BIOLOGY
BASIC SCIENCE OR PURE SCIENCE
Biology - Natural science that studies life and living
organisms, including their physical structure, chemical
processes, molecular interactions, physiological
mechanisms, development, and evolution.
- “Study of LIFE”
BIO = LIFE
LOGY/LOGIA = STUDY/LOGIC
6 MAJOR BRANCHES OF BIOLOGY
1. Zoology – study of animals.
2. Botany – study of plants.
3. Microbiology – study of microorganism.
4. Genetics – study of heredity/genes.
5. Anatomy – study of the structure of an
organism.
6. Physiology – how the parts work? function?
• Cytology or Cell Biology – study of cells
• Since there is no unequivocal definition of life, most
current definitions in biology are descriptive.
• Life is considered a characteristic of something that
preserves, furthers, or reinforces its existence in the
given environment.
• This characteristic exhibit all or most of the living
things traits.
 SCIENCE - a systematic enterprise that builds
and organizes knowledge in the form of testable
explanations and predictions about the
universe. SCIENCE IS EMPIRICAL
8 CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE
• Homeostasis - Internal balance (equilibrium)
• Cell - Smallest unit of life
• Metabolism - Chemical processes with the use of
food, water, sun to grow, heal, have energy
• Growth - Increase in physical structure.
- Every living thing exhibit growth. - Living
organisms increase in size and number of cells. Cells get
bigger and divide to create more cells.
Example: the legs of a child grow longer as osteocytes
divide to create new bone cells, enlarging the femur
bones.
• Development - maturing
• Adapt- change behavior depending on the
environment (emotional adjustment)
• Respond – able yo react
• Reproduce- make new entity
• Movement - All living things also have internal
movement of substances (food, water, waste, etc.)
TYPES OF SCIENCE
1.
 - FOCUS on process of discovery.
 BASIC/PURE SCIENCE
1. Anatomy - study of the structure of an organism.
2. Physiology - how the parts work? function?
3. Embryology -S tudy of embryos and their
development.
4. Cell Biology – Cytology, study of cells
5. Botany - study of plants.
- not to use existing knowledge to create something
new
2. APPLIED SCIENCE/ TECHNOLOGICAL SCIENCE
- applies existing scientific.
- knowledge to develop more practical applications.
 APPLIED SCIENCE
1. Medicine
2. Biotechnology
3. Biochemistry
4. Genetics
5. Agriculture
• All scientific disciplines  physics, chemistry, biology,
psychology  BASIC SCIENCE & APPLIED SCIENCE
∴ If there’s no Basic Science, there’s no Applied Science.
Applied science relies on and could not exist without
basic science.
Properties of Life: 8 Characteristics of Life
1. CELL - All Living things are made out of?
- the basic unit of life
 UNICELLULAR – mother cell
 MULTICELLULAR – daughther cell
2. ORDER - Organisms are highly organized,
coordinated structures that consist of one or more
cells.
3. SENSITIVITY OR RESPONSE TO STIMULI –
 Positive Reponse – Organisms Move Towards
Stimulus
Example: plants can grow towards a source of
light, climb fences and walls
 Negative Response –Organisms Move Away From
Stimulus
4. REPRODUCTION - During reproduction, GENES
containing DNA are passed along to an organisms
OFFSPRING.
 Single Cellular - (ASEXUAL)
Reproduce by means of duplication of
DNA
 Multi Cellular - (SEXUAL)
Produces reproductive cells that will
form a new individual
5. GROWTH – QUANTITY, Physical Properties
6. DEVELOPMENT – QUALITY, Maturing
7. REGULATION - Regulatory Mechanisms, body
sytems.
8. HOMEOSTASIS - “STEADY STATE”, it is an INTERNAL
BALANCE
9. FEEDBACK MECHANISMS - Process that uses the
conditions of one component to regulate the
function of the other. It is done to either increase
or dampen the change in the system.
10. GENES
MENDEL’S LAW OF HEREDITY GENETICS
 Branch of biology that studies heredity. HEREDITY
 The passing on of traits from parent to offspring.
TRAITS
 Characteristics that are inherited.
11. METABOLISM - Broad term that refers to all
chemical reactions that occur within body cells.
A. ANABOLISM -Synthetic reactions.
-Reductive energy requiring
Example: biosynthesis of proteins, lipids, and
polysaccharide.
B. CATABOLISM - Degradative reactions.
- Oxidative energy yielding.
Example: oxidation of glucose and fats.
12. MOVEMENT - All living things also have internal
movement of substances (food, water, waste, etc.)
These 8 characteristics are needed for LIFE to function
ENERGY PROCESSING
 energy is used and needed by an organism
Autotrophs: Create own food
Heterotrophs: Must eat their food
Decomposer: Breakdown dead material
LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION
 ATOM - smallest and most fundamental unit of
matter
 MOLECULES - Chemical structure consisting of at
least 2 or more atoms held together by one or more
chemical bonds
- Atoms linked are only 1 element
Example: O3 – Ozone 3 Oxygen Atoms
 COMPOUND – Atoms linked are different elements
Example: H2O – Hydrogen Dioxide
 MACROMOLECULE - is a large molecule, such as
protein, commonly created by POLYMERIZATION of
smaller subunits (monomers).
 ORGANELLES - Small structures or organs within the
cell
 CELL - Smallest and the most fundamental unit of
structure and function in LIVING ORGANISMS
 Atom of Biology
 FOUNDATION of life
 Key to Biology
 contains the MACHINERIES needed to maintain
Life
 the BASIC physiological (functions) and
morphological (structures) unit of life
 is so tiny that you cannot see it with your naked
eye.

