An - Sci 1 Intro To Animals Science 2

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AN.SCI 1
INTRODUCTION TO ANIMAL
SCIENCE
LEARNER’S MODULE
UNIT TEST TO FINAL
TEACHER/S CONTACT NO.
RAMIL B. ENTANA JR. 09656383581
STUDENT’S NAME
1
Hi! Welcome to the second semester. This is your learning module for
Animal Science 1 – Introduction to Animal Science. Below is your
road map and guide regarding the course and for the lessons to be
tackled.
In this module you will learn about the basic
principles of breeding, physiology and nutrition in
Course/Subject relation to production, processing and marketing of
Overview animals.
Unit Coverage (week 1 to week 2): Module 1
(Lesson 1-4)
Pages 3-9
Lesson 1: Man, Animals and Ecosystems
Lesson 2: Animal and their economic utility
Lesson 3: Animal Agriculture and Population
Problem
Lesson 4: Animal Science and Industry
Week 3 – Unit Examination
Prelim Coverage (week 4 to week 6): Module 2
Topics and Contents (Lesson 1- Lesson 9)
Pages 11-54
Lesson 1: Introduction to Physiology
Lesson 2: The Nervous System
Lesson 3: The Endocrine System
Lesson 4: The Vascular System
Lesson 5: The Lymphatic System
Lesson 6: The Respiratory System
Lesson 7: The Excretory System
Lesson 8: The Reproductive System
Lesson 9: The Body Temperature
Week 7 – Prelim Examination
Midterm Coverage (week 8-10): Module 3
(Lesson 1- Lesson 3)
Page 54 – 71
Lesson 1: The Terms to Know in Nutrition
2
Solar Energy
In the beginning, man did not have to cultivate the
land and herd animals for his food. Fruits on the trees, eggs in the Heat Loss to Water
nest were plentiful waiting only to be gathered. Animals on the Environment
range and fish on the waters waiting to be caught but in the PHOTOSYNTHE
course of existence, man felt that nature’s bounty was not enough SIZING PLANTS
to satisfy him. He decided that somehow he had to have animals, (PRODUCERS)
for his food. But even as he worked hard on the famine came. Gaseous
People went hungry and many perished. As part of ecological Products to
milieu man and animals had much to do with it. Atmosphere
In an ecosystem the continued growth of plants and Atmospheric
animals depends on maintenance of the balance between food
Nitrogen Fixed N2 Soil Nutrients
producers (plants) and the food consumers (animals and man).
Figure 1 shows the components of an ecological system and their
interrelationships. DECAYED
Plants through their photosynthetic activity convert ORGANISM
energy of the sun into carbohydrates. They also fix nitrogen from
atmosphere and together with the other elements of the air, N2-Fixing Bacteria
water and soil, convert them into proteins. Plants are therefore Dead
producers of energy and protein foods. Animals, in the other Animals Leached
hand, directly or indirectly consume plants for their energy, Nutrients
growth and reproduction. As consumers, some animals feed only Respired Gases
to soil
on plants (herbivores), some feed on other animals only to Atmosphere
(carnivores) and some feed in both plants and animals
(omnivores). Man is an omnivore.
While plants return parts of the nutrients that they
consume back to the soils eventually to the plants, the amount is
much less than what they withdraw from plants. Much of the
energy taken in by animals from the planets is dissipated to the
atmosphere during respiration. Thus, for a given land area, the CONSUMERS:
growth of animal population could introduce on imbalance in the HERBIVORES
ecosystem in a way that could deplete the vegetation. CARNIVORES Heat loss
OMNIVORES From body
To
environment
Figure 1. Diagram of interrelationship of the components of an ecosystem
In a system where animals are produced in a pastoral system and where the
regrowth of vegetation is left entirely to nature, the land could be easily over-grazed
to the extent that, while animals continue to reproduce and increase in number,
vegetation is not given the opportunity to recover its normal growth. Indeed in
many parts of the world what used of lush vegetation have become deserts.
Aside from plants, animals are also sources of food energy for man. But because of
the dissipation of energy in the process of conversion of plants and other feed stuffs
relative amount of energy that could be expected to produce in one hectare of land
id used to produce certain specific plant or animal product.

Objectives / Desired Learning Outcomes
1. Discuss how animals are being utilize for economic growth.
5
Module Module Overview:
UNIT COVERARGE will tackle the introductory topics in Animal
1 Science such as A) Man, Animals and Ecosystems B) Animal and their
economic utility C) Animal Agriculture and Population Problem D)
Animal Science and Industry.
1. Discuss the interrelationship between Man, Animals and Ecosystem.
2. Enhance knowledge in scientific production of farm and domesticated animals
3. Analyse the significance of Animals in the current Population
Pre-Test. Essay
1. In your cognition, when we talk about Animal Science it implies?

2. With your nominal knowledge of what is Animal Science briefly define it in
your own conception.
Lesson 1: Man, Animals and Ecosystem – How they differ? How do they interact?
- Man’s role in relation to plants and animals is beautifully defined in Genesis
1:29 of the Holy Bible when God said to Adam and Eve;
“Be fertile and multiply, fill the earth and subdue it. Have dominion over the fish of
the sea, the birds of the air and over all the living things moving on the earth.” God
also said “See, I give you every seed-bearing plant all over the earth and every tree
that has seed-bearing on it to be your food and to all the animals all over the land,
all birds of the air and all the living creatures that crawl on the ground, I give the
green plants for food.”
What is Animal Science?

