LESSON OBJECTIVES FOR END OF YEAR EXAM MYP4 BIOLOGY

UNIT 1 CELLS
• Explain the definition of "living" based on the cell theory.
The cell theory states that all living organisms are composed of one or more
cells, and that cells are the basic unit of structure and function in living
organisms. Therefore, based on the cell theory, the definition of "living" can be
described as any entity that is composed of one or more cells and has the
ability to carry out the basic functions of life, such as metabolism, growth,
reproduction, response to stimuli, and adaptation to the environment.

Cells are the smallest units that can perform all of these functions, so any
entity that lacks cells, or whose cells are no longer alive, would not be
considered living. For example, a virus is not considered a living organism
because it is not composed of cells and cannot carry out all the functions of
life on its own. In contrast, a multicellular organism, such as a human being or
a plant, is composed of many cells that work together to carry out the
functions of life.

• Explain unicellular and multicellular organisms.

Unicellular organisms are living entities that are made up of only one cell.
These cells are often microscopic in size and carry out all of the functions of
life on their own. Examples of unicellular organisms include bacteria, yeast,
and protozoa.

Multicellular organisms, on the other hand, are composed of many cells that
work together to carry out the functions of life. These organisms range in size
from small organisms, such as insects and worms, to larger organisms, such
as humans and trees. Each cell in a multicellular organism is specialized to
carry out a specific function, such as digestion, respiration, or movement, and
cells are organized into tissues, organs, and organ systems that work together
to maintain the health of the organism.

While unicellular organisms can survive on their own, multicellular organisms

require the coordination of many cells to survive and reproduce. The cells in a
multicellular organism communicate with each other through chemical signals
and coordinate their activities to maintain the health of the organism as a
whole. Multicellularity has allowed organisms to evolve complex structures
and behaviors that would not be possible in a unicellular organism, making
multicellularity an important feature of many organisms on Earth.

• Describe the structures and functions of organelles in eukaryotic cells.

Eukaryotic cells are complex cells that contain a variety of membrane-bound
organelles, each with a specific structure and function. Here are some of the
most important organelles in eukaryotic cells:

Nucleus:
The nucleus is the control center of the cell, containing the genetic material
(DNA) that regulates cellular activities. It is surrounded by a double membrane
called the nuclear envelope, and it contains the nucleolus, which is responsible
for making ribosomes.
Mitochondria:
Mitochondria are organelles responsible for energy production through the
process of cellular respiration. They have their own DNA and are surrounded
by a double membrane, with an inner membrane that is highly folded to
increase the surface area for energy production.

Endoplasmic reticulum (ER):

The ER is a network of membranes that helps with protein and lipid synthesis,
transport, and modification. It can be divided into rough ER, which is studded
with ribosomes and involved in protein synthesis, and smooth ER, which lacks
ribosomes and is involved in lipid synthesis and detoxification.

Golgi apparatus:
The Golgi apparatus is responsible for packaging, modifying, and transporting
proteins and lipids. It is made up of flattened stacks of membranes called
cisternae.

Lysosomes:
Lysosomes are membrane-bound organelles containing digestive enzymes
that break down waste materials and cellular debris.

Vacuoles:
Vacuoles are membrane-bound organelles responsible for storing water,
nutrients, and waste materials. They are particularly important in plant cells for
maintaining turgor pressure and regulating cell growth.
These organelles work together to carry out various cellular functions such as
energy production, protein synthesis, and waste disposal. Each organelle has
its own specific structure and function, and they all contribute to the overall
health and function of the cell.
• Identify and describe the similarities and differences between plant and
animal cells.
Plant and animal cells share some similarities but also have several distinct
differences. Here are some of the key similarities and differences:

Similarities:
Both plant and animal cells are eukaryotic cells, meaning they have a nucleus
and other membrane-bound organelles.
Both types of cells contain a plasma membrane, cytoplasm, and various
membrane-bound organelles such as mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum,
and Golgi apparatus.
Both types of cells use ribosomes to synthesize proteins.

