⮚ 1gm of carbohydrates contains 4
calories
⮚ They provide the major source of
energy for the body or as much as 80
to 100% of calories
⮚ Fuel during high intensity exercise
⮚ Fuel for the Central Nervous System
(your brain)
Recommended Allowance
1. Sedentary Individuals: 40-50% of
your total daily calories should be
carbohydrates
2. Exercises Regularly: 60% of your
total daily calories should be
carbohydrates
3. Athletes or persons involved in
heavy training: 70% of your total
daily calories should be
carbohydrates (3.5-4.5 grams of
carbohydrate per pound of body
weight)
NOTE: 1 gram of carbohydrate = 4 Calories
Food Sources
1. Grains (whole grains) - rich in iron,
thiamine, niacin and other nutrients
are important source of CHO but in
the of wheat flour and refined cereal,
the germ and outer layers of the
grain are removed resulting in the
significant losses of iron and B
complex vitamins, that’s why they
ENRICHED specifically with the
addition of thiamine, riboflavin,
niacin and iron.
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2. Sweet potatoes & white potatoes,
bananas, dried fruits - are important
contributors to CHO intake from the
vegetable and food groups because
they are daily items in many diets.
Bananas and dried fruits are also
relatively high in CHO content
3. Milk (lactose) - is unique in that it is
the only dietary source of lactose
4. Sugar, honey - are also important
sources of CHO next to bread and
cereals
SUBTYPES:
1. MONOSACCHARIDE (simple
sugar)
 Simplest form of sugar
 Can be easily absorbed directly
into the bloodstream from the
small intestine (water soluble)
Examples:
1. Glucose - or blood sugar is the
principal form in w/c
carbohydrate is used in the body
(fruits, corn syrup, sweetcorn)
2. Fructose - sweetest of simple
sugars (honey, fruits, vegetables)
3. Galactose - produced from
lactose (milk sugar) by digestion
and converted into glucose in the
body.
NOTE: Glucose fuels the work of the
body’s cells
Only glucose can provide energy for the
brain,
Other nerve cell and developing red
blood cells
GLUCONEOGENESIS-process in
which protein is converted to glucose
GALACTOSEMIA- inability to
metabolize galactose among infants
2. DISACCHARIDES (Double sugars)
 is the sugar formed when two
monosaccharides are joined by
glycosidic linkage. Like
monosaccharides, disaccharides
are simple sugars soluble in
water. Three common examples
are sucrose, lactose, and maltose.
Disaccharides are one of the four
chemical groupings of
carbohydrates. (FROM
WIKIPEDIA)
Examples:
1. SUCROSE – ordinary table sugar
2. LACTOSE – milk sugar
3. MALTOSE – (malt sugar)
produced during the malting of
cereals such as barley.
3. POLYSACCHARIDE (Complex
sugar)
 are the most abundant
carbohydrate found in food. They
are long chain polymeric
carbohydrates composed of
monosaccharide units bound
together by glycosidic linkages.
This carbohydrate can react with
water using amylase enzymes as
catalyst, which produces
constituent sugars
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(FROM WIKIPEDIA)
Examples:
1. STARCH - supply energy for longer
period of time. (Rice, wheat, corn,
carrots and potatoes).
Most important in human. Not water
soluble and require digestive
enzymes amylase to break them
apart.
2. DEXTRINS – formed by the
breakdown of starch
Obtained from starch by the
application of heat or acids and used
mainly as adhesives and thickening
agents.
3. CELLULOSE – forms the
framework of plants found in
unrefined grains, vegetable and
fruits.
Non-digestible by no specific
enzyme is present and provides
important bulk in the diet which
helps move digestive food mass
along and stimulates peristalsis.
Main sources are stems and leaves of
vegetables, seed and grain coverings,
skin and hulls
4. PECTIN - used as base for jellies
They are non-digestible, colloidal
polysaccharides having a gel quality.
Sources include mostly fruits and are
often used as base for jellies.
PECTINS are also used to treat
diarrhea as they absorb toxins and
bacteria in the intestine. They bind to
cholesterol reducing the amount the
amount the blood can absorb
5. GLYCOGEN - “animal starch”
(meat and seafoods)
Formed from glucose and stored in
liver and muscle tissues. Food