- (also bioscience) is describe as “study of the biology of animals that are under
the control humankind”
- It can be also described as the production and management of farm animals.
- Historically this degree was called as animal husbandry where animals that
were studied were livestock species, like cattle, sheep, pigs, poultry and
horses.
4
Solar Energy
In the beginning, man did not have to cultivate the
land and herd animals for his food. Fruits on the trees, eggs in the Heat Loss to Water
nest were plentiful waiting only to be gathered. Animals on the Environment
range and fish on the waters waiting to be caught but in the PHOTOSYNTHE
course of existence, man felt that nature’s bounty was not enough SIZING PLANTS
to satisfy him. He decided that somehow he had to have animals, (PRODUCERS)
for his food. But even as he worked hard on the famine came. Gaseous
People went hungry and many perished. As part of ecological Products to
milieu man and animals had much to do with it. Atmosphere
In an ecosystem the continued growth of plants and Atmospheric
animals depends on maintenance of the balance between food
Nitrogen Fixed N2 Soil Nutrients
producers (plants) and the food consumers (animals and man).
Figure 1 shows the components of an ecological system and their
interrelationships. DECAYED
Plants through their photosynthetic activity convert ORGANISM
energy of the sun into carbohydrates. They also fix nitrogen from
atmosphere and together with the other elements of the air, N2-Fixing Bacteria
water and soil, convert them into proteins. Plants are therefore Dead
producers of energy and protein foods. Animals, in the other Animals Leached
hand, directly or indirectly consume plants for their energy, Nutrients
growth and reproduction. As consumers, some animals feed only Respired Gases
to soil
on plants (herbivores), some feed on other animals only to Atmosphere
(carnivores) and some feed in both plants and animals
(omnivores). Man is an omnivore.
While plants return parts of the nutrients that they
consume back to the soils eventually to the plants, the amount is
much less than what they withdraw from plants. Much of the
energy taken in by animals from the planets is dissipated to the
atmosphere during respiration. Thus, for a given land area, the CONSUMERS:
growth of animal population could introduce on imbalance in the HERBIVORES
ecosystem in a way that could deplete the vegetation. CARNIVORES Heat loss
OMNIVORES From body
To
environment
Figure 1. Diagram of interrelationship of the components of an ecosystem
In a system where animals are produced in a pastoral system and where the
regrowth of vegetation is left entirely to nature, the land could be easily over-grazed
to the extent that, while animals continue to reproduce and increase in number,
vegetation is not given the opportunity to recover its normal growth. Indeed in
many parts of the world what used of lush vegetation have become deserts.
Aside from plants, animals are also sources of food energy for man. But because of
the dissipation of energy in the process of conversion of plants and other feed stuffs
relative amount of energy that could be expected to produce in one hectare of land
id used to produce certain specific plant or animal product.

1. Discuss how animals are being utilize for economic growth.
5
3. Analyse the significance of Animal Science in the economy.
Pre-Test: Ideation
1. How would you imagine an economy with a thriving animal industry?
ANIMAL AND THEIR ECONOMIC UTILITY

Notwithstanding the relative inefficiency of animals in the production of
foods, they are important components of the food production system. For example,
animals have the following distinctive attributes that enhance the ability of an
agricultural system to produce food for man.
 Animals can be feed on and convert plants and other materials which
otherwise gone to waste, into rich human food; and
 Animal products have chemical composition that closely resemble man’s
dietary requirement and therefore more digestible and nutritious.
In crop production, only fractions of biomass are fit for human consumption. In
rice production, for example, only about half of the entire harvested biomass is
grains. The rest is cellulosic straws which can only be consumed as feed by
ruminant animals like cattle and buffalo.
Even in the processing of rice grains into polished rice, by-products like rice bran
cannot be eaten by man but could be a palatable rich source of nutrients for animals.
Animals like the ruminants could feed on biomass wastes such as straws, strovers,
hays, grasses, leaves of other crops and convert them into highly concentrated
protein foods (like milk and meat) that are highly digestible and nutritious to man.
Food from plants may contain protein but their chemical composition is quite
different from that of man. Plant proteins are of lower quality compared to that of
animals. While some people have succeeded in adopting strictly vegetarian diet,
human beings have learned to like the distinctive flavour of animal food products.
Many have tried but none succeeded in synthesizing plant protein into food
products that have the distinctive flavour and aroma of meat, milk or eggs. Animal
food products will always be.
While food is the most important contribution of animals to human welfare,
animals have been domesticated by man also to provide him with skins and hairs
for clothing and shelter, animal power for transport and fraction and beauty, grace
6
and subservient temperament for man’s amusement and companion. Certain animal
products and by products are also used for food products and such as glue from
horns, fertilizers and feed bones and offal, insulated clothing from feathers, etc.
Table 1. Gives the most important species of animals that have been domesticated
by man for their agricultural value.
SPECIES SCIENTIFIC NAME MAIN USES
Mammals
Horse Equs caballus Traction, transport and
amusement
Ass Equs assinus Traction and transport
Mule (Hybrid of male ass and
mare) Traction and transport
Camel Camelus dromedaries Transport
(meat, milk, hide traction
Cattle (no hump) Bos taurus and transport)
Buffalo Bubalus bubalis Meat, milk, traction and
transport
Sheep Ovis aries Meat, milk and hair
(wool)
Goat Capra hircus Meat and milk
Pigs Sus scrofa Meat
Rabbit Oryctolagus cuniculus Meat and skin
Birds
Chicken Gallus gallus domesticus Meat, eggs and
amusement
Duck (Mallard) Anas platyrhynchos Meat and eggs
(Muscovy) Cairina moschata
Goose Anser domesticus Meat and eggs
Turkey Meleagris gallopavo Meat and eggs
Pigeon Columbia livia Meat and amusement
Quail Coturnix coturrnix Meat and eggs
Guinea fowl Numida meleagris Meat
7
Lesson 3: Animal Agriculture and the Population Problem
1. Discuss the relationship between Animal Agriculture and the Population.
2. Enhance knowledge in scientific production of farm and domesticated animals.
3. Analyse the underlying problems caused by population growth to the animal
industry.
Pre-Test: Ideation
1. In these trying times, how does animal agriculture helps the demand for food?
 The relationship between Animal Agriculture and the Population creates

