INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN
matter
ANATOMY AND
PHYSIOLOGY WITH
PATHOPHYSIOLOGY
- “Ana” means “up” and “tomy”
means “cutting”. Anatomy
meaning “cut up”.
- “Physio” means “nature” and
“logy” means “study of”.
Physiology meaning “study of
nature”
- “Anatomy” is the study of the
structures of the body.
- “Physiology” is the study of the
function of a structure.
BRANCHES OF ANATOMY
 Gross Anatomy – macroscopic
- The study of the larger structures
of the body
o Regional Anatomy – region per
region
o Systematic Anatomy – focus
on the body system
 Microscopic Anatomy – the study
of the structures that can only be
observe with the use of a
microscope
- cell and molecule levels
REGIONAL ANATOMY
STRUCTURAL LEVELS (FROM SMALLEST
TO LARGEST)
1. Chemical Level
LEVEL ATOMS – simplest level
- Basic and smallest unit of all
MOLECULES – combination of two or
more atoms
COMPOUNDS – a molecule containing
atoms of more than one element
2. Cellular Level / Cells
- Smallest independent units of life
- Growth, metabolism, irritability,
and reproduction
3. Tissue Level
- Made up of many similar cells that
perform a specific function
FOUR BASIC TYPES OF TISSUES:
 Epithelial – covers body surfaces,
lines, hollow organs and cavities,
and forms glands
 Connective – connects, supports,
and protects body organs while
distributing blood vessels to other
tissues
 Nervous – carries information
from one part of the body to
another through nerve impulses
 Muscular – contracts to make
body parts move and generate
heat
4. Organ Level
- Tissues that are joined together
- They have specific functions and
usually have recognizable shapes
5. Organ System Level
- Consists of related organs with a
common function
- EX: Digestive System – breaks
down and absorbs food
6. Organism Level
 Any living individual
 All the parts of the human body
CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE
 ORGANIZATION – specific
interrelationship for it to perform
functions
 METABOLISM – chemical
reactions taking place in an
organism
  RESPONSIVENESS – capability to  Occur more often in the body
react or adjust  An effector activated by control
 GROWTH – an increase in center that opposes stimulus
number or length
 DEVELOPMENT – organism Too much X = X
changes through time (functional
Too little X = X
capability)
 REPRODUCTION – ability to form 1. COLD/FEVER – high temperature
new organism Sweat reduce temp Normal
2. GLUCOSE – high glucose
HOMEOSTASIS – “homeos” meaning
Insulin
“similar” and “stasis” meaning standing.
 Low glucose Glucagon
Homeostasis meaning “standing still”.

 Ability to maintain a relatively

stable internal environment
 Is maintained by many feedback
systems

HOMEOSTATIC CONTROL MECHANISMS

POSITIVE FEEDBACK – occurs to increase

the change or output
FEEDBACK SYSTEM OR FEEDBACK
LOOP – is termed controlled condition.
FEEDBACK SYSTEM
 Breakdown the homeostasis of the
system.
 Less common but, occur in
specific situations.
 Rare in the body because they
tend to increase the original
disturbance
 Effectors respond by exaggerating
or enhancing the stimulus

1. Bacteria Infection
 Immune (Brain) fever
Normal
2. Wound
 Beneficial Cut Platelets
Stop blood
STIMULUS – a disruption that causes a
3. Birth
change in a controlled condition.
 Cervix contraction Increase
NEGATIVE FEEDBACK – occurs to reduce hormone Birth
the change or output.
CELL – basic unit of life
 Maintain the condition of
homeostasis
 Slowing down the process
  Are the basic structural and
functional units of all living
organisms
CYTOLOGY – study of cells
 CYTO means cells
HISTOLOGY – study of tissues
HISTOPATHOLOGY – study of tissues to
identify disease
 PROXIMAL – closer to the point of
reference
 DISTAL – farther away from the
body
 POSTERIOR – toward the back of
the body
 ANTERIOR – toward the front of
the body
 SUPERFICIAL – near or on the
surface
 DEEP – farther from the surface

PROCESS OF FOOD DIGESTION PRONE – body is lying face down

 DIGESTION – process of breaking

down food
 ABSORPTION – the uptake of
nutrients
 INGESTION – the act of taking
food or substances into the mouth
 PROPULSION – the movement of
food and waste through the SUPINE – body is lying face up
digestive system

TWO TYPES OF METABOLISM

 CATABOLISM – “break down”

