Chapter 6 Cell

Division

•BIOLOGY
•FORM 4
•2021
Objective
s
• Identify the phases in a cell cycle
• Understanding the processes of mitosis and meiosis
• State the importance of mitosis and meiosis
• Explain the importance of controlled mitosis
• Understanding the process of cloning and its characteristics
Chromosomes
• DNA are stored as chromosomes in the nucleus.
• Chromosomal number is the characteristics number
of chromosomes of a species.
• In some cases, chromosomes can be found in pair,
which share the same structure, referred as
homologous chromosomes.
• Somatic cells of a diploid organisms contain two
pair of chromosome (2n).
• Gametes or haploid organisms contain only one set
of chromosome (n).
 Karyotype
• A karyotype is the number and appearance of chromosomes in the
nucleus of a eukaryotic cell.

A female genome visualized with fluorescent in situ Karyotype variability in different cultivars of maize demonstrated
hybridization (FISH). using FISH.
The cell cycle
• The cell cycle is a cyclic
sequences of events that a cell
undergoes, from the time it is
formed until it divides
completely into two.
• Two main phrases in the cell
cycle is:
• Interphase – cell grows and
prepares for cell division
• Cell division (M phase) – cell
divides its nucleus and
cytoplasm
Interphase
• Interphase can be divides into G1, S and G2 phases.
 G1 phase
• The first gap phase where the chromosomes are
not very visible and appeared as chromatin.
• The cell grows larger.
• If the environmental condition is flavourable, the
cell will decide to proceed to cell division.
• The centrosome duplication process starts.

Left: Fluorescence microscopic images of nuclei and

chromosomes of BY-2 cells
S phase
• Synthesis of DNA occurs in this phase.
• DNA is replicated and each chromosome contain two identical sister
chromatids that are joined together by a centromere.
G2 phase
• The cell continue to grow in the second
gap phase.
• Organelles are synthesis and metabolism
is active.
• The DNA are present as chromatin.
• The pair of centrosomes has matured.

Fluorescence microscopic images of nuclei and chromosomes

of BY-2 cells
Cell division
• Cell division is the process of forming of new cell(s) from pre-existing
cell.
• Cell division can be achieved by the process of mitosis or meiosis,
followed by cytokinesis.
• Mitosis is the division of the cell nucleus which results in the
production of two identical daughter nuclei.
• Meiosis is a the division of the cell nucleus which results in the
production of four unidentical daughter nuclei with half of the
chromosome number of the parent cell.
• Cytokinesis is the division of the cytoplasm into two.
5.1
Mitosis
Significance of mitosis
• Increase number of cells for growth
• Replacing dead or worn out cells, such as blood cells, epithelial cells
• Repair injured organs and regenerate lost parts, such as tail of a lizard
• Asexual reproduction
• Binary fission in Amoeba
• Budding in yeast
• Vegetative reproduction in plants using rhizomes, tubers and bulbs
The M phase (mitosis and
cytokinesis)
• Mitosis can be subdivided
into four continuous phases:
prophase, metaphase,
anaphase and telophase.
• Following telophase,
cytokinesis occurs.
Prophase
• In the nucleus, chromosomes condense,
appear shorter and thicker and are
visible under the light microscope.
• In the cytoplasm, spindle fibres begin to
form from the centrioles. Each pair of
centrioles migrates to the opposite site
poles of the cell.
• The chromatids are attached to the
spindle fibres by their centrome
• RES.

• res 着 TThe nucleolus disappears and

Metaphase
• Centromeres of all the chromosome are
lined up on the metaphase plate.
• The mitotic spindle is now fully formed.
• Each sister chromatid is attached to a
spindle fibre originated from opposite
pole.
Anaphase
• The two sister chromatids of each
chromosome separate at the centrode.
• The sister chromatids are pulled apart to
the opposite poles by the shortening of the
spindle fibres.
• Once separated, the chromatids are
referred as daughter chromosomes.
• By the end of anaphase, two poles of the
cell have complete and equivalent set of
chromosomes.
Telophase
• The chromosomes uncoil and revert back
to extended chromatin.
• The chromosomes become less visible
under the microscope.
• The spindle fibres disappear.
• New nuclear membrane forms.
• Nucleolus re-forms in each nucleus.
Cytokinesis in
animal
• In animal cell, actin filaments in the
cytoplasm contracts to pull a ring of the
plasma membrane inwards, forming a
groove called a cleavage furrow.
• Eventually the cell breaks at the
constricted region and two daughter
cells are form.
Cytokinesis in
plant
• In the plant cells, vesicles gather at a
plant cells equator to form a cell plate.
• The cell plate grow until it fuses to
from new cell walls and plasma
membrane.
Mitosis
Summary
Comparison of mitosis in plant and
animal
• Similarities
• Involves interphase, prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase, cytokinesis
• Nucleus divides once and cytoplasm divide once
• Daughter cells are genetically identical to the parent cells.
• Differences
Animal cell Plant cell
Spindle threads emerge from Spindle threads do not emerge from
centrioles. centrioles.
Cytokinesis occurs by constriction of Cytokinesis occurs by the formation of
the cytoplasm – cleavage furrow is cell plate.
formed.
Importance of controlled mitosis
• Correct number of chromosomes is
obtained by the daughter cell
• Correct growth, development and
maintenance of tissues
• To avoid presence of cancerous cells that
divide uncontrollably and form tumour

