GENERAL BIOLOGY NOTES

1.0
What is Biology?
The study of living organisms, divided into many specialized fields that cover their morphology,
physiology, anatomy, behavior, origin, and distribution.

BIOLOGY FOLLOWS A RIGID SET OF RULES TO STUDY VARIOUS DISCIPLINES.

CELL THEORY

Biology follows a rigid

set of rules to study
various disciplines

 Observations: what our sense tell us: sight, sound, smell, taste, and touch.
- we can use tools like the microscope to help us.
- do not confuse conclusions (assumptions based on observations) with observations.
- results in collecting data (recorded observations)
 Hypothesis: a possible explanation for a set of observations.
- this serves as a prediction about the outcome of an experiment.

Characteristics of a good HYPOTHESIS:

1. Stated in declarative form.
2. Stated in definite terms for the relationship between variables.
3. Should reflect the theory it is based upon.
4. Should be brief and to the point.
5. Should be testable.

1.1 THE CELL THEORY

Characteristics of life forms:
1. Ability to gather and use energy by nutrient uptake and processing.
2. Maintaining internal balance by excretion and homeostasis.
3. Responding to stimuli.
4. Adapting and evolving in its environmental [ motility, irritability, individual and evolutionary
adaptation.]
5. Reproducing by growth and development, reproduction (passing down traits)

THREE PARTS OF THE CELL THEORY

The Cell Theory The cell theory holds some very basic and important claims that are essential
to our concept of life on Earth. According to this theory, the cell serves as the structural, physiological,
systemic, and organizational unit of life. The three postulates of the cell theory are:
 All living things are made of cell (Matthias Schleiden)
 Cells are the smallest unit of life (Theodor Schwann)
 Cells come from another cell (Rudolf Carl Virchow)

Virchow postulated that every cell originated from a preexisting cell via cell division.

Five characteristics are used to define life. All living things share these characteristics. All
living things:
-are made of one or more cells.
-need energy to stay alive.
-respond to stimuli in their environment.
-grow and reproduce.
-maintain a stable internal environment.
- Every single plant were all made of cells
- All animals were made of cells.