 TISSUE - Groups of similar cells carrying out similar
or related functions
 ORGAN - A collection of tissues grouped together
performing a common function
 ORGANISM - Humans need this complete level of
organization to live functionally and healthy
LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION
 Atom → molecule or compound → cell → organelle →
tissue → organ → organ system → organism
The Cell Theory
 From the Latin cella, meaning "small room"
 Basic unit of all known living organisms.
 Cell biology
It’s ORIGINAL statement states that:
1. Every living organism is made of one or more cells.
2. Cells are the basic structural and functional unit of
life.
3. Cells come from pre-existing cells by division.
It’s NEW statements states that:
4. Energy flow occurs within cells
5. Hereditary information (DNA) is passed on from cell
to cell.
6. All cells have the same basic chemical composition.
(CARBON, HYDROGEN, OXYGEN, SULFUR,
NITROGEN & PHOSPHORUS)
CHON -
CHO -
IMPORTANT SCIENTISTS IN CELL THEORY
1) ROBERT HOOKE - First person to see cells, he was
looking at cork (from a tree) and noted that he saw "a
great many boxes” (1665)
2) ANTONY VAN LEEUWENHOEK - Observed living cells
in pond water (Pond Scum), which he called
"animalcules" (1673)
3) Robert Brown – ( 1773-1857) He discovered the
nucleus of cells.
4) MATTIAS SCHLEIDEN - botanist, observed tissues of
plants contained cells ( 1845)
5) THEODORE SCHWANN – (A – ANIMAL) zoologist who
observed tissues of animals had cells (1839)
6) RUDOLPH VIRCHOW – ( V – VITAL) also reported
that every living thing is made of up vital units, known
as cells. He predicted that cells come from other cells.
(1850 )
Cell Features
ALL cells have these parts…
 RIBOSOMES – make protein for use by the organism
 CYTOPLASM – fluid material within cell
 DNA – genetic material
 CYTOSKELETON – internal framework of cell
 CELL MEMBRANE – outer boundary, some things
can cross the cell membrane
TYPES OF A CELL
o PROKARYOTE CELLS -The first cells to inhabit
the earth ; Simple cells ; Bacteria; These cells
do NOT have a nucleus, their DNA is circular
and floats in the cytoplasm
 FLAGELLA - Some bacteria have a tail-like structure
that helps it to move, capsule surrounds some
bacteria and helps them avoid the body’s immune
system
o EUKARYOTIC CELLS - Cells found in plants,
animals, protists, and fungi
The cell is composed of 4 main parts:
 CELL MEMBRANE
 CYTOPLASM
 NUCLEUS – “control center” of cell, houses DNA
 ORGANELLES – small structures that carry out
specific functions (“little organs”)
 A drop of blood can contain millions of cells
 Englishman Robert Hooke discovered the cell by
examining a cork under a microscope.
 There are 30Billion cells in our brain
 100 000 000 000 000 cell in an adult
 155 000 cells every square meter of our skin
 50 000 of cells dies and is being replaced with new
cells every second
 There are 20trillion red blood cells
 65% of water in the body
PARTS AND ITS FUNCTION
Cell Structure: The Barriers
CELL MEMBERANE - Plasma, Cytoplasmaic or Cellular
Membrane
 SKIN - COVERING of the cell
 REGULATES - the passage of nutrients, wastes
products and secretions IN and OUT of the cell
 SELECTIVE PERMEABILITY or SEMI-PERMEABLE
 Acts like a SCREEN or a NET - allowing certain
molecules and substances to ENTER and LEAVE the
cell
CONTAINER - for the cell’s organelles
BARRIER - for preventing molecules from moving IN
and OUT of a cell at random
HOUSES - some of the cell’s ENZYMES and ENERGY
containing MACHINES
SUPPORT - to the cell
PROTECTS and SEALS - off the cell from FOREIGN