sources include meat and seafoods.
They are converted entirely into
glucose upon digestion. The
hormones glucagon helps the liver
convert glycogen into glucose every
time the body needs energy.
EMPTY CALORIES
 Food which does not contain any
other nutrients except
carbohydrates
 Treats like packaged cakes,
cookies, and donuts contain both
added sugars and solid fats.
 Beverages like soda, sports and
energy drinks, and fruit drinks
contain added sugars.
 Cheese, ice cream, and other full-
fat dairy contain a good amount of
solid fat.
 Meats like sausage, hot dogs,
bacon, and ribs contain solid fat.
 Fast food — like pizza, burgers,
French fries, milkshakes, etc. —
often contains both added sugars
and solid fats.
 Hard candy and candy bars may
contain both added sugars and
solid fats.
NOTE: Many modern foods and drinks contain
empty calories. These are calories that come
from foods with little to no nutritional value.
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Learning about how to recognize empty
calories can help a person make more
healthful food choices.
What are empty calories?
Foods and drinks that contain no significant
nutrients but are high in calories are said to
have “empty calories.”
These are mainly foods and drinks that have
a high sugar, fat, or alcohol content, but
little or no other nutritional value.
Empty calories are those that come
from added sugars and solid fats, as well as
some processed oils. These include:
• carbohydrate-based desserts, such as
cakes, cookies, biscuits, donuts,
muffins, granola bars, and more
• sugary drinks, including soda, energy
drinks, and fruit juice
• candy bars, chocolate bars, and hard
candies
• some meats, including bacon,
sausages, and hotdogs
• some full fat products, such as butter,
shortening, and ice-cream
• processed oils, such as soybean and
canola oil
• condiments, such as ketchup and
barbecue sauce
• fast food, including burgers, wraps,
pizza, and more
• alcohol
2. PROTEINS
⮚ Building blocks of the body
⮚ Made up of amino acids which is the
basic component of protein.
⮚ Contains carbon, hydrogen, O2 and
nitrogen
NOTE: When we eat protein, our body
breaks these large molecules down into
smaller units called amino acids.
These building blocks are used for many
important functions in the body, including
growth and repair of muscle, connective
tissue and skin, carrying oxygen throughout
the body and protecting the body from
viruses or bacteria.
Recommended Daily Allowance
1. Sedentary Individuals: 0.36 grams of
protein per pound of body weight
2. Recreationally Active: 0.45-0.68
grams of protein per pound of body
weight
3. Competitive Athlete: 0.54-0.82
grams of protein per pound of body
weight
4. Teenage Athlete: 0.82-0.91 grams of
protein per pound of body weight
5. Body Builder: 0.64-0.91 grams of
protein per pound of body weight
6. When restricting Calories: 0364-0.91
grams of protein per pound of body
weight
7. Maximum amount of protein the
body can utilize: 0.91 grams of
protein per pound of body weight
NOTE: 1 gram of protein = 4 Calories
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AMINO ACIDS ✔ Asparagine, tyrosine
 known as the building blocks of
✔ arginine, histidine
protein
 Building cells ✔ Proline, glycine
 Protecting the body from viruses
or bacteria ✔ alanine
 Repairing damage tissue and
carrying oxygen throughout the
body FUNCTIONS OF PROTEIN:
1. Used in repairing worn-out body
TYPES OF AMINO ACIDS: tissue caused by continued wear and
tear going on in the body.
1. ESSENTIAL AMINO ACIDS
 Necessary for good health but 2. Proteins are used to build new tissue
cannot be produced by the body by supplying the necessary amino
and so must be supplied in the acid building blocks.
diet
3. Proteins are a source of heat and
EXAMPLE: energy. One gram of CHON contains
4 calories.
✔ Leucin
4. CHON contribute to numerous
✔ Lysine
essential body secretions and fluids,
✔ Tryptophan enzymes and proteins. Mucus and
milk are largely protein. Sperm cells
✔ Methionine
are likewise largely protein as is the
✔ Phenylalanine fluid in which the sperm cells are
contained.
✔ Valine
5. Keeping fluids and pH balanced in
✔ Serine the body.
✔ Isoleucine 6. Signalling cells what to do and when
to do it.

