ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

Introduction of Anatomy and Physiology

-WHAT IS?
Anatomy
- Study of the structure and shape of the body and its parts
- Observation is used to see sizes and relationships of parts

Two kinds of Anatomy:

A. Gross Anatomy
 Large Structures
 Easily observable and can be seen by the naked eye
B. Microscopic Anatomy
 Structures are too small to be seen
 Cells and tissues can be viewed only with a microscope
Two Approaches to The Study of Anatomy:
A. Systemic anatomy - study of the body by systems, such as the
cardiovascular, nervous, skeletal, and muscular systems
B. Regional anatomy - study of the organization of the body by
areas.

Physiology
- Study of how the body and its parts work or function
- Structure determines what functions can occur
For example, the air sacs of the lungs have very thin walls, a
feature that enables them to exchange gases and provide oxygen
HOMEOSTASIS
to the body
Homeostasis — maintenance of relatively stable internal conditions.
Two types of Physiology: It is a dynamic state of equilibrium, or balance and it is necessary for
A. Human physiology - study of a specific organism, the human normal body functioning and to sustain life. The disturbance in
B. Cellular physiology and Systemic physiology - subdivisions homeostasis results in disease is called homeostatic imbalance
Main Controlling Systems:
that emphasize specific organizational levels.
 Nervous System
Characteristics Of Life  Endocrine System
1. Organization
2. Metabolism All homeostatic control mechanisms have at least three components:
3. Responsiveness receptor, control center, and effector
4. Growth 1. Receptor
5. Development  Responds to changes in the environment (stimuli)
6. Reproduction  Sends information to control center along an afferent
pathway
Levels of Structural Organization 2. Control center
1. Atoms – The basic building block of matter and chemistry.  Determines set point
Contains three subatomic particles: protons, neutrons, and  Analyzes information
electrons.
 Determines appropriate response
2. Molecules – A group of two or more atoms that form the smallest
3. Effector
identifiable unit
 Provides a means for response to the stimulus
3. Cells – The basic unit of life and the structural, functional, and
 Information flows from control center to effector along
biological units of all living beings.
efferent pathway
4. Tissues - A group of cells that are similar in structure and perform
a specific function.
5. Organs - A group of tissues in a living organism that have been
adapted to perform a specific function.
6. Organ systems - A group of organs that work together to perform
a certain function in an organism’s body.
7. Organisms - A living thing that has an organized structure, can
react to stimuli, reproduce, grow, adapt, and maintain
homeostasis.

FEEDBACK MECHANISM
 Negative feedback
Includes most homeostatic control mechanisms
Shuts off the original stimulus or reduces its intensity
Works like a household thermostat
Any deviation from the set point is made smaller or is resisted
Does not prevent variation but maintains variation within a
normal range.

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 Positive feedback - Helps regulate body temperature
Rare in the human body - Location of cutaneous nerve receptors
Increases the original stimulus to push the variable farther Forms the external body covering; protects deeper
Reaction occurs at a faster rate tissue from injury; synthesizes vitamin D; location
In the body, positive feedback occurs in blood clotting and during of sensory receptors (pain, pressure, etc.) and sweat
the birth of a baby and oil glands.

 Skeletal System
- Consists of bones, cartilages, ligaments, and
joints
- Provides muscle attachment for movement
- Protects vital organs
- Site of blood cell formation
- Stores minerals
Protects and supports body organs; provides a
framework the muscles use to cause movement;
blood cells are formed within bones; stores
minerals.

 Muscular System
- Skeletal muscles contract (or shorten)
- Produces movement of bones
Allows manipulation of the environment,
locomotion, and facial expression; maintains
posture; produces heat.

 Nervous System
- Fast-acting control system
- Consists of brain, spinal cord, nerves, and sensory
receptors
- Responds to internal and external stimuli
- Sensory receptors detect changes
- Messages are sent to the central nervous system
- Central nervous system assesses information and
activates effectors (muscles and glands)

 Endocrine System
- Secretes chemical molecules, called hormones,
into the blood
- Body functions controlled by hormones
include:
a. Growth
b. Reproduction
c. Use of nutrients
- Endocrine glands include:
a. Pituitary gland
b. Thyroid and parathyroids
c. Adrenal glands
d. Thymus
e. Pancreas
f. Pineal gland
g. Ovaries (females) and testes (males)
Glands secrete hormones that regulate processes such as growth,
reproduction, and nutrient use by body
cells.