CHARACTERISTICS OF A LIVING ORGANISMS

All living organisms share several key characteristics or functions: order, sensitivity or response to the
environment, reproduction, growth and development, regulation, homeostasis, and energy
processing. When viewed together, these characteristics serve to define life.
 ORDER
Organisms are highly organized, coordinated structures that consist of one or more cells. Even very
simple, single-celled organisms are remarkably complex: inside each cell, atoms make up molecules;
these in turn make up cell organelles and other cellular inclusions. In multicellular organisms, similar
cells form tissues. Tissues, in turn, collaborate to create organs (body structures with a distinct
function). Organs work together to form organ systems.
 SENSITIVITY TO STIMULI
Organisms respond to diverse stimuli. For example, plants can bend toward a source of light, climb
on fences and walls, or respond to touch.
Even tiny bacteria can move toward or away from chemicals (a process called chemotaxis) or light
(phototaxis). Movement toward a stimulus is considered a positive response, while movement away
from a stimulus is considered a negative response.
 REPRODUCTION
Single-celled organisms reproduce by first duplicating their DNA, and then dividing it equally as the
cell prepares to divide to form two new cells. Multicellular organisms often produce specialized
reproductive germline cells that will form new individuals. When reproduction occurs, genes
containing DNA are passed along to an organism’s offspring. These genes ensure that the offspring
will belong to the same species and will have similar characteristics, such as size and shape.
 GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
Organisms grow and develop following specific instructions coded for by their genes. These genes
provide instructions that will direct cellular growth and development, ensuring that a species’ young
will grow up to exhibit many of the same characteristics as its parents.
 ADAPTATION
All living organisms exhibit a “fit” to their environment. Biologists refer to this fit as adaptation, and it is
a consequence of evolution by natural selection, which operates in every lineage of reproducing
organisms. All adaptations enhance the reproductive potential of the individuals exhibiting them,
including their ability to survive to reproduce. Adaptations are not constant. As an environment
changes, natural selection causes the characteristics of the individuals in a population to track those
changes.
 REGULATION/HOMEOSTASIS
Even the smallest organisms are complex and require multiple regulatory mechanisms to coordinate
internal functions, respond to stimuli, and cope with environmental stresses. Two examples of internal
functions regulated in an organism are nutrient transport and blood flow. Organs (groups of tissues
working together) perform specific functions, such as carrying oxygen throughout the body, removing
wastes, delivering nutrients to every cell, and cooling the body. In order to function properly, cells
require appropriate conditions such as proper temperature, pH, and appropriate concentration of
diverse chemicals. These conditions may, however, change from one moment to the next. Organisms
are able to maintain internal conditions within a narrow range almost constantly, despite
environmental changes, through homeostasis (literally, “steady state”). For example, an organism
needs to regulate body temperature through the thermo regulation process. Organisms that live in
cold climates, such as the polar bear, have body structures that help them withstand low
temperatures and conserve body heat. Structures that aid in this type of insulation include fur,
feathers, blubber, and fat. In hot climates, organisms have methods (such as perspiration in humans
or panting in dogs) that help them to shed excess body heat.
 ENERGY PROCESSING
All organisms use a source of energy for their metabolic activities. Some organisms capture energy
from the sun and convert it into chemical energy in food. Others use chemical energy in molecules
they take in as food
 EVOLUTION
The diversity of life on Earth is a result of mutations, or random changes in hereditary material over
time. These mutations allow the possibility for organisms to adapt to a changing environment. An
organism that evolves characteristics fit for the environment will have greater reproductive success,
subject to the forces of natural selection.

LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION OF LIFE

- All molecules, including the DNA molecule, are composed of atoms
Living things are highly organized and structured, following a hierarchy that we can examine
on a scale from small to large. The atom is the smallest and most fundamental unit of matter. It
consists of a nucleus surrounded by electrons. Atoms form molecules. A molecule is a chemical
structure consisting of at least two atoms held together by one or more chemical bonds. Many
molecules that are biologically important are macromolecules, large molecules that are typically
formed by polymerization (a polymer is a large molecule that is made by combining smaller units
called monomers, which are simpler than macromolecules). An example of a macromolecule is
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), which contains the instructions for the structure and functioning of all
living organisms.
Some cells contain aggregates of macromolecules surrounded by membranes. We call these
organelles. Organelles are small structures that exist within cells. Examples of organelles include
mitochondria and chloroplasts, which carry out indispensable functions: mitochondria produce energy
to power the cell, while chloroplasts enable green plants to utilize the energy in sunlight to make
sugars. All living things are made of cells. The cell itself is the smallest fundamental unit of structure
and function in living organisms. (This requirement is why scientists do not consider viruses living:
they are not made of cells. To make new viruses, they have to invade and hijack the reproductive
mechanism of a living cell. Only then can they obtain the materials they need to reproduce.) Some
organisms consist of a single cell and others are multicellular. Scientists classify cells as prokaryotic
or eukaryotic. Prokaryotes are single-celled or colonial organisms that do not have membrane-bound
nuclei. In contrast, the cells of eukaryotes do have membrane-bound organelles and a membrane-
bound nucleus. In larger organisms, cells combine to make tissues, which are groups of similar cells
carrying out similar or related functions. Organs are collections of tissues grouped together
performing a common function. Organs are present not only in animals but also in plants. An organ
system is a higher level of organization that consists of functionally related organs. Mammals have
many organ systems. For instance, the circulatory system transports blood through the body and to
and from the lungs. It includes organs such as the heart and blood vessels. Organisms are individual
living entities. For example, each tree in a forest is an organism. Single-celled prokaryotes and single-
celled eukaryotes are also organisms, which biologists typically call microorganisms. Biologists
collectively call all the individuals of a species living within a specific area a population. For example,
a forest may include many pine trees, which represent the population of pine trees in this forest.
Different populations may live in the same specific area. For example, the forest with the pine trees
includes populations of flowering plants, insects, and microbial populations. A community is the sum
of populations inhabiting a particular area. For instance, all of the trees, flowers, insects, and other
populations in a forest form the forest’s community. The forest itself is an ecosystem. An ecosystem
consists of all the living things in a particular area together with the abiotic, nonliving parts of that
environment such as nitrogen in the soil or rain water. At the highest level of organization, the
biosphere is the collection of all ecosystems, and it represents the zones of life on Earth. It includes
land, water, and even the atmosphere to a certain extent.