substances and organisms
CELL WALL - Provides RIGIDITY, SHAPE, SUPPORT and
PROTECTION
 SURROUNDS the CELL MEMBRANCE acts like a
FILTER due to its semi-permeability
 Exclusively for PLANT CELL
Plant Cell walls have 3 LAYERS
1. MIDDLE LAMELLA - a layer rich in pectins,
outermost layer forms the interface between
adjacent plant cells and glues them together
2. PRIMARY CELL WALL- generally a thin, flexible
and extensible layer formed while the cell is
growing, made up of CELLULOSE
3. SECONDARY CELL WALL - a thick layer formed
inside the primary cell wall, contains LIGNIN,
which strengthens and waterproofs the wall
NUCLEUS - THE GENETIC PALACE
 MOST FAMOUS of all cell organelle
 “INFORMATION” center
 MOST CONSPICUOUS, MOST PROMINENT and
LARGEST organelle
 “GENETIC HOUSE”
 CONTROLS the entire functions of the cell
COMPONENTS:
- NUCLEAR MEMBRANE
-“SKIN” of the nucleus
-DOUBLE MEMBRANE
- NUCLEOLUS
- MANUFACTURES” ribosomes
- made up of RNA and PROTEINS
- NUCLEOPLASM
- KARYOPLASM
- gelatinous matrix
- PROTEIN-RICH
CYTOPLASM - THE POOL
 semifluid, gelatinous, nutrient matrix
 “SITE”, “AREA” or “SPACE” where most of the
METABOLIC REACTIONS takes place
 HOUSE and CONTAINS the ENZYMES and other
SOLUTES of the cell
 ‘’AREA” or “SPACE” between the cell membrane
and the nucleus
RECIPE ingredients:
o H2O
o Enzymes
o Dissolve O2
o Protein & Carbs
o Essential Nutrients & Lipid Waste Products
CYTOSKELETON –THE FRAMEWORK
 STABILIZES the lipid membrane
 GIVES the cell its shapes
 MOVES, ANCHORS its organelles and DIRECTS
traffic
 “STEEL” and “HOLLOW BLOCKS” of the cell
 Strengthens
 Supports
 Stiffen the cell
1. MICROTUBULES
- HOLLOW tubules made of proteins
- forms CENTRIOLES
- support for CELL SHAPE, help move organelles &
aids in CELL DIVISION
- can be ASSEMBLED & DISASSEMBLED
2. MICROFILAMENTS
- LOOOOOONG, THIN PROTEIN fibers or threads
- concentrated in BUNDLES
- support for CELL SHAPE, help move organelles &
aids in CELL DIVISION
- can be ASSEMBLED & DISASSEMBLED
3. INTERMEDIATE FIBERS
- composed of FIBROUS PROTEINS
- cannot be assembled & disassembled
- LIKE structure like collagen
4. MICROTRABECULAE
- forms the bulk of the network
- dense network of wisplike fibers
- most recent discovery
MITOCHONDRIA - ENERGY SYSTEM
 POWERHOUSE of the cell
 ENERGY FACTORIES
 SITE for ATP Production
- Sugar is converted into energy called ATP
 ROD or SAUSAGE-SHAPED organelle
 CENTER for CELLULAR RESPIRATION
 (Oxidative Metabolism)
RIBOSOMES - PROTEIN FACTORIES
 SITE of PROTEIN SYNTHESIS
 Made up of rRNA and PROTEINS
 Most NUMEROUS organelles
 Among the SMALLEST organelle
 PRODUCED in the NUCLEOLUS
- Prokaryotic cells have more ribosomes than
eukaryotic cells.
ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM - CHANNELS AND
FACTORIES
 MANUFACTURE and TRANSPORT SYSTEM
 Highly convoluted in structure
 Network of channels
 May or may not contain RIBOSOMES
TYPES A. FLAGELLA • Single or few long and filamentous.
- Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) B. CILIA • Short and numerous
- Synthesized proteins to GOLGI
APPARATUS, Has RIBOSOMES
- Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER) DIFFERENT TYPES OF CELLS
- Devoted to PRODUCTION, PROCESSING 1. Plant Cel l
and sometimes DESTRUCTION of LIPIDS 2. Animal Cell
GOLGI BODIES - PACKAGING CENTER 3. Bacteria Cell
 Packages the proteins and carbohydrates
produced by ready for shipment
 Discovered by CAMILLO GOLGI
 Also called as Golgi Apparatus
o Animal cell has lesser Golgi bodies than plant
cells
 Produces the membranes that bounds LYSOSOMES
 CONNECTS a signal with ER