 Cardiovascular System
- Includes heart and blood vessels
ORGAN SYSTEM OVERVIEW a. Heart pumps blood
b. Vessels transport blood to tissues
 Integumentary System - Blood transports:
- Forms the external body covering (skin) and includes hair and a. Oxygen and carbon dioxide
fingernails b. Nutrients
- Waterproofs the body c. Hormones
- Cushions and protects deeper tissue from injury - Blood also contains white blood cells
- Produces vitamin D with the help of sunlight and chemicals that provide protection
- Excretes salts in perspiration from foreign invaders

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 Introduction of Anatomy and Physiology

 Lymphatic System
- Includes lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes, and lymphoid organs
- Complements the cardiovascular system by returning leaked
fluids back to bloodstream
- Lymph nodes and other lymphoid organs cleanse the blood
- Houses white blood cells, which are involved in immunity

 Respiratory System
- Includes the nasal passages, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi,
and lungs
- Gases are exchanged with the blood through air sacs in the lungs
- Supplies the body with oxygen

 Digestive System
- Includes the oral cavity (mouth), esophagus, stomach, small and
large intestines, rectum, and accessory organs
- Breaks down food
- Allows for nutrient absorption into blood
- Eliminates indigestible material as feces
 Urinary System
- Includes the kidneys, ureters, urinary
bladder, and urethra
- Eliminates nitrogenous wastes
- Maintains acid-base balance
- Regulates water and electrolyte balance
- Helps regulate normal blood pressure
 Reproductive System
- For
males,
scrotum,
glands,
a.
b.
- For
ovaries,
and
a. Ovaries produce eggs
b. Uterus provides site of
development for fetus
Overall function of the
reproductive system is production
of offspring. Testes produce
sperm and male sex hormone;
ducts and glands aid in delivery
of viable sperm to the female
reproductive tract. Ovaries
produce eggs and female sex
hormones; remaining structures serve as sites for fertilization
and development of the fetus. Mammary glands of female
breasts produce milk to nourish the
newborn.
MAINTAINING LIFE:
Necessary Life Functions and Survival Needs
1. Maintaining Boundaries
- Boundaries separate the “inside” from the “outside”
2. Movement
- Locomotion
- Movement of substances
3. Responsiveness (irritability)
- Ability to sense changes and react
4. Digestion
- Breakdown and absorption of nutrients
5. Metabolism—chemical reactions within the body
- Breaks down complex molecules into smaller ones
- Builds larger molecules from smaller ones
- Produces energy (ATP)
- Regulated by hormones
includes the testes, 6. Excretion
penis, accessory - Eliminates excreta (waste) from metabolic reactions
and duct system - Wastes may be removed in urine, feces, or sweat
Testes produce sperm 7. Reproduction
Duct system carries - Occurs on cellular level or organismal level
sperm to exterior - On cellular level—new cells are used for growth and repair
females, includes the - On organismal level—the reproductive system handles the task
uterine tubes, uterus, 8. Growth
vagina - Increases cell size or body size (through increasing the number
of cells)
- Hormones play a major role

Survival Needs
 Nutrients
Chemicals used for energy and cell building
Include carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, vitamins, and minerals

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  Oxygen
Required for chemical reactions
Made available by the cooperation of the respiratory and
cardiovascular systems
 Water
About 60 to 80 percent of body weight
Most abundant chemical in the human body
Provides fluid base for body secretions and excretions
 Normal body temperature
37ºC (98.6ºF)
Below this temperature, chemical reactions slow and stop
Above this temperature, chemical reactions proceed too rapidly
 Atmospheric pressure
Must be appropriate for gas exchange

THE LANGUAGE OF ANATOMY

It is a special terminology is used to prevent misunderstanding. These

exact terms are used for:
Position, Direction, Regions, Structures

Anatomical Position
- Standard body position used to avoid confusion
- Terminology refers to this position regardless of actual body
position
- Stand erect, feet parallel, arms hanging at the sides with palms
facing forward and thumbs pointing away from the body

REGIONAL TERMS
Anterior (Ventral) Body Landmarks:

DIRECTIONAL TERMS

Posterior (Dorsal) Body Landmarks:

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 Introduction of Anatomy and Physiology

Cavity inferior to the diaphragm, the superior abdominal

cavity contains the stomach, liver, and other organs and
is protected only by trunk muscles. Inferior pelvic cavity
contains reproductive organs, bladder, and rectum, and
protected somewhat by bony pelvis. No physical
structure separates abdominal from pelvic cavities
 Posterior (Dorsal)
- Also has two subdivisions
a. Cranial cavity
Houses the brain and is protected by the skull
b. Spinal cavity
Houses the spinal cord and is protected by the vertebrae

BODY PLANES AND SECTIONS

Sections are cuts along imaginary lines known as planes

Three types of planes or sections exist as right angles to one another:

 A sagittal section divides the body (or organ) into left and right
parts
 A median, or midsagittal, section divides the body (or organ)
into equal left and right parts
 A frontal, or coronal, section divides the body (or organ) into
anterior and posterior parts
 A transverse, or cross, section divides the body (or organ) into
superior and inferior parts

BODY CAVITIES
Body cavities provide varying degrees of protection to organs within
them

Two Internal Body Cavities: The abdominopelvic cavity has:

 Anterior (Ventral) Four quadrants, Nine regions
- Separated into two subdivisions by the diaphragm.
a. Thoracic cavity
Cavity superior to the diaphragm, the central region
called the mediastinum houses heart, trachea, and other
organs and it is protected by the rib cage
b. Abdominopelvic cavity

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Other Body Cavities include:
֎ Oral and digestive cavities
֎ Nasal cavity
֎ Orbital cavities
֎ Middle ear cavities