 ANABOLISM – “building up

MAINTAINING THE GLUCOSE LEVEL

 Insulin
 Glucagon – it helps raise the
sugar level when it’s too low

GLUCOSE LEVEL

 HYPERGLYCEMIA – blood sugar

level is high
 HYPOGLYCEMIA – blood sugar
level is too low

GLYCOGEN – metabolize or store glucose

DIRECTIONAL TERMS

 Describe parts of the body elative

to each other 1. SUPERIOR
 Are generally grouped in pairs of EX: The nose is superior to the
opposites eyes
2. INFERIOR
 MEDIAL – toward or closer to the EX: The femur is inferior to the
midline tarsals.
 LATERAL – away from the midline 3. POSTERIOR
 EX: The spinal cord is posterior to CENTRAL BODY REGION
the belly
4. ANTERIOR  Head
EX: The ribs are anterior to the  Neck
skin of the chest  Trunk
5. SUPERFICIAL
EX: The ribs are superficial to the TRUNK
lungs
6. DEEP 1. Thorax (chest)
EX: The ribs are deep to the skin 2. Abdomen (between thorax and
of the chest and back pelvis)
3. Pelvis

UPPER LIMB

1. Arm
2. Forearm
3. Wrist

LOWER LIMB

1. Thigh
2. Leg
3. Ankle
4. Foot

ABDOMINAL REGIONS AND QUADRANTS

 Determining exact location of

possible problems
 It was subdivided further into
regions and quadra

BODY PARTS AND REGIONS

 This will help to properly identify

specific area/s of a patient body to
be evaluated upon.
PLANES

 Body planes divide the body, even

organs, into sections.

1. Sagittal Plane
2. Frontal Plane
3. Transverse Plane

WEEK 3: THE CELL &

CELLULAR METABOLISM
AND REPRODUCTION Endocytosis – form of vesicular transport
that brings substances into the cell
(MITOSIS AND MEIOSIS)
- Involves ingesting material by
forming a vesicle from the plasma
membrane
Active Transport – transport process in
which solutes move from areas of lesser to Exocytosis – form of vesicular transport
greater concentration. that releases substances outside the cell

- Requires energy (ATP) - Cells often release substances

- EXTRACELLULAR – outside of
cell Facilitated Diffusion – transport process
- INTRACELLULAR – inside of cell involving the diffusion of a substance
 Sample substances that through a channel protein
can be found are
enzymes, glycogen, and - Is a carrier-mediated transport
potassium ions process that moves substances
across the cell membrane
Passive Transport – does not require
energy

- Does not need help and energy to

enter and exit the cell membrane

Channel – other substances needs

channels for cell to accommodate them

 Leak Channels – constantly allow

ions to pass through
 Gated Channels – limit the
movement of ions across the
membrane by opening and closing

Cilia – hairy-like projections that propels

materials across the surface

- Locomotion (movement)
- Are surface organelles that
resembles projections on the
surface that help cells move, beat,
or vibrate
Cytoplasm – gel-like substance
surrounding the nucleus and filling the
cell
Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) – large
polymer of a nucleotide that carries the
genetic information of a cell.
Diffusion – is the process wherein solutes
moves from an area of high concentration
to areas of low concentration
- It can occur in two conditions
Filtration – transport in which water and
dissolved particles are forced across a
membrane from an area of higher to lower
pressure
Golgi Apparatus – prepares proteins and
packages them for export to other parts of
the body
- Is like a flattened sacs that acts
like pathway for processing
proteins and lipids made by the
endoplasmic reticulum.
- Is present in larger numbers and
is most highly developed in cells
that secrete protein, such as those
of the salivary glands or the
pancreas.
Hydrostatic Pressure – pressure exerted
by water
- Moves water out of the tube back
into the distilled water
surrounding the tube
Hypertonic – pertains to a solution that
contains a higher concentration of solutes
- The solute concentration outside
the cell is greater than the
concentration inside the cell
Hypotonic – pertains to a solution that
contains a lower concentration of solutes
- The solute concentration outside
the cell is less than the
concentration inside the cell
Isotonic – pertains to a solution in which
the concentration of solutes in the
solution is the same as the concentration
of solutes in cell
- The solute concentration outside
the cell is the same as that inside
the cell
Microvilli – folds of a cell membrane that
greatly increase the surface area of a cell
- Movement for MUCUS (sticky
liquid)
- Shaggy hairwave
- Specialized extension of the cell
- Typically found in cells charged
with absorbing nutrients
- Can increase a cell’s absorptive
area as much as 40 times
Mitochondria/Mitochondrion – organelle
that converts organic compounds into ATP
- Bean-shaped organelles
- Powerhouse of the cell
- Are the major structures to
produce Adenosine Triphosphate
(ATP)
- The main energy source for most
chemical reactions
- They contain their own DNA and
ribosomes
- Also participates in the regulation
of intracellular ionized calcium
- Is composed of a smoother
membrane and a folded inner
membrane
Mitochondrial Matrix – the fluid that fills
the inside of the membrane
Mitosis – type of cell division in which the
“mother” cells splits into two identical
daughter cells
- Threads/movements
- Nucleus of eukaryotic cell
- Sister chromatids separates from
each other
Nucleus – the cell’s “control center” that
contains a complete set of 46
chromosomes
- The main source of the cell’s DNA
Organelles – structures within the cell
that perform specific tasks in cellular
metabolism
Osmosis – passive transport mechanism
involving the diffusion of water from an
area of greater concentration of water
- This often happens when a
particular substance can’t cross
the membrane
- Is important to cells because large
volume changes caused by water
movement can disrupt normal cell
functions
Osmotic Pressure – water pressure that
develops in a solution