problem:
1. Animals even intensively raised are not enough to meet the world’s protein
needs.
- In 1968, FAO estimated that the world’s total animal protein food
production was 40.70 million tons. Of this amount, 72.8% were from
livestock and the remainder from aquatic animals.
- With a human population of about 3.5 billion in the same year, the
average per capita animal protein available was only 11.6 kg per year or
about 32g per day. That is less than half of the normal requirement of
70-75gm/capita/day. Even with the protein food supplies from plant
sources, still people from developing countries do not meet their protein
and energy requirement.
- A survey conducted in 1973-1976 revealed that Filipinos consumed
only 61gm of protein per capita per day. Of this amount only 13.4 or
22% came from farm animals and the rest from fish (28%), cereals
(43%) and other food sources (7%).
2. The challenge to produce more animal food products.
- With the increasing human population and the attendant contraction of load
for agricultural production, the challenge to produce more animal food
products is becoming more and more severe.
- In recent years, the rate of increase of Filipinos is already overtaking the
growth in livestock population in the Philippines.
Lesson 4: Animal Science and Animal Industry
8
1. Discuss the relationship between animal science and animal industry.
2. Enhance knowledge in scientific production of farm and domesticated animals.
3. Analyse the importance of animal science to animal industry.
Pre-Test: Essay
A. In what way does animal science relates to animal industry?