Left: Atomic-force microscopy

(AFM) maps of adhesion of
the AFM probe to the cell
surface of (a) normal, (b)
immortal (premalignant), and
(c) cancer cells. SEM images
of
(d) normal, (e) immortal, and Top, Spectral karyogram of normal human male chromosomes.
(f) cancer cells. AFM provided Image by Nallasivam Palanisamy, Ph.D., Michigan Center for
a higher 3D resolution Translational Pathology. Bottom, Spectral karyogram of a
compared to SEM. [Sokolov et breast cancer cell line. Image by Mira Grigorova and Paul
al, New Journal of Physics] Edwards
 Application of mitosis:
cloning
• Cloning is the process of producing
genetically identical organisms through
asexual reproducing, such as budding,
binary fission, grafting, stem cuttings and
tissue culture.
• Tissue culture is the growth of tissues and
cells in sterile culture medium.
• Plant cells will form undifferentiated
callus, but later can developed into
embryo, plantlets and adult plant.
• Genetic engendering can altered the genes
of the plant to enhance crop performance.
Application of mitosis: animal
cloning
• Animal cloning
involves the transfer of
the nucleus from a
somatic cell to an
ovum or embryonic
cell with the nucleus
removed.
5.2
Meiosis
Meiosis
• Meiosis is a type of cell division that reduces the number of
chromosomes in the parent cell by half and produces four gamete
cells.
• This process is required to produce egg and sperm cells for sexual
reproduction.
• Sexual reproduction involves the fusion of two haploid gametes
(n)
during fertilization to produce a diploid zygote (2n).
• Meiosis is divided into meiosis I and meiosis II.
 Meiosis
•I Meiosis I takes place after the interphase.
• Here, gene recombination occurs here to generate diversity in the
offspring.
• The chromosomal number is reduced in the daughter cells produced
in meiosis I.
 Prophase I
• The chromosomes condensed.
• The homologous chromosomes come
together to form bivalents (tetrads) through a
process called synapsis. 「

• Non-sister chromatids exchange segments of

DNA in a process called crossing over.
• The point at which the chromatids cross over
is called chiasmata. At the end of
prophase I, the nucleolus and nuclear
membrane disappear, centrioles migrate to
the opposite poles of the cell and spindle
fibre form.
Crossing over of homologous chromosome
Metaphase I
• The chromosome are lined up side by side
as tetrads on the metaphase plate.
• Each tetrad is attached with two spindle
fibre from the opposite pole.
• The centromere does not divide.
Anaphase
I
• The spindle fibres pull the homologous
chromosome away.
• Each chromosome still consists of two
sister chromatids.
Telophase
I
• Each pole has a haploid daughter nucleus
because it contains only one set of
chromosome.
• The spindle fibres dissapear.
• The nuclear membrane and nucleolus
reappear.
• Cytokinesis usually occurs simultaneously
with telophase I.
Meiosis
II
• Meiosis II generally occurs immediately after cytokinesis, usually with
no interphase between them.
• The chromatids still have two sister chromatids.
• In meiosis II, the sister chromatids will be separated.
Prophase
II
• Chromosome condensed.
• The nuclear membranes disintegrate.
• Spindle fibres reformed.
Metaphase II
• The chromosome are rearranged in the
metaphase plate with the sister
chromatids of each chromosome pointing
towards the opposite poles.
• Each sister chromatid is attached to the
spindle fibres at the centromere.
Anaphase II
• The centromeres of the sister chromatids
separate.
• The sister chromatids become individual
chromosome.
• The chromosomes movet owards the
opposite poles of the cell.
Telophase II
• Nucleolus and nuclear membrane reform.
• Spindle fibre break down.
• Cytokinesis occurs after telophase II.
• The daughter cells are haploid.
Meiosis I
summary

The cells are haploid.

Meiosis II
summary
Comparison between mitosis and meiosis
Mitosis
One nuclear division
Two diploid daughter cell
Daughter cells identical to parent cell
No genetic variation in daughter cells
Meiosis
Two nuclear division
Four haploid daughter cell
Daughter cells unlike parent cell
Genetic variation in daughter cells
5.3
Appreciating
the movement
of
chromosomes
during mitosis
and meiosis
Mutation
• Mutation is the permanent alteration of the nucleotide sequence of
the genome of an organism, virus, or extrachromosomal DNA or other
genetic elements.
• Radiation, carcinogenic chemicals such as nicotine, and food
preservations (sodium nitrite, benzene, formaldehyde ) are known
to cause changes to the DNA molecule or disturb mitosis and
meiosis.
• Mitosis and meiosis gone awry can lead to mutation.
 Down’s Syndrome
• Down syndrome is usually caused by an error in
cell division called "nondisjunction."
• Nondisjunction is the failure of one or more pairs
of homologous chromosomes or sister chromatids
to separate normally during anaphase I or II.
• Nondisjunction results in an embryo with three
copies of chromosome 21 instead of the usual
two.
• Characteristic of affected individuals have slanted
eyes, short stature and mental retardation.
 Summar
•yTwo main phrases in the cell cycle is:
• Interphase – cell grows and prepares for cell division
• Cell division (M phase) – cell divides its nucleus and cytoplasm
• Mitosis is the division of the cell nucleus which results in the
production of two identical daughter nuclei.
• Meiosis is a the division of the cell nucleus which results in the
production of four unidentical daughter nuclei with half of the
chromosome number of the parent cell.
• Down’s syndrome is usually caused by an error in meiosis.
Characteristic of affected individuals have slanted eyes, short stature
and mental retardation.