CAREERS ON BIOLOGY
The scope of biology is broad and therefore contains many branches and subdisciplines. Biologists
may pursue one of those subdisciplines and work in a more focused field. For instance, molecular
biology (MOLECULAR BIOLOGIST) and biochemistry (BIOCHEMIST) study biological processes at
the molecular and chemical level, including interactions among molecules such as DNA, RNA, and
proteins, as well as the way they are regulated. Microbiology (MICROBIOLOGIST), the study of
microorganisms, is the study of the structure and function of single-celled organisms. It is quite a
broad branch itself, and depending on the subject of study, there are also microbial physiologists,
ecologists, and geneticists, among others.
Forensic science is the application of science to answer questions related to the law. Biologists as
well as chemists and biochemists can be forensic scientists. Forensic scientists provide scientific
evidence for use in courts, and their job involves examining trace materials associated with crimes.
Another field of biological study, neurobiology, studies the biology of the nervous system, and
although it is a branch of biology, it is also an interdisciplinary field of study known as neuroscience.
Because of its interdisciplinary nature, this subdiscipline studies different nervous system functions
using molecular, cellular, developmental, medical, and computational approaches.

 OCULAR LENS - magnifies the image produced by the microscope's objective so that it can be
seen by the human eye.
 OBJECTIVE LENS - directly observe the object the microscope user is examining.
 ARM - supports the body tube.
 STAGE - The flat platform that supports the slides. Stage clips hold the slides in place.
 COARSE FOCUS - used to bring the specimen into approximate or near focus.
 FINE FOCUS - Use the fine focus knob to sharpen the focus quality of the image after it has been
brought into focus with the coarse focus knob.
 BASE - It acts as microscopes support. It also carries microscopic illuminators.

1.2 ORIGIN OF LIFE

THEORIES ON THE ORIGIN OF LIFE
 Divine Theory (for a person to be moral he is to follow God's commands)
- Divine Command Theory is the view that morality is somehow dependent upon God, and that moral
obligation consists in obedience to God’s commands. Divine Command Theory includes the claim
that morality is ultimately based on the commands or character of God, and that the morally right
action is the one that God commands or requires. The specific content of these divine commands
varies according to the particular religion and the particular views of the individual divine command
theorist, but all versions of the theory hold in common the claim that morality and moral obligations
ultimately depend on God.
- Creationists believe that the earth is young, and that organisms are fixed, every organism that we
see today is the same organism that God created a few thousands of years ago.

 Spontaneous Generation Theory

- The hypothetical process by which living organisms develop from nonliving matter; also, the archaic
theory that utilized this process to explain the origin of life. According to that theory, pieces of cheese
and bread wrapped in rags and left in a dark corner, for example, were thus thought to produce mice,
because after several weeks there were mice in the rags. Many believed in spontaneous generation
because it explained such occurrences as the appearance of maggots on decaying meat.
- In 1668, Francesco Redi, an Italian scientist, designed a scientific experiment to test the
spontaneous creation of maggots by placing fresh meat in each of two different jars. One jar was left
open; the other was covered with a cloth. Days later, the open jar contained maggots, whereas the
covered jar contained no maggots. He did note that maggots were found on the exterior surface of
the cloth that covered the jar. Redi successfully demonstrated that the maggots came from fly eggs
and thereby helped to disprove spontaneous generation.