Animal Science and the Animal Industry
- Like all other productive sectors of the economy, the continued viability and
progress of the animal industry depends on how it is able to respond
successfully well to the changing conditions of the biological, physical and
socio-economic and political environments.
- Advances in animal science keep the industry responsive to these
environmental changes. The development of more efficient and productive
breeds and varieties of animals through breeding of cheaper and more
nutritious feed materials for animal feed , of new drugs feed materials for
animal feed, of new drugs and feed additives of new systems of housing and
management that more economically improves the health and performance of
animals of cheaper and more economical processing of animal products,
enable the different segments of the industry to fully and economically utilize
whatever resources are available.
- Through the technological advances in animal science, the animal industry in
the Philippines has developed from a basically backyard and self-subsistent
production in 1940’s and consisting with a highly interdependent segment.
- The livestock industry at present principally produces carbao, cattle, hogs and
chickens. The other livestock species such as goats are also raised in
practically all parts of the country.
- Hogs provide 60% of the total domestic meat production, chicken 15%, cattle
and carabao 20%. The country is relatively self-sufficient in chicken, eggs and
pork but imports beef at an average of 4,500 tons annually.
 In animal science, the challenge to all of us is to be able to meet our needs for
food and other essential products from animals in a most economical and
efficient system of production without endangering our environment.
9
ACTIVITY 1. Essay (5pts each)
1. Referring to Figure 1, explain the interrelationship that the components of
agricultural ecosystem have.
2. How animal science and animal industry does help the economy?
3. In your own words how rapid population growth does affects animal
agriculture?
4. In these times, can you say that the animal industry and animal science can
sustain the needs for protein of the whole country?
Note: Take note of the important details. Answer the pre-tests before every lesson
and also all activity provided. Write your answer in a clean sheet of short bond
paper.
END OF THE UNIT TEST
10
PRELIM COVERAGE will tackle the introductory topics in Animal
2 Physiology, Anatomy and Systems that comprises the Animal Body.
1. Discuss the different parts of animal body and distinguish their functions.
3. Analyse the significance of these parts on the growth performance of farm and
domesticated animals.
Pre-Test: Find a way
General Direction: In your area or community, look for the following animals
and identify the external parts.
a. Chicken:
b. Swine:
c. Cattle :
d. Horse:
Lesson 1 Introduction:
1. What is Physiology?
 Is defined as the study of function of the parts or organ systems of the
body;
 A study of function of living matter
 Attempts to explain the physical and chemical factors that are responsible for
the origin, development and progression of life.
 The study of physiology will provide knowledge on the structure and function
of the body and consequently, the care of the body.
2. What is Homeostasis?
 Is a key word in modern physiology.
 Used to mean the maintenance of static or constant conditions in the internal
environment. For example, the temperature of our body remains relatively
constant at 37°C.
 All the organs and tissues of the body perform functions that help maintain
this constant condition.
 The animal is kept alive by the coordination of these functions from different
organ systems.
Lesson 2: The Nervous System
11
Endocrinology- is a branch of physiology
dealing with the coordination of various
body tissue by hormones produced by
restricted areas of the body (endocrine gland)
and transported through the circulatory system
to the organ or tissue on which they exert their
effects.
Hormones maybe classified as simple protein,
glycoprotein and steroids but they all have
common characteristics and functions:
a. Hormones appear to regulate rather than
initiates reaction;
b. Are effective in biocatalytic amounts;
c. Are not secreted in uniform rates;
d. Inactivated rapidly either at the site
where it exerts its effect or at some other
glands or organs; and
e. Are transported through the circulatory
system or blood stream.
Receptors – present in every cells in the target
organ that specifically recognize the hormone. Hormone receptors bind specific
hormone and directly or indirectly triggered a metabolic effect.
1. Hypophysis or Pituitary Gland
- Located at the base of the brain in a concavity of the sphenoid bone called
Sella turcica, which protect it from outside pressure.
The three main portion or lobes of the Pituitary Gland:
1. Anterior Pituitary Lobe or Adenohypophysis
This lobe secretes the following hormone:
a. Growth hormone or Somatotropic hormone (STH)
- Promotes growth of the long bones before the ephyseal – diaphyseal plate is
fused together in adulthood.
- Over secretion of STH results to Gigantism (development of the abnormal
size) when this happen before adulthood and Acromegaly (Enlargement of the
hands, face and feet due to over secretion of STH) this happens after
adulthood in human.
18
- The distal end of dendrites of sensory neurons are called receptors because
they receive the stimuli that initiate the conduction of impulses from the cell
body and may end up on a synapse or on any effector organs.
 They do not come in direct contact with one another; instead there re small
gap of about 200 A (Angstrom = 1/196 inch) between them.
 This gap is called synapse – where nerve impulses are transmitted from one
nerve cell to another.
 Thus, synapses are located between the axon terminals of one neuron
(presynaptic or preganglionic cell) and the cell body or dendrites of another
neuron (postsynaptic or postganglionic cell).
 The nerve impulse across the synapse involves the release from presynaptic
neuron of a chemical mediator or neurotransmitter (most acetylcholine) which
crosses the synaptic cleft and brings about a generation of signal or initiation
of impulse in the postsynaptic neuron.
The Central Nervous System (CNS):
BRAIN The brain and the spinal column
CNS jointly control the activities of
the skeletal or involuntary
SPINAL smooth muscles of the body in
CORD/COLU response to stimuli in their
MN environment.
 Information about the internal and external environment reaches the CNS via
a variety of sensory receptors. These receptors are transducers that convert
various forms of energy in the environment into action potential or nerve
impulse in the neurons.
13
 Sensory receptors – could be part of a neuron or a specialized cell that
generates actions potential neurons. Receptors are often associated with non-
neural cells that surround it, forming a sense organ.
Examples of forms of energy converted by the receptors include;
a. Mechanical (touch-pressure), b. thermal (degrees of warmth), c.
electromagnetic (light) and d. chemical (odour, taste and O2 content of blood)
 Adequate stimulus- the particular form of energy to which a receptor is most
sensitive or which is able to evoke an action potential.
The Sensory Modalities:
SMELL
VISION/SIGHT
HEARING
ROTATIONAL AND LINEAR
MODALITIES
ACCELERATION
SENSORY
TASTE
CUTANEOUS SENSES
RECEPTORS IN THE SKIN
TO MONITOR TOUCH-
PRESSURE COLD
WARMTH
PAIN
 The rods and cones of the eyes, respond maximally to light of different
wavelength and there are different cones for each of the primary colours.
Table 2. Principal Sensory Modalities
Sensory Modality Receptor Sense Organ
Conscious Sensations:
Vision Rods and cones Eye
Hearing Hair cells Ear (organ of Corti)
Olfactory mucous
Smell Olfactory neurons membrane
Taste Taste receptor cell Taste bud (tongue)
Rotational Acceleration Hair cells Ear (semi-circular canals)
Linear Acceleration Hair cells Ear (utricle and saccule)
14
Touch-pressure Nerve endings Various
Warmth Nerve endings Various
Cold Nerve endings Various
Pain Naked nerve endings Various
Joint position Nerve endings Various
Unconscious Sensations:
Muscle length Nerve endings
Muscle tension Nerve endings
Arterial blood pressure Nerve endings
Central venous pressure Nerve endings
Inflation of lung Nerve endings
Temperature of blood in Neurons in hypothalamus Carotid and aortic bodies
the head
Arterial PO2 Nerve endings (chemo-
receptors)
pH of CSF Receptors on ventral
surface of medulla
oblongata
Osmotic pressure Cells in OVLT and
possibly other circum-
ventricular organs in
anterior hypothalamus
Arteriovenous blood Cells in hypothalamus
glucose difference (glucostats)
 There are 4 different modalities of taste – sweet, salty, sour and bitter – and
each is perceived by a more or less distinct type of taste bud in the tongue.
 Sounds of different pitches are heard primarily because of different groups of
hair cells in the organ of Corti, are activated maximally by sounds waves of
different frequencies.
 The sensation evoked by impulses generated by a specific receptor is
interpreted by a specific part of the brain which it ultimately activated.
The Somatic Nervous System
- This part of the nervous system brings about quickly the adjustments of the
muscles to the changes in the environment.
- Innervating the striated or skeletal muscles of the body.
- When we burn our fingers receptors in the skin transform this stimulus into
nerve impulses, which are carried by different nerve fibers to the spinal cord
15
and the higher nerve centers which in return send nerve impulses by way of
efferent fibers to the muscle of the hand, which cause adjustment of this,
causes the finger to be removed from the source of heat.
- Some nerve impulses of this type travel at a rate of 40 meter per second.
Autonomic Nervous System
- Have afferent components, central integrating stations and effector pathways.
- The glands and visceral musculature of the body receive efferent fibers from
the autonomic nervous system.
- Glands and visceral musculature are made by means of chemical mediator,
acetylcholine and epinephrine and norepinephrine released by the terminal
neurons of the autonomic fibers.
Table 3. Effects of Sympathetic and Parasympathetic stimulation on the various
effector organs
Organ Sympathetic Stimulation Parasympathetic
Eye Dilation of Pupil Constriction of pupil