Differences:
Cell wall: Plant cells have a rigid cell wall composed of cellulose that provides
structural support and protection, while animal cells do not have a cell wall.
Chloroplasts: Plant cells contain chloroplasts, organelles that contain
chlorophyll and are responsible for photosynthesis, while animal cells do not
have chloroplasts.
Vacuoles: Plant cells have large central vacuoles that store water, nutrients,
and waste, while animal cells have smaller and more numerous vacuoles.
Shape: Plant cells are typically rectangular or square in shape due to their cell
wall, while animal cells are typically round or irregularly shaped.

Overall, while plant and animal cells share some similarities in their basic
structures and functions, they also have many differences due to the unique
needs of each organism. These differences allow plant and animal cells to
carry out their specific roles within their respective organisms.
• Classify components of living things as cells, tissue, organs or organ
systems.
Cells:
Cells are the basic building blocks of life and are the smallest unit of life. They
carry out all the functions necessary for life and can be classified as
prokaryotic or eukaryotic.
Tissues:
Tissues are groups of similar cells that work together to carry out a specific
function. Examples include muscle tissue, nervous tissue, and connective
tissue.
 Organs:
Organs are composed of multiple tissues that work together to perform a
specific function. Examples include the heart, liver, and lungs.
Organ Systems:
Organ systems are groups of organs that work together to perform a specific
function for the organism as a whole. Examples include the respiratory system,
digestive system, and nervous system.
In summary, cells are the smallest unit of life, tissues are groups of cells that
work together, organs are composed of multiple tissues that work together,
and organ systems are groups of organs that work together to perform
specific functions for the organism as a whole.
• Explain how vaccines work to protect the body against infection.
Vaccines work by stimulating the body's immune system to recognize and fight
specific infectious agents, such as viruses or bacteria. The immune system is
a complex network of cells, tissues, and organs that work together to defend
the body against invading pathogens.

When a vaccine is administered, it contains a small, harmless piece of the

pathogen or a weakened or inactivated form of the pathogen. This stimulates
the immune system to produce a response, including the production of
specific antibodies that can recognize and neutralize the pathogen.

The first exposure to the vaccine primes the immune system, so that if the
person is later exposed to the actual pathogen, their immune system can
quickly produce a strong response to fight it off. This response may include
the production of memory cells, which remember how to fight off the pathogen
in case of future exposures.

Vaccines are an effective way to prevent infectious diseases, as they can

provide long-lasting protection against a wide range of pathogens. When a
large portion of the population is vaccinated against a particular disease, it can
also provide herd immunity, which helps to protect those who cannot receive
vaccines, such as individuals with certain medical conditions or infants who
are too young to be vaccinated.

Overall, vaccines are a critical tool in the prevention and control of infectious
diseases, as they stimulate the body's immune system to recognize and fight
off specific pathogens, providing long-lasting protection against a wide range
of infectious agents.
 UNIT 2
ENERGY
Explain what trophic levels are
Trophic levels refer to the levels of a food chain or food web in which organisms
obtain their energy and nutrients. There are typically three main trophic levels:
producers, consumers, and decomposers.

Producers, also known as autotrophs, are organisms such as plants that can
produce their own food through photosynthesis. They are at the base of the food
chain and are the primary source of energy for all other organisms.

Consumers, also known as heterotrophs, are organisms that obtain their energy
and nutrients by consuming other organisms. They are further categorized into
primary, secondary, and tertiary consumers based on the level at which they feed
in the food chain.

Decomposers, such as bacteria and fungi, break down dead organic matter and
return nutrients back into the soil. They are essential for the recycling of
nutrients in an ecosystem.

Each trophic level is dependent on the level below it for energy and nutrients,
and energy is lost at each level due to metabolic processes and heat loss. As a
result, the number of organisms that can be supported at each level decreases
as you move up the food chain.

Calculate how much energy moves between trophic levels.

The amount of energy that moves between trophic levels can be estimated using
ecological pyramids, which represent the relative amounts of energy, biomass,
or number of organisms at each trophic level in a food chain or food web.

There are three types of ecological pyramids: pyramid of numbers, pyramid of

biomass, and pyramid of energy.

Pyramid of numbers represents the number of individuals at each trophic level.

However, this method can be misleading because the size of organisms can vary
greatly and not all organisms are of the same size.

