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Branches of Biology: Biology, the study of life, has many aspects to it and
many specializations within this broad field. Below is list of some of the branches
of biology. Note: not required to memorize

Anatomy - the study of the animal form, with an emphasis on human bodies

Biochemistry - the study of the chemical reactions required for life to exist and
function, usually a focus on the cellular level

Biotechnology - a new and sometimes controversial branch of biology that

studies the manipulation of living matter, including genetic modification

Cytology - the study of the cell as a complete unit, and the molecular and
chemical interactions that occur within a living cell.

Epidemiology - a major component of public health research, it is the study of

factors affecting the health and illness of population

Histology - The study of cells and tissue, a microscopic branch of anatomy.

Macrobiology - the study of biology on the level of the macroscopic individual

(plant, animal, or other living being) as a complete unit.

Microbiology - the study of microscopic organisms (microorganisms) and their

interactions with other living things

Molecular Biology - the study of biology and biological functions at the

molecular level, some cross over with biochemistry

Mycology - the study of fungi

Pathobiology or pathology - the study of diseases, and the causes, processes,

nature, and development of disease

Parasitology - the study of parasites and parasitism

Pharmacology - the study and practical application of preparation, use, and

effects of drugs and synthetic medicines.

Physiology - the study of the functioning of living organisms and the organs and
parts of living organisms

Virology - the study of viruses and some other virus-like agents, usually
considered part of microbiology or pathology
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ORGANIZATION (Levels of Structure) OF LIVING THINGS

• Elements - the simplest form of matter. They cannot be broken down

chemically (the smallest units of an element are called atoms; they are the
building blocks of all matter).
• Molecules - two or more atoms combined chemically (the smallest unit of a
compound)
• Organelles - structures within cells that perform specific functions.
• Cells - the smallest unit of a living thing.
• Tissues - a group of similar cells that perform a similar function. (muscle tissue,
bone tissue, skin tissue)
• Organs - a group of tissues that work together to perform a specific task. (brain,
stomach, heart, etc.)
• Systems - a group of organs that work together to perform a specific task.
(skeletal system, digestive system, etc.)
 Organisms- complete, entire living things may exist as single cells, as simple
organisms with tissues but no organs, or they may have organs that are not
organized into organ systems. However, most organisms are made up of several
organ systems.
Some organisms are colonial; they consist of cells that live in groups, but are
separate organisms.

LIFE PROCESSES or CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE

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We use the term organism when describing a complete and entire living thing.
1. Organisms are made of cells. The number of cells may vary greatly, but the
size of the cells and types of cells are fairly uniform in all living organisms. Cells
are both structural and functional. That means that they are used as building
blocks, but also perform other functions as well. Viruses, which have some of the
other characteristics of life, are not made of cells, and
Unicellular organisms have only one cell.
Multicellular organisms have many cells.
2. Organisms are highly organized. They may contain thousands of
substances. They manufacture complex chemicals such as proteins,
carbohydrates, and fats in their cells.
3. Organisms use energy. We must have a constant supply of energy or we die.
This energy is obtained from food molecules that are either made, eaten, or
absorbed by the organism and then stored until needed. The chemical processes
used in building up and tearing down food molecules to get and use energy are
referred to as metabolism.

ENERGY PRODUCTION
ATP

METABOLISM is the sum of all the chemical reactions that occur in the body.
One phase of Metabolism called CATABOLISM provides the ENERGY needed
to sustain life by BREAKING DOWN substances such as food molecules. The
other phase called ANABOLISM uses the energy from catabolism to MAKE
various substances that form body structures and enable them to function.

ASSIMILATION is the changing of absorbed substances into forms that are

chemically different from those that entered body fluids.

4. Organisms grow and develop.

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Growth is by assimilation. (We use and incorporate materials from our

surroundings to grow more)
Development - not all parts grow in the same way or at the same rate.

DIFFERENTIATION is the process whereby unspecialized cells become specialized

cells. Specialized Cells differ in Structure and Function from the cells from which they
originated.

5. Organisms have a lifespan.

Origin - birth or beginning
Growth - organism builds tissue more rapidly than it wears out. Growth is most
rapid at the origin and slows toward maturity.
Maturity - organism builds, repairs, and replaces as fast as tissues wear out.
Decline - tissues wear out faster than they are repaired
Death - tissues wear out too rapidly to maintain life.
Typical Lifespan:
Human 72 Elephant 60 Dog 15 Snake 12 Spiders 3 Oak Tree 300
Bristlecone Pine - 4,600 years. These are the oldest living things on Earth.
6. Organisms reproduce

REPRODUCTION refers either to the formation of new cells for Growth, Repair,
or Replacement or to the making of a New Individual.