Salivary glands Vasoconstriction Vasodilation
Lungs Relaxes muscle of Contracts muscles of
bronchioles bronchioles
Cardiovascular Accelerate heart, Inhibits heart, dilates
constricts arterioles certain blood vessels
Adrenal medulla Excitation
GI Tract Inhibits motility, Excites motility, relaxes
constricts sphincters sphincters
Liver Glycogenolysis
Spleen Contracts capsule Relaxes capsule
Skin Secrets sweat, erection of
hairs
Spleen Bladder Relaxes Contracts
Two Major Division of the Autonomic System:

1. Sympathetic – cell bodies of the preganglionic neurons of these divisions are
contained in the gray matter of the thoracic and lumbar regions of the spinal
cord.
16
2. Parasympathetic – cell of the bodies of the preganglionic neurons are situated
within the midbrain, hindbrain and in the sacral region of the spinal cord.
- The preganglionic neurons extend from the gray matter of the CNS to one of
the ganglia where they make synaptic junctions with post-ganglionic neurons
which extend from the ganglia to the effector organs.
Lesson 3. The Endocrine System

Endocrine system – it is a chemical messenger system comprising feedback loops of
the hormones released by internal glands of an organism.
Hormone/s is responsible in
Hypothalamus regulating growth and
development, metabolism,
reproduction, stress
Pituitary
Endocrine glands response, body tissue and
Glands fluid and electrolytes.
Endocrine Thyroid
glands secretes HORMONES
chemical Parathyroid
mediators
called Adrenals
hormones
Pineal Body
Ovaries and
Testes
17
Endocrinology- is a branch of physiology
dealing with the coordination of various
body tissue by hormones produced by
restricted areas of the body (endocrine gland)
and transported through the circulatory system
to the organ or tissue on which they exert their
effects.
Hormones maybe classified as simple protein,
glycoprotein and steroids but they all have
common characteristics and functions:
a. Hormones appear to regulate rather than
initiates reaction;
b. Are effective in biocatalytic amounts;
c. Are not secreted in uniform rates;
d. Inactivated rapidly either at the site
where it exerts its effect or at some other
glands or organs; and
e. Are transported through the circulatory
system or blood stream.
Receptors – present in every cells in the target
organ that specifically recognize the hormone. Hormone receptors bind specific
hormone and directly or indirectly triggered a metabolic effect.
1. Hypophysis or Pituitary Gland
- Located at the base of the brain in a concavity of the sphenoid bone called
Sella turcica, which protect it from outside pressure.
The three main portion or lobes of the Pituitary Gland:
1. Anterior Pituitary Lobe or Adenohypophysis
This lobe secretes the following hormone:
a. Growth hormone or Somatotropic hormone (STH)
- Promotes growth of the long bones before the ephyseal – diaphyseal plate is
fused together in adulthood.
- Over secretion of STH results to Gigantism (development of the abnormal
size) when this happen before adulthood and Acromegaly (Enlargement of the
hands, face and feet due to over secretion of STH) this happens after
adulthood in human.
18
by which a cell uses its plasma membrane to engulf a large a large particle). At least
in the neutrophils and eosinophils, the granules appear to be lysosomes and
functions in the digestion of material (like bacteria) taken into the cells by
phagocytosis. Old granulocytes are normally destroyed in the spleen and other
portion of the reticulo-endothelial system.
Lymphocytes – are mostly formed in the lymph nodes, spleen and thymus and to
some extent also in the bones marrow. They enter the blood circulation for the most
part via the lymphatic. They are believed to produce antibodies and counteract
toxins.
Monocytes – are large none- nuclear leukocytes.
- They are also called the transitional cells and have well developed motility.
- They are believed to come from the reticulo-endothelial cells. Like
neutrophilic leukocytes, they are actively phagocytic and are capable of
ingesting all sorts of foreign matter.
Erythrocytes – are biconcave disks manufactured in the bone marrow. In
mammals, they lose their nuclei before entering the circulations. They are soft and
contain haemoglobin. Haemoglobin is a complex iron-containing conjugated
protein with a molecular weight of about 68,000.
Platelets or Thrombocytes – are small oval disk-like granulated bodies 2-4
microns in diameters. There are about 300,000/cu mm of circulating blood.
f. Blood coagulation
- It is the conversion of the soluble plasma protein – fibrinogen into the
insoluble protein – fibrin, a reaction that is catalysed by the enzyme thrombin.
Thrombin is formed from its inactive circulating precursor prothrombin in the
presence of calcium ion by the action of activated thromboplastin.
Prothrombin is synthesized in the liver and vitamin K is essential in the
hepatic synthesis of prothrombin. This is precisely why vitamin K is essential
in blood clotting mechanism.
- Activated thromboplastin is made available at the site of the injury in the
presence of Ca++ by reaction involving platelets and some clotting factors. The
schematic mechanism in blood clotting is shown below:
Vitamin K
Liver Prothrombin
Factor VII and X
28
Ca++
Prothrombin
Activated thromboplastin
(Platelets)
Thrombin
Fibrinogen Fibrin (clot)
Lesson 5: The Lymphatic System