- Or so he thought. In England, John Needham challenged Redi's findings by conducting an

experiment in which he placed a broth, or gravy, into a bottle, heated the bottle to kill anything inside,
then sealed it. Days later, he reported the presence of life in the broth and announced that life had
been created from nonlife. In actuality, he did not heat it long enough to kill all the microbes.
- Lazzaro Spallanzani, also an Italian scientist, reviewed both Redi's and Needham's data and
experimental design and concluded that perhaps Needham's heating of the bottle did not kill
everything inside. He constructed his own experiment by placing broth in each of two separate
bottles, boiling the broth in both bottles, then sealing one bottle and leaving the other open. Days
later, the unsealed bottle was teeming with small living things that he could observe more clearly with
the newly invented microscope. The sealed bottle showed no signs of life. This certainly excluded
spontaneous generation as a viable theory. Except it was noted by scientists of the day that
Spallanzani had deprived the closed bottle of air, and it was thought that air was necessary for
spontaneous generation. So although his experiment was successful, a strong rebuttal blunted his
claims.

Louis Pasteur, the notable French scientist, accepted the challenge to re-create the experiment and
leave the system open to air. He subsequently designed several bottles with S-curved necks that
were oriented downward so gravity would prevent access by airborne foreign materials. He placed a
nutrient-enriched broth in one of the goose-neck bottles, boiled the broth inside the bottle, and
observed no life in the jar for one year. He then broke off the top of the bottle, exposing it more
directly to the air, and noted life-forms in the broth within days. He noted that as long as dust and
other airborne particles were trapped in the S-shaped neck of the botte, no life was created until this
obstacle was removed. He reasoned that the contamination came from life-forms in the air. Pasteur
finally convinced the learned world that even if exposed to air, life did not arise from nonlife.
 Biogenesis Theory
- Biogenesis postulates the production of new living organisms from pre-existing life.
- Biogenesis is based on the theory that life can only come from life, and it refers to any process by
which a lifeform can give rise to other lifeforms. For instance, a chicken laying eggs, which hatch and
become baby chicken. (PASTEUR’S EXPERIMENT SHOWED BIOGENESIS)
 Abiogenesis Theory
- the idea that life arose from nonlife more than 3.5 billion years ago on Earth. Abiogenesis proposes
that the first life-forms generated were very simple and through a gradual process became
increasingly complex.

The Miller-Urey
experiment
was the first attempt to scientifically explore ideas about the origin of life. Stanley Miller simulated
conditions thought be common on the ancient Earth. The purpose was to test the idea that the
complex molecules of life (in this case, amino acids) could have arisen on our young planet through
simple, natural chemical reactions.

The experiment was a success in that amino acids, the building blocks of life, were produced during
the simulation. The finding was so significant that it kick-started an entirely new field of study:
Prebiotic Chemistry.
Scientists now have reason to believe that the gases used in the Miller-Urey simulation were not
actually the same as those of the ancient atmosphere. Because of this, many experiments have since
been done, testing a wide variety of atmospheres and different environmental conditions. The results
are overwhelming: the molecules of life can form under a wide variety of ancient Earth-like conditions.

Many questions about the origin of life remain to be answered but these findings give strong support
to the idea that the first living cells on Earth may have emerged from natural chemical reactions.

In the 1950's, biochemists Stanley Miller and Harold Urey conducted an experiment which
demonstrated that several organic compounds could be formed spontaneously (through abiogenesis)
by simulating the conditions of Earth's early atmosphere.