LYSOSOMES - THE CLEAN UP CREWS

 Origin: GOLGI BODIES
 MEMBRANE - BOUND VESICLE
 Contains HYDROLYTIC ENZYMES or ACID
HYDROLASES
 SUICIDE of the cell
 “LYSO”= dissolving power
 “SOME” = from somatic, body
 digest nutrients and cell wastes
 BREAKS DOWN foreign substances or bacteria and
old cells, too
Types of Cellular Digestion Categories of Cells
PINOCYTOSIS = LIQUID-based  Eukaryotes - “True” nucleus
PHAGOCYTOSIS = SOLID-based DIGESTION  Prokaryotes - Nucleoid region
TYPES OF PHAGOCYTOSIS
ENDOCYTOSIS = TAKES IN food from outside
the cell
EXOCYTOSIS = TAKES OUT or EXPEL WASTES
from inside the cell PROTEIN
 PRESENT in BOTH animal cell plant cell or in all SYNTHESIS
eukaryotic cells

VACUOLE - STORAGE TANK Cell division

 Contains a WHITE SAP called CELL SAP in Plant
Cell ONLY
 PLANT CELL has BIGGER VACUOLES
 Storage Center of the cell
 FLUID-FILLED CAVITY
 PRESENT in EUKARYOTIC CELLS but ABSENT IN
PROKARYOTIC CELLS
 or more daughter cells
CILIA AND FLAGELLA - MOBILITY MECHANISMS
 Responsible for the mobility of organisms
 Present in both EUKARYOTIC and PROKARYOTIC
CELLS
THE KEY ROLES OF CELL DIVISION
• The ability of organisms to produce more of their own
kind best distinguishes living things from nonliving
matter.
• The continuity of life is based on the reproduction of
cells, or cell division.
• process by which a parent cell divides into two
• In eukaryotes, there are two distinct type of cell
division: mitosis and meiosis
• Prokaryotes undergo binary fission, where their
genetic material is segregated equally into two
daughter cells
 THREE TYPES OF CELL DIVISION
MITOSIS
 purpose of mitosis is cell division: making two cells
out of one
 the division of the mother cell into two daughter
cells, genetically identical to each other and to their
parent cell
 followed immediately by cytokinesis, which divides
the cytoplasm, organelles, and cell membrane, and
later be…
 karyokinesis - which divides the nucleus
 sequence of events is divided into stages
corresponding to the completion of one set of
activities and the start of the next
 was discovered in frog, rabbit, and cat cornea cells
in 1873 and described for the first time by the
Polish histologist Wacław Mayzel in 1875
 a Greek word meaning "warp thread"
PARTS OF THE CHROMSOMES