2. NON-ESSENTIAL AMINO ACIDS 7. Serving as structural components

 Those that are produced by the so that give our body parts their shapes.
not as necessary in the diet 8. Transporting substances around the
Example: body.

✔ Glutamic acid, Glutamine 9. Helping blood clot.

✔ Aspartic acid, cysteine 10. Serving as building blocks for

hormone production.

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SOURCES:
1. MEAT – beef, pork, lamb
2. POULTRY – chicken, turkey, duck
3. FISH
4. DAIRY PRODUCTS – milk, yogurt,
cheese
5. Grains – beans, corn, oats, pasta,
3. FATS / LIPIDS
whole grain bread
⮚ most concentrated form of
6. Legumes, seeds & nuts – sesame energy
seeds, sunflower seed, peas, rice, ⮚ Contains 9 calories per gram fat
peanuts, cashew
⮚ 15-25% recommended fat in the
7. Vegetables - broccoli diet
⮚ Constitutes 34% of the energy in
PROTEIN-ENERGY MALNUTRITION
the body
(PEM)
 a condition resulting from ⮚ fats, oils and waxes belong to the
insufficiency of protein or energy group of naturally occurring
or both in the diet. organic materials called LIPIDS.
MARASMUS KWASHIORKOR ⮚ constituents of plants or animals
 SEVERE  Abrupt and which are insoluble in water but
deprivation recent soluble in other organic solvents
of food over deprivation ⮚ Protects vital organs such as
a long of food kidney against injury.
period of which
time develops ⮚ Facilitates absorption of the fat-
characterize rapidly as a soluble vitamins A, D, E and K.
d by consequenc ⮚ Provides satiety and delays onset
insufficienc e of protein of hunger
y of protein deficiency ⮚ Contributes flavour and
and energy or an illness palatability to the diet
intake. like measles
⮚ Maintain constant body
temperature by providing
effective insulation underneath
the skin
Recommended Allowance
20-35% of your total daily calories should
come from fat

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Less than 10% of total daily calories should ⮚ Reduced blood clotting tendency and
come from Saturated Fat (coconut and palm reduced blood pressure
oil, shortening, butter, cream cheese, full fat
dairy products) B. OMEGA 6

NOTE: 1 gram of fat = 9 Calories ⮚ “Linoleic acid” polyunsaturated fatty

acid
⮚ Lowers cholesterol levels in the
3 FORMS OF FATTY ACIDS blood and helps in the prevention of
heart disease
1. SATURATED FATS
⮚ shown to raise blood cholesterol SOURCES:
⮚ most dangerous type of fat  Corn, sesame, soybean, sunflower
⮚ Difficult to metabolize causing oil, nuts, dark green vegetables
weight gain
CHOLESTEROL
⮚ Considered the most dangerous
 Major component of all cell
type of fat that led to raise blood
membranes
cholesterol may lead to coronary  Required for synthesis of sex
heart disease hormones, bile acids and vit. D
SOURCES:  Made in the body and is taken also
thru food
 Butter, lard, meat, cheese, eggs,  Daily intake should not exceed
coconut oil, chocolates, cakes, 300mg/day
cookies  but cholesterol is a major factor in
the development of heart diseases
2. MONOUNSATURATED FATS
⮚ Lower level of “bad” cholesterol
SOURCES: SOURCES OF DIETARY
CHOLESTEROL
 Vegetable oil, peanut, soybean, corn, RICHEST MODERATE
olive oil, canola oil  Egg yolk, fish  fat on meat,
roes, duck, goose,
3. POLYUNSATURATED FATS mayonnaise cold cuts,
and shell fish whole milks,
⮚ Lower levels of total cholesterol
cream, ice
CLASSES: cream, cheese,
butter, and
A. OMEGA 3 most
commercially
⮚ have positive effect on reducing made cakes,
mortality from cardiovascular biscuits and
disease pastries.

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POOR CHOLESTEROL
FREE
 all fish and fish  all vegetables,
canned in and vegetable
vegetable oil, oils, fruit
very lean meats, (including
poultry without avocados and
skin, skimmed olives), nuts,
milk, low fat rice, egg white
yoghurt

LOW DENSITY LIPOPROTEIN (LDL)

 called “bad cholesterol” because it
takes cholesterol to your arteries,
where it may collect in artery
walls. 
NOTE: It is sometimes called the
"bad" cholesterol because a high LDL level
leads to a build-up of cholesterol in your
arteries.
HIGH DENSITY LIPOPROTEIN (HDL)
 helps rid your body of excess
cholesterol so it's less likely to end
up in your arteries.
NOTE: HDL stands for high-density
lipoproteins. It is sometimes called the
"good" cholesterol because it
carries cholesterol from other parts of your
body back to your liver.
Too much cholesterol in your arteries may
lead to a build-up of plaque known as
atherosclerosis and coronary heart
disease.

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