 The circulatory system
and the lymphatic system is related to
the body fluid compartment.
 The animal body is
made up of 60-70% water. This is
distributed as intracellular fluid (ICF)
and extracellular fluid (ECF). The ICF is
about 40-50% of the body weight and
the ECF is about 20% of the body
weight.
 In animals with closed
vascular system, the ECF is divided into
2 components: the Interstitial fluid
which consists of cerebrospinal fluid,
synovial fluid and the lymph; and the
blood plasma. The interstitial fluid is
about 15% of the body weight and the
blood plasma is about 5% of the body
weight.
The lymphatic system is composed of
lymph node, lymph vessel and the
lymph.
1. The Lymphatic Nodes and functions:
The lymph nodes are small bodies of the lymphoid tissues which are ovoid or
bean shaped and located in strategic points of the body through which the
lymph passes on its way to the blood stream.
29
4. The Adrenal Gland EPINEPHRINE
ADRENAL
NOREPINEPHRINE
MEDULLA
ADRENAL GLAND
Zona
ALDOSTERONE
glumerulosa
ADRENAL
CORTEX Zona
faciculate GLUCOCORTICOIDS
(Cortisol, cortisone
and corticortisone)
Zona
reticularis
 Adrenal medulla is in effect a sympathetic ganglion in which the post

ganglion neurons have lost their axons and becomes secretory cells.
 Epinephrine and norepinephrine are not essential for life but they help to
prepare the individual to deal with emergencies.
 Glucocorticoids are controlled primarily by ACTH from the anterior
pituitary. When there is low level of glucocorticoids in circulation, ACTH
secretion is increased which in turn, stimulates increased production of
glucocorticoids. If increased level of glucocorticoids will results in inhibit
further secretion of ACTH. Stressful stimuli will also stimulate the production
of ACTH which is independent from that elicited by the level of
glucocorticoids in circulation.
 The secretion of aldosterone is not under the control of ACTH but buy
circulating factors such as blood pressure and/or the extra cellular fluid
volume (ECF).
5. Parathyroid Gland
 Found in the mediastinum
 Two cells making up the parathyroid gland (a) Chief cells which have clear
cytoplasm, secretes parathyroid hormone (b) Oxyphil Cells more abundant
21
and larger than the latter, have oxyphil granules in their cytoplasm, contain
large numbers of mitochondria. The function of this cell is unknown.
 PTH – mobilizes calcium from the bones and increases urinary phosphate
excretion, thus in effect increases blood calcium level.
 Hyperparathyroidism (due to hyper-secretion of functioning tumour) is
characterize by hypercalcimia (excess calcium in the blood),
hypophosphatemia (less phosphorous), hypercalciuria and hyperphosphatiuria
– these abnormalities may result to the demineralization of the bones and the
formation of calcium-containing kidney stones.
 In young animals (hyperparathyroidism) results to rickets – a disease caused
by deficiency in vitamin D that result to fragile bones.
 In adult animals (hyperparathyroidism) osteomalacia.
 Calcitonin or thyrocalcitonin is a hormone that lowers the calcium
concentration in blood, acts oppositely with PTH.
Lesson 4: The Cardiovascular System (CVS)
Functions:
a. Convey nutrients absorbed from the digestive
tissues;
HEART b. Carry ) O2 from lungs to the tissue and CO2
from tissue to the lungs
CVS BLOOD c. Removes waste products of metabolism and
take to the excretory organs for disposal;
BLOOD d. Transport hormones from one part of the body
VESSELS to another
e. Helps in maintaining the water equilibrium of
the body
 The CVS includes the f. Assist in keeping the normal temperature of
heart, the blood and the the body
blood vessels through g. Regulate the hydrogen ion concentration in
which the blood flows the body; and
h. Assist in overcoming diseases by the
in circulation.
antibodies contained on the blood.
22
a. The Heart
 Located in the middle
mediastinal space it is
enclosed with a
pericardium or
pericardial sac.
 The Mammalian heart
has 4 chambers – the
upper 2 chambers are
the atria and lower 2
chambers are the
ventricles.
 There is a complete
septum separating left
and the right side of the
heart. However, free
communication between
the sides is present.
 The atrio-ventricular valve (A- V valve) – prevents the backflow of blood
from the ventricle to the atrium during ventricular systole (the contraction of
blood onwards).
 The valve on the right side is called as tricuspid valve and the one on the left
side call bicuspid. A valve also stands at the aortic orifice (aortic valve) and
at the pulmonary orifice (pulmonary valve). The function of these valves is,
to prevent the backflow of the blood from these blood vessels (aorta and
pulmonary arteries) into the ventricles during diastole (dilatation of the heart
of the cavities of the heart during which they are fill with blood).
 The heart beats in an orderly sequence: contraction of the atria (atrial systole)
is followed by the contraction of the ventricle (ventricular systole), and
followed by diastole, in which all 4 chambers are in isometric relaxation, the
AV valves open, thus, allowing the blood to fill up the ventricles. \
 ¾ of ventricular filling occurs during diastole and complete filling occurs
during atrial systole. At the start of ventricular systole the AV valves are
23
closed the aortic and pulmonary valves are opened to allow the flow of
ventricular blood into the aorta and pulmonary artery, respectively.
 However, not all
ventricular blood are ejected
at the end of the ventricular
systole; about 50ml of blood
are left in each ventricle in
human heart as end of the
systolic ventricular volume.
 Contraction of the heart
is spontaneous and is
initiated by the depolarization
of the Sino-atrial node (SA
Node)
 The depolarization
spreads radially through the
atria resulting an atrial
systole and converges on the atrio-ventricular node (AV node).
 From the AV node, the wave of depolarization passes through the bundle of
His, then through the Purkinje system to the ventricular muscle, causing the
ventricular systoles.
 The SA node is the, cardiac pacemaker and its rates of discharge determine
the rate at which the heart beats.
 Vagal stimulation – results in bradycardia or slowing of heart rate and the
stimulation of the sympathetic cardiac nerve results in tachycardia or
increased heart rate.
 Temperature also influences the rate of discharge of SA node. Increased
temperature results in tachycardia.
b. The Heart Sound
 Two sounds are normally heard through a stethoscope during each cardiac
cycle: a low slightly “lub” sound (first sound), caused by the closure of the
mitral and tricuspid valves; and a shorter, high pitch “dub” sound (second
sound), caused by the closure of the aortic and pulmonary valves just after the
end of the ventricular systole.
24
4. Waste Ions and Hydrogen Ions Secreted from the Blood Complete the
Formation of Urine
The filtrate absorbed in the glomerulus flows through the renal tubule, where
nutrients and water are reabsorbed into capillaries. At the same time, waste ions and
hydrogen ions pass from the capillaries into the renal tubule. This process is
called secretion. The secreted ions combine with the remaining filtrate and become
urine. The urine flows out of the nephron tubule into a collecting duct. It passes out
of the kidney through the renal pelvis, into the ureter, and down to the bladder.
5. Urine Is 95% Water
The nephrons of the kidneys process blood and create urine through a process of
filtration, reabsorption, and
secretion. Urine is about 95%
water and 5% waste products.
Nitrogenous wastes excreted in
urine include urea, creatinine,
ammonia, and uric acid. Ions
such as sodium, potassium,
hydrogen, and calcium are also
excreted.
3. Role of ADH in Water