 Diagram of a replicated and condensed
metaphase eukaryotic chromosome.
(1)Chromatid – one of the two identical parts of the
chromosome after S phase.
(2)Centromere – the point where the two
chromatids touch, and where the microtubules
attach.
(3) Short arm.
(4) Long arm.
THE MITOTIC STAGES
 PROPHASE
• the chromatin condenses into double rod-
shaped structures called chromosomes in which
the chromatin becomes visible
• nuclear membrane (envelope) disappears
• Centrioles have separated and taken positions
on the opposite poles of the cell.
• Spindle fibers form and radiate
toward the center of the cell
Fluorescence microscope
image of two mouse cell
nuclei in prophase
PROPHASE IN AN
ONION ROOT TIP
 METAPHASE
 the shortest phase of mitosis
 condensed and highly coiled chromosomes,
carrying genetic information, align in the
equator of the cell before being separated
 Spindle fibers connect the centromere of
each sister chromatid to the poles of the cell

Chromosomes
 ANAPHASE
 chromosomes are split and the sister
chromatids move to opposite poles of the cell
 Anaphase starts when the anaphase promoting
complex marks an inhibitory
chaperone called securin with ubiquitin for
destruction.
 Securin is a protein which inhibits
a protease known as separase.
 The destruction of securin unleashes
 separase which then breaks down
 cohesin, a protein responsible for
 holding sister chromatids together.
 TELOPHASE
 final stage in both meiosis and mitosis in
a eukaryotic cell
 Two daughter nuclei form in each
daughter cell
 As the nuclear membranes re-form
around each set of chromatids,
the nucleoli also reappear.
 The chromosomes also unwind back
 into the expanded chromatin that is
present during interphase.
CYTOKINESIS
• process in which the cytoplasm of a
single eukaryotic cell is divided to form two
daughter cells
• usually initiates during the late stages
of mitosis and meiosis
KARYOKINESIS
• Nucleus is divided between 2 daughter
cells
• takes place during the late division of
a cell nucleus at mitosis or meiosis
MEIOSIS
• special type of cell division necessary for sexual
reproduction in eukaryotes (animals, plants and
fungi)
• Division of the gametes (sperm and egg cell)
• number of sets of chromosomes is reduced to half
the original number, typically from two sets
(DIPLOID) to one set (HAPLOID)
• MEIOTIC DIVISION occurs in two stages,
MEIOSIS I AND MEIOSIS II
• Ensures that humans have the same number of
chromosomes in each generation.
• It is a two-step process that reduces the
chromosome number by half—from 46 to 23—to
form sperm and egg cells. This is a reduction in
genetic material.
• it is the REDUCTION DIVISION of the
chromosomes in gametes
• Diploid - two sets of chromosome, usually one
from the mother and one from the father; 2n
• Haploid - has a single set of chromosomes; n
• Gamete - reproductive sex cells
• Homologous chromosome - a set of one
maternal chromosome and one paternal
chromosome that pair up inside a
cell during meiosis; consists of two chromatids
 • Chromosomal crossover (or crossing over) - the
exchange of genetic material
between homologous chromosomes that
results in recombinant chromosomes
THE STAGES
Interphase: Before meiosis begins, genetic material is
duplicated.
Growth 1 (G1) phase: Growth phase where the cell
undergoes normal. At this point cells are 46
chromosomes, 2n.
Synthesis (S) phase: The genetic material is replicated.
Growth 2 (G2) phase: rapid and additional growth is needed
by the cell before Meiosis.