1.3 PROKARYOTES AND EUKARYOTES: KEY

ORGANELLES

PROKARYOTE - Are organisms of the domains Bacteria and Archaea

EUKARYOTE - Are organisms of the domain EUKARYA (protists or protoctists, plants, fungi, and
animals)

Prokaryotes are simple, small cells, whereas eukaryotic cells are complex, large
structured and are present in trillions which can be single celled or multicellular. Prokaryotic cells do
not have a well-defined nucleus but DNA molecule is located in the cell, termed as
nucleoid, whereas eukaryotic cells have a well-defined nucleus, where genetic material is
stored. Based on the structure and functions, cells are broadly classified as Prokaryotic cell and
Eukaryotic cell.

Prokaryotic Cells are the most primitive kind of cells and lack few features as compared to the
eukaryotic cell. Eukaryotic cells have evolved from prokaryotic cells only but contain different types of
organelles like Endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi body, Mitochondria etc., which are specific in their
functions. But features like growth, response, and most importantly giving birth to the young
ones are the commonly shared by all living organisms.

COMMON MISTAKES AND MISCONCEPTIONS

Eukaryotes can be unicellular - Many people think that eukaryotes are all multicellular, but
this is not the case. While prokaryotes are always unicellular organisms, eukaryotes can be either
unicellular or multicellular. For example, most protists are single celled eukaryotes.

Even though prokaryotes do not have a nucleus, they DO contain genetic information.
Prokaryotes generally have single circular chromosomes where they store their genetic information.
Though they sound negative, bacteria are very important, though they cause diseases
they also play significant roles which are beneficial for mankind. Some of these roles are the
following:

a. Decomposers
b. Ancient producer of oxygen
c. Aids in digestion
d. Help in Nitrogen Cycle
e. Vector for genetic engineering purposes

Bacteria are classified under prokaryotic organism. It is separated from plants and animals which
have eukaryotic cell for several reasons.

CHARACTETISTICS OF PROKARYOTIC CELLS

Pro means ‘old,’ and karyon means ‘nucleus,’ So as the name suggest the history of the
evolution of prokaryotic cells is at least 3.5 billion years old, but they are still important to us in many
aspects like they are used in industries for fermentation (Lactobacillus, Streptococcus), for
research work, etc. In comparison to eukaryotic cells, they lack few organelles and are not
advanced as eukaryotes.

GENERALIZED STRUCTURE OF
PROKARYOTIC CELLS

a. Glycocalyx: This layer function as a

receptor, the adhesive also provide protection to
the cell wall.
b. Nucleoid: It is the location of the genetic
material (DNA),large DNA molecule is
condensed into the small packet.
c. Pilus: Hair like hollow attachment present
on the surface of bacteria, and is used to
transfers of DNA to other cells during cell-cell adhesion.
d. Mesosomes: It is the extension of the cell membrane, unfolded into the cytoplasm their role is
during the cellular respiration.
e. Flagellum: Helps in movement, attached to the basal body of the cell.
f. Cell Wall: It provides rigidity and support for the cell.
g. Fimbriae: Helps in attachment to the surface and other bacteria while mating. These are small
hair-like structure.
h. Inclusion/Granules: It helps in storage of carbohydrates, glycogen,phosphate, fats in the form of
particles which can be used when needed.
i. Ribosomes: Tiny particles which help in protein synthesis.
j. Cell membrane: Thin layer of protein and lipids, surrounds cytoplasm and regulate the flow of
materials inside and outside the cells.
k. Endospore: It helps cell in surviving during harsh conditions. In terms of peptidoglycan
present in the cell wall, prokaryotes can be divided into Gram-positive and Gram -negative
bacteria. The former contains a large amount of peptidoglycan in their cell wall while the latter have
the thin layer

CHARACTETISTICS OF EUKARYOTIC CELLS

Eu means ‘new,’ and karyon means ‘nucleus,’ so these are the advanced type of cells
found in plant, animals, and fungi. Eukaryotic cells have a well-defined nucleus and different
organelles to perform different functions within the cell, though working is complex to understand.

Animals - centrioles
Plants - Cell wall, chloroplasts