Pyramid of biomass represents the total dry weight of all organisms at each
trophic level. This method is more accurate because it takes into account the
size of organisms and eliminates the variability caused by differences in size.
Pyramid of energy represents the amount of energy at each trophic level. This
method is the most accurate because it takes into account the actual energy
content of organisms and the amount of energy that is transferred from one
trophic level to the next.

To calculate the amount of energy that moves between trophic levels, you can
use the following formula:

Energy transferred = (Energy at higher trophic level / Energy at lower trophic

level) x 100

For example, if a producer has 10,000 units of energy and a primary consumer
has 1,000 units of energy, then the energy transferred from the producer to the
primary consumer would be:

Energy transferred = (1,000 / 10,000) x 100 = 10%

This means that only 10% of the energy stored in the producer is transferred to
the primary consumer. The rest of the energy is lost as heat or used for
metabolic processes.

Define the term classification and describe the process of classifying objects.
Observation:
The first step in classification is to observe the objects or organisms and identify
their unique characteristics.
Grouping:
Next, objects or organisms with similar characteristics are grouped together.
This creates a hierarchy of groups, with more specific groups nested within more
general groups.
Naming:
Each group is assigned a name based on its unique characteristics. The names
should be descriptive and easily understood.
Defining:
Each group is defined based on its unique characteristics. This helps to ensure
that objects or organisms are classified consistently and accurately.
Revising:
Classification is an ongoing process, and as new information becomes
available, groups may need to be revised or reorganized.
The process of classifying objects can be done in a variety of ways, depending
on the type of objects being classified. For example, in biology, organisms are
classified based on their physical characteristics, genetic makeup, and
evolutionary relationships. In library science, books are classified based on
subject matter and other criteria, such as author and publication date.

Explain the benefits of using a classification for living organisms.

 Organization:
A classification system provides an organized way to categorize living
organisms. It allows scientists and researchers to group organisms based on
shared characteristics, making it easier to study and understand them.
Identification:
A classification system helps to identify and name living organisms. Organisms
are given unique scientific names based on their classification, which helps to
avoid confusion and ensure accurate communication between researchers.
Evolutionary relationships:
Classification is based on evolutionary relationships between organisms. This
provides insight into how organisms are related to one another and can help to
predict how organisms may evolve in the future.
Conservation:
Classification helps to identify and protect endangered species. By
understanding the unique characteristics and habitats of different species,
conservation efforts can be targeted to protect these species from extinction.
Education:
Classification systems are used in education to teach students about the
diversity of life on Earth. By learning about the classification of organisms,
students gain a better understanding of the relationships between living things
and their place in the natural world.
Overall, using a classification system for living organisms is essential for
organizing and understanding the diversity of life on Earth. It provides a
framework for scientific research, conservation efforts, and education.

Define an ecosystem.
An ecosystem is a complex community of living and non-living components
interacting with each other in a particular environment. It includes all the living
organisms (biotic factors) and their physical and chemical environment (abiotic
factors) within a specific geographic area.

The living organisms in an ecosystem can be classified into three broad

categories based on their trophic levels: producers, consumers, and
decomposers. Producers, such as plants, use sunlight and inorganic nutrients to
produce organic matter through photosynthesis. Consumers, such as herbivores,
carnivores, and omnivores, obtain their energy and nutrients by consuming other
organisms. Decomposers, such as bacteria and fungi, break down dead organic
matter and recycle nutrients back into the ecosystem.

The abiotic factors in an ecosystem include physical and chemical components,

such as air, water, soil, sunlight, temperature, and nutrients. These factors
interact with each other and with the biotic factors to create a complex and
dynamic ecosystem.
Ecosystems can vary in size and complexity, ranging from a small pond to a
large rainforest. Each ecosystem is unique, with its own set of organisms and
physical and chemical characteristics. The interactions between living and non-
living components in an ecosystem are essential for maintaining the balance of
nature and supporting life on Earth.
Describe the components of an ecosystem
An ecosystem is made up of two main components: biotic (living) and abiotic
(non-living) factors.