Balance
Vasopressin or ADH conserves
body water by the following
actions:
(1) Since ADH is a
vasoconstrictor, it reduces
medullary and papillary blood
flow the renal interstitium, thus
increasing tissue hypertoni-city
of the interstitium. This would increase the concentration gradient of the
solute between interstitium and the fluid in the lumen of the kidney tubules,
thus, the reabsorption of water by osmosis would increase.
42
 The aorta gives off to smaller arteries which in turn give rise to several
arterioles, an arteriole give rise to a bed of capillaries which eventually join
together to form a venule.
 A venule joins to a bigger vein which eventually ends up on the vena cava
which returns un-oxygenated blood from several systematic circulations to the
right atrium of the heart.
d. The Blood Circulation
o Venous blood coming from the
different parts of the body is
returned back to the heart via the
vena cava to the right atrium. From
the right atrium it goes to the right
ventricle through the tricuspid
valve. Then it passes through the
pulmonary valve and goes to the
pulmonary artery which carries the
blood to the lungs (pulmonary
circulation).
o In the lungs, exchange of gases
takes place: carbon dioxide is
given is given off and oxygen is
taken in by the circulating blood.
o The oxygenated blood will return
back to the heart by the pulmonary
veins which enter the heart at the
left atrium.
o From the left atrium, blood goes
through the left ventricle through
the mitral or bicuspid valve. Then
it goes through the aortic valve to
the aorta which oxygen is taken in
by the tissues and carbon dioxide
is given off by the tissues to the
circulating blood.
o These cellular exchanges of gases take place at the different capillary beds.
Then all the venous blood from the systematic circulation is returned back to
the heart via the vena cava.
26
The Systematic Circulation includes special systems of blood circulation:
(1) The coronary circulation –it supplies blood to the heart itself.
(2) Hepatic circulation – it supplies arterial blood to the liver
(3) Cerebral circulation – supplies arterial blood to the brain
(4) Renal circulation – supplies arterial blood to the kidney
(5) Splanchnic circulation – supplies arterial blood to the digestive tract.
e. The Blood
 It is a thick suspension of cellular elements in an aqueous solution of
electrolytes and some non-electrolytes. By centrifugation, the blood is
separated into the two categories of plasma and cells.
Plasma – the fluid portion of the blood containing a number of ions, inorganic
molecules and organic molecules which are in transit to various part of the
body or which aid in the transport of other substances.
Blood plasma – is composed of the following important constituent: water,
gases (oxygen, carbon dioxide, nitrogen), protein (albumin, globulin,
fibrinogen), glucose, lipids (fats, lecithin, cholesterol), non-protein nitrogen
substances (amino acids, urea, uric acid, creatine, creatinine ammonia, salts,
etc., inorganic salts and minerals – chlorides, bicarbonates, sulphates,
phosphates of sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, iron and traces of
manganese, cobalt, copper, zinc, etc.), enzymes, hormones, vitamins, immune
substances, etc. The normal plasma volume is about 3 to 5% of the body
weight.
Blood cells - is made of WBC or the White Blood Cells or leukocytes, the Red
Blood Cells (RBC) or the erythrocytes, and the platelets which are all
suspended in plasma.
A. White Blood Cells – are of three type; Granulocytes, Lymphocytes and