Recombination of
genes

First Division
Prophase 1: Cell Cycle
It is the longest phase of meiosis. Duplicated chromosome • The cell cycle has four main stages.
condenses. Each chromosome consists of two, closely • The cell cycle is a regular pattern of growth,
associated sister chromatids. Crossing over can occur during DNA replication, and cell division.
the latter part of this stage.
Metaphase 1:Homologous chromosomes align
at the equatorial plate.
Anaphase 1: Homologous pairs separate with sister
chromatids remaining together.
Telophase 1: Two daughter cells are formed with each
daughter containing only one chromosome of the
homologous pair.
Second Division: Gamete Formation
Prophase 2: DNA does not replicate.
Metaphase 2: Chromosomes align at the equatorial plate.
Anaphase 2: Centromeres divide and sister chromatids
migrate separately to each pole.
Telophase 2: Cell division is complete. Four haploid
daughter cells are obtained.
 One parent cell produces four daughter cells.
Daughter cells have half the number of
chromosomes found in the original parent cell and
with crossing over, are genetically different. • The main stages of the cell cycle are gap 1,
synthesis, gap 2, and mitosis.
 • Gap 1 (G1): cell growth and normal
functions
• DNA synthesis (S): copies DNA
• Gap 2 (G2): additional growth
• Mitosis (M): includes division of the
cell nucleus and division of the cell
cytoplasm
• Mitosis occurs only if the cell is large
enough and the DNA undamaged.
The Interphase Process of the Cell Cycle
 preparation for cellular division
 INTERPHASE
 preparation for cellular division
 considered to be the 'living' phase of the cell, in
which the cell obtains nutrients, grows, reads its
DNA, and conducts other "normal" cell functions
 Inactive phase because it is the preparatory phase
of cell cycle.
 majority of eukaryotic cells spend most of their
time in interphase
 G0 PHASE
 referred to the G zero phase or RESTING PHASE is a
period in the cell cycle in which cells exist in
a quiescent state
 the cell is NEITHER dividing nor preparing to divide
 such as nerve and heart muscle cells, become
quiescent when they reach maturity
 Cells then remain in the G0phase until there is a
reason for them to divide
 Cell Cycle Checkpoints
 control mechanisms that ensure the fidelity of cell
division
 verify whether the processes at each phase of the
cell cycle have been accurately completed before
progression into the next phase
 important function of many checkpoints is to
assess DNA damage detected
by SENSOR mechanisms (cyclins and cyclin
dependent kinases)
 uses a signal mechanism either to stall the cell cycle
until repairs are made or, if repairs cannot be made,
to target the cell for destruction via apoptosis
THE MAIN CHECKPOINTS:
 G1 (Restriction) Checkpoint - located at the end
of the cell cycle's G1 phase, just before entry into S
phase, making the key decision of whether the cell
should divide, delay division, or enter a resting stage
such as (equal ratio of organelles and well
preparation of protein add enzymes).
 G2 Checkpoint - located at the end of G2 phase,
triggering the start of the M phase (mitotic phase);
check a number of factors, such as DNA damage via
radiation, to ensure the cell is ready for mitosis
 Metaphase Checkpoint – or SPINDLE
CHECKPOINT, occurs at the point
in metaphase where all the chromosomes
should/have aligned at the mitotic plate and be
under bipolar tension
 G1 phase or Growth 1/Gap 1 phase
 cell grows in size, preparation of copies of
other organelles
 synthesizes mRNA and proteins in preparation for  CELL TRANSPORT
subsequent steps leading to mitosis
 Equal ratio of nucleus and cytoplasm 2 TYPES
 cell cycle lasts about 18-24 hours, and the G 1 phase
takes up about 11 hours
 cell is diploid or 2n
 genetic material exists as chromatin