Biotic factors include all living organisms within an ecosystem. These include:

Producers:
Producers are organisms that create their own food through photosynthesis,
such as plants, algae, and some bacteria. They are the foundation of the food
chain and provide energy to all other organisms in the ecosystem.
Consumers:
Consumers are organisms that obtain their energy by eating other organisms.
They can be further classified into primary consumers (herbivores), secondary
consumers (carnivores), and tertiary consumers (top predators). Humans are an
example of tertiary consumers.
Decomposers:
Decomposers break down dead organisms and recycle nutrients back into the
ecosystem. Examples include bacteria and fungi.

Abiotic factors include all non-living components within an ecosystem. These

include:

Atmosphere:
The layer of gases surrounding the Earth, including oxygen, carbon dioxide, and
nitrogen.
Water: The availability of water is essential for life in an ecosystem. It can exist
in various forms, including liquid, gas, and solid.
Soil:
Soil provides nutrients and support for plants and other organisms. It is
composed of minerals, organic matter, and living organisms.
Sunlight:
Sunlight is essential for photosynthesis, which provides energy for the entire
ecosystem.
Temperature:
The temperature of an ecosystem can affect the growth and reproduction of
organisms.
Climate:
Climate is the long-term weather conditions in an area, including temperature,
precipitation, and wind patterns.
These biotic and abiotic factors interact with each other in complex ways to
create a dynamic and interconnected ecosystem. Any change to one component
of the ecosystem can have ripple effects throughout the entire system.
Describe interdependent relationships between species in an ecosystem.
Interdependent relationships between species in an ecosystem are critical for
maintaining the balance of nature and supporting life on Earth. These
relationships can take several forms, including mutualism, commensalism,
parasitism, and predation.

Mutualism:
Mutualism is a relationship in which both species benefit from the interaction.
An example of mutualism is the relationship between bees and flowers. Bees
collect nectar and pollen from flowers, and in the process, they transfer pollen
from one flower to another, fertilizing the plants and allowing them to reproduce.
Commensalism:
Commensalism is a relationship in which one species benefits from the
interaction, while the other is neither helped nor harmed. An example of
commensalism is the relationship between cattle egrets and grazing cattle. The
egrets follow the cattle, eating the insects that are disturbed by the grazing,
without harming the cattle.
Parasitism:
Parasitism is a relationship in which one species benefits at the expense of the
other. An example of parasitism is the relationship between fleas and dogs. The
fleas feed on the dog's blood, causing harm to the dog in the process.
Predation:
Predation is a relationship in which one species, the predator, kills and eats the
other, the prey. An example of predation is the relationship between lions and
zebras. Lions hunt and kill zebras for food.

These interdependent relationships are essential for the survival of many

species in an ecosystem. They help to maintain the balance of nature by
regulating populations, controlling diseases, and recycling nutrients. Any
disturbance to these relationships can have far-reaching consequences for the
entire ecosystem.

Explain the water cycle in terms of the processes that change and transport
water.
The water cycle, also known as the hydrological cycle, describes the continuous
movement of water on, above, and below the surface of the Earth. The cycle
involves a series of processes that change and transport water between the
atmosphere, land, and oceans.

Evaporation:
Evaporation is the process by which water changes from a liquid to a gas,
primarily from the surface of the oceans, lakes, and rivers. The sun's energy
heats the water, causing it to evaporate and rise into the atmosphere as water
vapor.
Condensation:
As the water vapor rises, it cools and condenses into tiny water droplets or ice
crystals, forming clouds.
Precipitation:
When the water droplets or ice crystals in the clouds become too heavy, they fall
back to the Earth's surface as precipitation. Precipitation can take various forms,
such as rain, snow, sleet, or hail.
Infiltration: Some of the precipitation seeps into the ground and becomes
groundwater. Groundwater can be stored in underground aquifers or surface
water bodies, such as lakes and rivers.
Surface runoff:
The remaining precipitation flows over the surface of the land, into rivers and
streams, and ultimately to the oceans.
Transpiration:
Transpiration is the process by which water evaporates from plants and enters
the atmosphere. The water is absorbed by the plant roots and transported to the
leaves, where it evaporates through small pores called stomata.
The water cycle is a continuous and dynamic process that is driven by solar
energy and influenced by various physical, biological, and geological factors. It
plays a crucial role in maintaining the balance of nature and supporting life on
Earth by providing freshwater for drinking, agriculture, and industry, regulating
climate, and shaping the landscape.

Identify water’s changes in state through the water cycle.