Robert Hooke – accidentally discovered

cell by his original work is to assemble
microscope (cork)

10 to 15 micrometers – size of a single

cell

Phagocytosis – process in which fluid and 1. Cell Metabolism and Energy Use
dissolved particles are trapped in the – different chemical processes
plasma membrane and brought into the during cell metabolism
cell 2. Synthesis of Molecules – cells
synthesize various types of
molecules, including protein,
- The cell “eats” large particles such
nucleic acids, and lipids.
as bacteria, viruses, and dead
3. Communication – cells produce
cells
and receive chemical and
electrical signals that allow them
Pinocytosis – process in which fluid and to communicate with one another
dissolved particles are trapped in the 4. Reproduction and Inheritance –
plasma membrane and brought into the each cell contains a copy of the
cell genetic information of the
individual
- The cell periodically “drinks” by
forming small vesicles around SPECIALIZED CELLS
droplets of extracellular fluid
- Transmit that genetic information
Plasma Membrane – the external
to the next generation
boundary of the cell
 Sperm Cells
Polymer – large molecule consisting of  Oocytes
many smaller molecules joined in
sequence
CELL STRUCTURE
Ribonucleic Acid (RNA) – nucleotide that
assists in protein synthesis - Plasma Membrane or Cell
Membrane – defining boundaries
with gate-like properties
Ribosomes – granules of protein and RNA
- Cytoplasm – contains organelles
scattered throughout the cytoplasm
and molecules
- Nucleus – acts as the control
- Are made of RNA and proteins. center and contains a cell’s
genetic information
Cell – structure units of all living things  Control center of the cell

 Smallest/basic units of life CELL MEMBRANE

 Contains 50 – 600 trillion cells
 May have numerous amounts of
- Outer layer of the cell
cilia in a cell
- It has bilayer of phospholipids
- Serves as the barrier
 - Maintain the shapre of the cell SOLVENT
- It controls the entrance and exit
materials inside the cell • Fluid or gas in which solute is
being dissolved

CONCENTRATION

• Amount of solute is dissolved

• Mixed in solute and solvent

STRUCTURE OF CHROMOSOMES

• DIPLOID – 2 copies of each

chromosome (human sex cell)
• HAPLOID – single copy of each
chromosome (human sex cell)

PHOSPHOLIPDS HOMOLOGOUS CHROMOSOMES

Hydrophilic (head) – welcomes water • Made up of sister chromatids

• Joined at the centromere
- Made up of phosphate
DNA NUCLEOTIDES BASED PAIRS
Hydrophobic (tail) – no water
- Adenine – Thymine
- Made up of fatty acids - Guanine – Cytosine

Skeleton – made up of glycerol RNA NUCLEOTIDES BASED PAIRS

2 TYPES OF ANIMAL CELL - Adenine – Thymine

- Guanine – Cytosine
 SOMATIC CELL
 All cells in our body has IMPORTANCE OF CELL DIVISION
RBC , WBC, NEURONS
etc.. • You are living organism, made of
 DIPLOID cells
 2 set of chromosomes, 1 • In order to keep living, your cell
from father and 1 from must stay alive
mother • In order for cells to keep living
they must divide and multiply
GERM CELLS
PHASES OF THE CELL CLYCLE
 Sex Cell
 Sperm and Egg INTERPHASE