Since organisms die they must reproduce to keep the species (kind of organism)
alive. Like produces like - This means that organisms reproduce their own kind.

7. Organisms respond to stimuli.

Stimulus = anything that causes an organism to respond.
Response = any reaction to a stimulus
Irritability = the ability to respond
We detect stimuli through our senses: Sight, smell, hearing, touch, taste.
Responses to stimuli may be positive (toward) or negative (away from).

8. Organisms adjust to their environment. Environment is defined as an

organism's surroundings.
An adaptation is a change that makes it better suited to its environment.
• Short term adaptation - fur changes color in the arctic fox during winter.
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• Long term adaptation - changes occur over many generations and are inherited.
• Variation - normal differences that exist among individuals.

- Homeostasis: a self-adjusting balance of life functions. (Heartbeat, respiration,

temperature)

Homeostasis, from the Greek words for "same" and "steady," refers to any
process that living things use to actively maintain fairly stable conditions
necessary for survival. It describes how the human body maintains steady levels
of temperature and other vital conditions such as the water, salt, sugar, protein,
fat, and calcium and oxygen contents of the blood.
Homeostasis is the maintenance of a fairly constant internal environment (the
immediate surroundings of cells) in response to changes in:
 the changing conditions of the external environment.
 the changing conditions of the internal environment.
Homeostasis is a self-adjusting mechanism involving feedback where the
response to a stimulus alters the internal conditions and may itself become a new
stimulus.
Homeostasis works to maintain the organism's internal environment within
tolerance limits - the narrow range of conditions where cellular processes are
able to function at a level consistent with the continuation of life.
It is important to remember that this does not imply that homeostasis is an
unchanging state. In fact, there are constant adjustments being made to maintain
the balance where internal conditions are appropriate. These conditions are
always varying but within very narrow limits.
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Blood Sugar: Example of Homeostasis

Seen in Lab 1 also
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MAINTENANCE OF LIFE OR SURVIVAL NEEDS

1. The structures and functions of almost all body parts help maintain the Life of
the Organism. The ONLY Exceptions are an Organisms Reproductive Structures,
which ensure that its species will continue into the future.

2. Life requires certain Environmental Factors, including the following:

A. WATER this is the most abundant chemical in the body and it is required
for many metabolic processes and provides the environment in which most of
them take place. Water also transports substances within the organism and is
important in regulating body temperature.

B. FOOD the Substances that provide the body with necessary Chemicals
(Nutrients) in addition to Water. Food is used for Energy, supply the raw
materials for building new living matter, and still others help regulate vital
chemical reactions.

C. OXYGEN it is required to release Energy from food substances. This

energy, in turn, drives metabolic processes. Approximately 20% of the air we
breathe is oxygen.

D. HEAT (BODY TEMPERATURE) - a form of energy, it is a product of

Metabolic Reactions. (Normal Body Temperature is around 37 C or 98 F), both
low and high body temperatures are dangerous to the body.

E. PRESSURE (ATMOSPHERIC, 1 Atm at sea level) Necessary for breathing

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The classification of living organisms mirrors their evolutionary relationships.

We now classify living organisms into 3 Domains. Of these Eukarya contains four
Kingdoms, and humans are in the kingdom Animalia.
Domains: I. Bacteria or Eubacteria II. Archaea III. Eukarya
Both Bacteria and Archaea are Prokaryotes (without membrane-bound intracellular organelles)

I. Bacteria II. Archaea

Contain peptidoglycan in their cell No peptidoglycan in cell walls, are
walls much more common than particularly abundant in the ocean
Archaea and live almost anywhere.
(both auto /heterotrophs)

Eukaryotes below, have membrane-bound organelles in their cells which allow for
Compartmentalization and specific areas for specific functions.
III. Eukarya
Kingdoms:
1. Kingdom Protists 2. Kingdom Fungi
Unicellular eukaryotes almost entirely multicellular, heterotrophs (lack chlorophyll)
and their relatively defined in part by the nutritional mode as saprotrophs
simple multicellular relatives ex. ameba its members absorb nutrients after (digestion is outside)
decomposing organic material inside.
Ex. Yeast (a unicellular fungus), mushroom (multicellular)

3. Kingdom Plantae
Plants, which consists of
Multicellular autotrophs that
carry out photosynthesis
(Have chlorophyll)
4.Kingdom Animalia ex. humans
consists entirely of multicellular
heterotrophs (lack chlorophyll)
that ingest other living
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Organisms.

Figure 1 - Prokaryotic Cell: Bacterial cell

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Figure 2 : Eukaryotic Animal Cell

Figure 3: Eukaryotic Plant Cell (below)