Evaporation:
Evaporation is the process by which liquid water changes into water vapor, which
is a gas. This occurs when heat from the sun causes the water in oceans, lakes,
and rivers to evaporate into the atmosphere. Water can also evaporate from
plants through a process called transpiration.
Condensation:
Condensation is the process by which water vapor changes into liquid water.
This occurs when the water vapor in the atmosphere cools and forms clouds.
The process of condensation is important in the formation of precipitation, as
the water droplets in clouds eventually grow larger and heavier, causing them to
fall as rain, snow, or sleet.
Freezing/Melting:
Freezing is the process by which liquid water changes into ice, which is a solid.
This occurs when the temperature of liquid water is lowered below freezing
point, which is 0 degrees Celsius or 32 degrees Fahrenheit. Melting is the
opposite process, in which ice changes back into liquid water when the
temperature is raised above freezing point. Both freezing and melting are
important processes in the water cycle, as they affect the amount of water
stored as ice in glaciers and polar ice caps.
Examine the impact of human activity on the water cycle.
Deforestation:
Deforestation removes trees, which are important in the water cycle as they help
to absorb and store water in the soil. As a result, deforested areas are more
susceptible to flooding and drought.
Urbanization:
Urbanization involves the replacement of natural vegetation with concrete and
asphalt, which reduce the amount of water that can infiltrate into the ground.
This can lead to increased runoff and flooding, as well as decreased
groundwater recharge.
Agricultural practices:
Agriculture is a major user of water, and irrigation systems can alter the natural
water cycle by diverting water from rivers and aquifers. Overuse of water
resources for irrigation can also lead to the depletion of groundwater reserves.
Climate change:
Climate change is altering the water cycle by changing the frequency and
intensity of precipitation, as well as the rate of evaporation. This can lead to
more frequent and severe droughts and floods, and impact water availability for
human and ecosystem needs.
Pollution:
Human activities such as industrialization and urbanization can lead to pollution
of water resources, which can impact the quality of water available for various
uses. Polluted water can also impact the health of aquatic ecosystems and
reduce their ability to support life.

Describe the steps of the carbon cycle

Photosynthesis:
Carbon enters the biotic component of the ecosystem through photosynthesis.
Plants take in carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and convert it into organic
compounds, such as glucose, using the energy from the sun.
Respiration:
The process of respiration by plants and animals releases carbon dioxide back
into the atmosphere. During respiration, organic compounds are broken down to
release energy, and carbon dioxide and water are produced as byproducts.
Decomposition:
When plants and animals die, their bodies decompose and release carbon
dioxide into the atmosphere. Decomposition is the process by which
microorganisms break down organic matter, such as dead leaves and animals,
into simpler compounds.
Combustion:
Combustion is the process of burning fossil fuels, such as coal, oil, and gas, to
release energy. This process releases large amounts of carbon dioxide into the
atmosphere, which contributes to climate change.
Sedimentation and burial:
Over time, some of the carbon that enters the oceans settles to the bottom and
is buried in sediment. This process, known as sedimentation and burial, removes
carbon from the atmosphere and stores it in the Earth's crust.
Geologic uplift and weathering:
The movement of tectonic plates can cause geologic uplift, which brings rocks
containing carbon to the surface. Weathering, which is the process of breaking
down rocks, can release carbon into the atmosphere through the process of
carbon dioxide gas.
Fossilization:
Over millions of years, the buried carbon can be transformed into fossil fuels,
such as coal, oil, and gas. This process stores carbon underground, but when the
fossil fuels are burned, they release carbon dioxide back into the atmosphere.
The carbon cycle is a complex and dynamic process that plays a crucial role in
regulating the Earth's climate and supporting life on our planet.
Explain how carbon travels through the different spheres on Earth
Atmosphere:
Carbon is mainly present in the atmosphere in the form of carbon dioxide (CO2),
which is produced by natural processes such as respiration, volcanic activity,
and wildfires, as well as human activities such as burning fossil fuels. Carbon
dioxide in the atmosphere is exchanged with carbon in the biosphere and the
hydrosphere through processes such as photosynthesis and respiration.
Biosphere:
Carbon is present in the biosphere in organic compounds such as carbohydrates,
proteins, and fats, which are produced by photosynthesis in plants. Carbon is
also present in living organisms, both plants and animals, through the food
chain. When plants and animals die, the carbon in their bodies is returned to the
atmosphere through processes such as decomposition.
Hydrosphere:
Carbon is present in the hydrosphere in the form of dissolved carbon dioxide in
water, which is exchanged with the atmosphere through processes such as
diffusion and photosynthesis by aquatic plants. Carbon is also stored in the
oceans as bicarbonate ions, which is a result of the reaction between carbon
dioxide and water.
Geosphere:
Carbon is present in the geosphere in the form of fossil fuels, such as coal, oil,
and natural gas, which are formed from the remains of dead organisms that
were buried over millions of years. When these fossil fuels are burned, carbon is
released into the atmosphere.
Explain how human activity has affected the levels of carbon in the
atmosphere, and how these human influences are having a negative effect on
the Earth.
Human activities have had a significant impact on the levels of carbon in the
atmosphere. The primary way humans contribute to increasing levels of carbon
in the atmosphere is by burning fossil fuels, such as coal, oil, and natural gas, for
energy. This process releases large amounts of carbon dioxide into the
atmosphere. Deforestation, land-use changes, and intensive agriculture are other
human activities that also contribute to the increase in carbon levels.