FORMATION OF LYSOSOMES - Preparatoryphase/stage

- Longest phase
• Scaveger of the cell - Under interphase it includes G1,
• Destroyer S, G2 Phases
• So that inside of our cell would - After that phase, our cell will
not be crowded produce Mitosis and Cytokinesis

CELL TRANSPORT GAP1 (G1)

SOLUTE - The DNA synthesize begin an

increase supply of protein
- Number of cell organelles multiply
• Substances that is being dissolved
 - New set of organelles

SYNTHESIZE (S)

- DNA
synthesize/replicate/multiply
- Cells make another copy of
chromosome
- Produce copy

GAP2 (G2)

- Completion of DNA synthesis

- Start of the actual cell division

MITOSIS PHASES (PMAT-

PROPHASE, ANAPHASE,
METAPHASE, TELOPHASE)

 PROPHASE
 Formation of mitotic CYTOKINESIS
spindle
 Outer layer of nucleus - Final phase of the cell division
breaks down
- Starts when telophase (malapit na
 METAPHASE matapos)
 Chromosomes aligned in
- You can identify it, if it has a
the middle
CLEAVAGE FURROW
 Centrioles developed both
sides
 Each sister chromatids is MEIOSIS
attached to a spindle fiber
originating from opposite - it has 2 stages, M1 and M2
poles - sperm cell and egg cell (sex cells)
 ANAPHASE - we will have 4 daughter cells
 A – away - divide 2 times
 Divide/split the - sperm (23) eggs (23) = 46
chromosomes chromosomes
 TELOPHASE
 T – 2 cell nucleus
 Nuclear envelopes start to
form again
 Another set of organelles

ORGANELLES LOCATION FUNCTIONS

NUCLEUS Often near Cell’s control

 - two layers
the center center
NUCLEOLUS – is round structure that is
RIBOSOMES In the Site of protein made of the DNA, RNA and proteins.
cytoplasm synthesis

ROUGH In the Site of protein

ENDOPLASMIC cytoplasm synthesis
RETICULUM

SMOOTH In the Site of lipid

ENDOPLASMIC cytoplasm synthesis
RETICULUM

GOLGI In the Modifies protein

APPARATUS cytoplasm structure

SECRETORY In the Contains

VESICLE cytoplasm materials
produce in the
cell

LYSOSOME In the Contains

cytoplasm enzymes that
digest material

MITOCHONDRION In the Site of aerobic

cytoplasm respiration

MICROTUBULE In the Supports

cytoplasm cytoplasm
o CHROMATIN – a non-dividing cell
CENTRIOLES In the Facilitate the o CHROMOSOMES – a dividing cell
cytoplasm movement of
chromosomes ROUGH ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM –
during cell extends from the nuclear envelope and
division filled with ribosomes

CILIA On the cell Move

surface substances
with many over surfaces of
on each cell certain cells

FLAGELLA On the Propel sperm

sperm cell cells
surface
with one
per cell

MICROVILLI Extensions Increase

of cell surface area of
surface certain cells SMOOTH ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM –
with many endoplasmic reticulum without ribosomes
on each cell
- where fatty acids and steroids are
NUCLEAR ENVELOPE – the outer part of being made
the nucleus
 - usually appear singular unlike
cilia

INTERSTITIAL FLUID – fluids between

cell within tissue

PLASMA – fluid within blood vessel

LYMPH – fluid within lymphatic vessel

SECRETORY VESICLES – discharged
processed proteins via exocytosis into
CEREBROSPINAL FLUID – fluid that
extracellular fluids.
surrounds brain and spinal chord
ATP – is the main energy source of most
SECONDARY ACTIVE TRANSPORT –
chemical reactions within the cell
involves the active transport of the
substance
CRISTAE – the folds of the inner
membrane

CYTOSKELETON – is made of networks of

the following protein elements

- it is like tree-branches that holds

organelles in place and aid them
in changing shape
- these protein elements consists of
microfilaments, intermediate
filament and microtubules

MICROFILAMENTS – are small protein

strands that provide mechanical support
and generate force for movement

- are analogous to muscles in your

body

INTERMEDIATE PROTEIN – are protein

strands that larger than microlaments but
smaller than microtubules

- they hold organelles in place and

attach cells to one another

MICROTUBULES – are long, hollow

protein tubes that determine shape and
movement

CENTRIOLES – are like mini tunnels that

were stacked together by threes and
formed a cylindrical organelle composed of
nine triplets

CENTROSOME – is found near the

nucleus and will be later essential for cell
division called mitosis

FLAGELLA – is like a whip tail placing

itself at the terminal end of a cell