 S phase
 or the Synthesis Phase
Types of Cellular Transport
 where DNA is replicated
• Animations of Active Transport & Passive Transport
 G1/S transition is a major checkpoint in the • Passive Transport
regulation of the cell cycle in this phase (S-p PF) cell doesn’t use energy
 create exactly two identical semi-conserved 1. Diffusion
chromosomes (identical sister chromatids held 2. Facilitated Diffusion
together by a centromere) 3. Osmosis
 Damage to DNA is detected and fixed during S- • Active Transport
phase cell does use energy
 Duplication of centrosomes 1. Protein Pumps
 Take about 8hours 2. Endocytosis
3. Exocytosis
 G2 phase  Diffusion is the tendency of the solute to spread
throughout the solution until the composition is
 or Pre-mitotic Phase
homogenous.
 third and final subphase of Interphase directly
preceding Mitosis
 Replenishing of stored energy.
 Mitotic spindle formation.
 Appearance of centrosomes in the cytoplasm
 period of rapid cell growth and protein synthesis
during which the cell readies itself for mitosis
 the G2/M DNA damage checkpoint consists of an Glucose molecules
outside of cell
arrest of the cell in G2 just before mitotic entry in
response to genotoxic stress (such as UV radiation,
oxidative stress, DNA intercalating agents, etc.)
 DNA damage signals cause activation of
the transcription factor p53, a tumor suppressor, inside of cell
preventing cancer; “the guardian of the genome”,
role in conserving stability by PREVENTING genome
mutation classified as a tumor suppressor gene HIGH to LOW concentration
 Takes about 4 hours to be completed
• Facilitated Diffusion is the movement of larger
molecules like glucose through the cell membrane–
 Mitosis larger molecules must be “helped”
 The Cell division state • Proteins in the cell membrane form channels for
 Cell growth stops at this stage large molecules to pass through
 focused on the orderly division into two daughter • Proteins that form channels (pores) are called
cells protein channels
 Metaphase Checkpoint ensures that the cell is
ready to complete cell division
 Process has several steps: (PMAT) prophase,
metaphase, anaphase, telophase
 Energy is required as molecules must be pumped
against the concentration gradient.
Proteins that work as pumps are called PROTEIN
PUMPS.
Ex: Body cells must pump carbon dioxide out into the
surrounding blood vessels to be carried to the lungs for
exhale. Blood vessels are high in carbon dioxide
compared to the cells, so energy is required to move
the carbon dioxide across the cell membrane from
LOW to HIGH concentration.

 OSMOSIS -is the passage of water through a

selectively permeable membrane like the cell
membrane
*Water diffuses across a membrane from an area of
high concentration to an area of low concentration.

 BULK TRANSPORT-is the mechanism by

 Hypertonic Solutions: contain a high concentration which very large molecules (such as food
of solute relative to another solution (e.g. the cell's and wastes) get into and out of the cell
cytoplasm). When a cell is placed in a hypertonic
solution, the water diffuses out of the cell, causing Food is moved
the cell to shrivel. into the
 Hypotonic Solutions: contain a low concentration of cell by Endocytosis
solute relative to another solution (e.g. the cell's
cytoplasm). When a cell is placed in a hypotonic
solution, the water diffuses into the cell, causing the Wastes are moved
cell to swell and possibly explode. out of the cell
 Isotonic Solutions: contain the same concentration by Exocytosis
of solute as another solution (e.g. the cell's
cytoplasm). When a cell is placed in an isotonic  Ex: White Blood Cells, which are part of the
solution, the water diffuses into and out of the cell
immune system, surround and engulf
at the same rate. The fluid that surrounds the body
bacteria by endocytosis.
cells is isotonic.


TYPES OF ACTIVE TRANSPORT

 Active Transport
Exocytosis: Forces material out of cell in bulk
Active transport is the movement of molecules from
• membrane surrounding the material fuses
LOW to HIGH concentration.
with cell membrane
• Cell changes shape – requires energy
 • EX: Hormones or wastes released from cell
•
 Osmosis—Elodea Leaf

 Isotonic Solution
• The concentration of solutes in the
solution is equal to the concentration of
solutes inside the cell

 Hypotonic Solution
 The solution has a lower concentration
of solutes and a higher concentration of
water than inside the cell. (Low solute;
High water)

R
esult: Water moves equally in both
directions and the cell remains same
size! (Dynamic Equilibrium)

Result: Water moves from the

solution to inside the cell. Cell Swells
and bursts open (Hemolysis)
 Hypertonic Solution
• The solution has a higher concentration
of solutes and a lower concentration of
water than inside the cell. (High solute;
Low water)