As a result of these activities, the concentration of carbon dioxide in the

atmosphere has increased by more than 30% since the beginning of the
Industrial Revolution. This increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide is causing
global temperatures to rise, leading to climate change, which has negative
impacts on the Earth. Some of the negative effects of climate change include:

Rising sea levels:

As the Earth's temperature increases, ice sheets and glaciers melt, leading to a
rise in sea levels. This has significant impacts on coastal communities and
ecosystems.
Increased frequency and severity of extreme weather events: Climate change is
causing more frequent and intense heat waves, droughts, floods, and hurricanes,
which have severe impacts on human and animal populations.
Changes in ecosystems:
Climate change is causing changes in the timing of seasonal events, such as
migration and flowering, which can have significant impacts on ecosystems.
Ocean acidification:
As the concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increases, more
carbon dioxide dissolves in the oceans, leading to ocean acidification. This can
have negative impacts on marine life and ecosystems.
In summary, human activity has significantly increased the levels of carbon in
the atmosphere, leading to climate change, which has negative impacts on the
Earth. To mitigate the effects of climate change, it is important to reduce
greenhouse gas emissions and shift towards more sustainable practices, such
as using renewable energy sources and protecting forests and other natural
ecosystems.
Describe the steps of the nitrogen cycle.
Nitrogen Fixation:
The first step in the nitrogen cycle is nitrogen fixation, which is the process by
which nitrogen gas (N2) is converted into ammonium (NH4+) or nitrate (NO3-) by
certain bacteria called nitrogen-fixing bacteria. These bacteria live in the soil or
in symbiotic relationships with some plant species, such as legumes.

Nitrification:
Once ammonium is formed, it can be transformed into nitrite (NO2-) and then
nitrate (NO3-) by nitrifying bacteria. This process is called nitrification and
occurs in two stages: the conversion of ammonium to nitrite, and the conversion
of nitrite to nitrate.

Assimilation:
Plants and animals take up nitrogen in the form of ammonium or nitrate through
a process called assimilation. Nitrogen is an essential component of proteins
and nucleic acids, which are the building blocks of life. Therefore, plants and
animals require nitrogen to grow and reproduce.

Ammonification:
The next step in the nitrogen cycle is ammonification, which is the process by
which organic nitrogen compounds, such as proteins and nucleic acids, are
converted into ammonium by decomposer bacteria. Decomposers break down
dead organisms and return the nitrogen stored in their bodies back to the soil.

Denitrification:
The final step in the nitrogen cycle is denitrification, which is the process by
which nitrate is converted back into nitrogen gas by denitrifying bacteria. This
process occurs in oxygen-poor environments, such as wetlands and soils, and
releases nitrogen gas back into the atmosphere.
Overall, the nitrogen cycle is a complex process that involves a variety of
biological and chemical reactions that transform and recycle nitrogen in the
environment. The cycle is important for maintaining the availability of nitrogen,
which is a critical element for the growth and survival of plants and animals.
Explain how nitrogen travels through the different spheres on Earth
Nitrogen travels through different spheres on Earth primarily through the
processes involved in the nitrogen cycle. Nitrogen is primarily found in the
atmosphere, where it exists as a gas (N2). Nitrogen is then transformed and
cycled through various processes in the biosphere, geosphere, and hydrosphere.

The nitrogen cycle involves several steps, including nitrogen fixation,

nitrification, assimilation, ammonification, and denitrification. During nitrogen
fixation, nitrogen gas in the atmosphere is converted into ammonium or nitrate
by nitrogen-fixing bacteria in the soil or symbiotic relationships with certain plant
species. These plants take up the nitrogen and incorporate it into their tissues
through assimilation.

When these plants and animals die, decomposer bacteria break down their
tissues through the process of ammonification, releasing ammonium back into
the soil. This ammonium can be taken up by other plants or converted into nitrite
and then nitrate by nitrifying bacteria through nitrification. The nitrate can then
be taken up by plants through assimilation, completing the cycle.

Denitrification, which occurs in oxygen-poor environments such as wetlands and

soils, converts nitrate back into nitrogen gas, which is released back into the
atmosphere, completing the nitrogen cycle.

Nitrogen can also travel through the hydrosphere, where it is dissolved in water
as nitrate or ammonium. Nitrogen in this form can be taken up by aquatic plants
and animals or can be converted back into nitrogen gas through denitrification.
Explain how humans have influenced the nitrogen cycle, and how these human
influences are having a negative effect on the Earth.

Fertilizer use:

The use of nitrogen-based fertilizers in agriculture has significantly increased

the amount of nitrogen that enters the environment. This excess nitrogen can
cause eutrophication in water bodies, leading to harmful algal blooms and fish
kills.

Nitrogen emissions:

The combustion of fossil fuels releases nitrogen oxides into the atmosphere,
which can contribute to the formation of acid rain and smog.

Land-use changes:

Deforestation, urbanization, and other land-use changes can alter the natural
nitrogen cycle by reducing the amount of vegetation that can take up nitrogen,
and increasing the amount of nitrogen that runs off into water bodies.

Wastewater and sewage:

Human waste and sewage contain high levels of nitrogen, which can contribute
to eutrophication in water bodies if not properly treated.

These human influences on the nitrogen cycle can have negative effects on the
environment. For example, eutrophication can lead to oxygen depletion in water
bodies, which can cause fish kills and other aquatic life to die off. Acid rain and
smog can harm plants, animals, and humans, and contribute to climate change.

Moreover, excess nitrogen in the environment can also contribute to the

greenhouse effect, as nitrous oxide is a potent greenhouse gas. Nitrous oxide is
released during the processes of denitrification and fertilization, and is a major
contributor to global warming.

Overall, human influences on the nitrogen cycle can have negative impacts on
the environment, and it is important to monitor and regulate these activities to
ensure sustainable use of nitrogen resources and protect the health of
ecosystems and humans
 UNIT 3

METABOLISM

Explain what enzymes are.

Describe how enzymes work.

Justify why they are important in cells.

Define and demonstrate the meaning of diffusion and osmosis

Explain how the body can achieve a balanced diet

Explain how food reaches the cells in our bodies after it has been eaten.

Explain what gas exchange is.

Describe what occurs during the process of gas exchange.

Explain why we need a circulatory system.

Explain what the heart does and describe the structures of the heart.

Explain what homeostasis is

BIOCHEMICAL REACTIONS(Processes and Equations)

Describe what happens in chemical reactions.

State the role of energy in chemical reactions.

Explain the importance of enzymes to living organisms.

Define anaerobic respiration.

Describe the processes involved in anaerobic respiration.

State the word and symbol equations for anaerobic respiration.

Name the inputs and outputs of aerobic respiration.

Identify the locations where different stages of aerobic respiration occur.

Describe the processes undertaken in aerobic respiration.

Write word equations for biochemical reactions.(anaerobic & aerobic

respiration + photosynthesis)

Write symbol equations for biochemical reactions.

Identify the layers of a leaf, including their components and function

Explain the process of photosynthesis

List the necessary components for photosynthesis to take place

List the products of photosynthesis