Monocytes. The number of each kind of cell presents in the blood is
determined by means of haemocytometer. Mainly, white blood cells is the
first line of defense.
Granulocytes – subdivided into neutrophils, eosinophils and basophils based on the
affinity to either neutral, acidic or basic dyes, respectively. All of these are formed
from stem cells in the bone marrow, mature rapidly and enter the circulation where
they survive for no more than 2 weeks. Their main function is phagocytic (a process
27
by which a cell uses its plasma membrane to engulf a large a large particle). At least
in the neutrophils and eosinophils, the granules appear to be lysosomes and
functions in the digestion of material (like bacteria) taken into the cells by
phagocytosis. Old granulocytes are normally destroyed in the spleen and other
portion of the reticulo-endothelial system.
Lymphocytes – are mostly formed in the lymph nodes, spleen and thymus and to
some extent also in the bones marrow. They enter the blood circulation for the most
part via the lymphatic. They are believed to produce antibodies and counteract
toxins.
Monocytes – are large none- nuclear leukocytes.
- They are also called the transitional cells and have well developed motility.
- They are believed to come from the reticulo-endothelial cells. Like
neutrophilic leukocytes, they are actively phagocytic and are capable of
ingesting all sorts of foreign matter.
Erythrocytes – are biconcave disks manufactured in the bone marrow. In
mammals, they lose their nuclei before entering the circulations. They are soft and
contain haemoglobin. Haemoglobin is a complex iron-containing conjugated
protein with a molecular weight of about 68,000.
Platelets or Thrombocytes – are small oval disk-like granulated bodies 2-4
microns in diameters. There are about 300,000/cu mm of circulating blood.
f. Blood coagulation
- It is the conversion of the soluble plasma protein – fibrinogen into the
insoluble protein – fibrin, a reaction that is catalysed by the enzyme thrombin.
Thrombin is formed from its inactive circulating precursor prothrombin in the
presence of calcium ion by the action of activated thromboplastin.
Prothrombin is synthesized in the liver and vitamin K is essential in the
hepatic synthesis of prothrombin. This is precisely why vitamin K is essential
in blood clotting mechanism.
- Activated thromboplastin is made available at the site of the injury in the
presence of Ca++ by reaction involving platelets and some clotting factors. The
schematic mechanism in blood clotting is shown below:
Vitamin K
Liver Prothrombin
Factor VII and X
28
A common passage way for the products of reproduction and for urine. The vulva in
mammals is comparable to the ventral portion of the cloaca of birds. It is also
homologous with the scrotum of the male, since both are derived from the same
embryological structure.
6. The Clitoris
It is a rudimentary organ
located in the ventral
commissure of the vulva in
mammals. It is homologous
to the glans penis of the male.
7. The Broad Ligament
It suspends the female genital
system from the dorsolateral
wall of the pelvic canal.
There are three specialized
regions of the broad ligaments:
(1) Mesometrium - is that portion of the broad ligament which suspends the
anterior portion of the vagina, the cervix and the uterus and comprises the
major portion of the broad ligament
(2) Mesosalpinx – is a lateral fold on the anterior portion of the ligament which
suspends the oviduct (Salpinx).
(3) Mesovarium – is a specialized portion of the anterior edge of the broad
ligament which suspends the ovary proper. In some species a pocket-like
structure called Bursa is formed by fusion of two or more of the
mesovarium, mesosalpinx and infundibulum. It encloses, more or less
completely the ovary.
2. The Male Reproductive System
Produce Sperm
cells
Two main functions
Testis
Produce Male
Hormone –
Testosterone
45
It is generally agreed that the lymph nodes have at least 2 functions. (1) The
production of lymphocytes of which the lymph nodes contain large number.
(2) To stop foreign materials that comes to them in the lymph.
This filtration is said to be accomplished mechanically and by the phagocytic
activity of reticulo-endothelial cells. They come swollen or inflamed during
severe bacterial infections.
2. The Lymph Vessels:
The lymphatic drain from the lungs and from the rest of the body tissues
via a system of vessels that end in the venous system.
The lymph vessels begin in the tissues as blind lymph capillaries, similar
in structure to blood capillaries.
The like the veins, the lymph vessels contain valves which prevent the
back flow of its content, but have thinner walls than the veins.
Ultimately, all the lymph vessels drain into either the thoracic duct or the
right lymphatic duct, which empty into the venous system anterior to the
heart.
The lymph from the right side of the head and neck, the right forelegs and
the right side of the thorax drain to the right lymphatic duct, which empty
into the venous system anterior to the heart. Lymph from the right side of
the head and neck, the right forelegs and right side of the thorax drain to the
right lymphatic duct; that from the rest of the body, to the thoracic duct.
3. Flow of lymph
The tissue fluid is in communication with the blood in the capillaries, the
intracellular fluid and the lymph capillaries. The latter remove from the tissue
spaces material that do not or cannot enter the blood capillaries.
Water and cyrstalloids can move either way. Particulate matter and large
molecules such as protein and lipids cannot enter the blood capillaries but can
penetrate the much more permeable wall of the lymph capillaries.
The flow of lymph in the lymph vessels is sluggish and in one direction only,
from the tissues towards the heart. The factors concerned in the lymph flow
are: (1) the difference in pressure at the two ends of the lymph system; (2) the
massaging effect of the muscular movements and (3) the presence of the
lymph vessels of valves, which permit flow in only one direction that is
towards the heart.
30
4. Composition of Lymph
Lymph, derived largely from the blood, is similar in composition to blood
plasma. The plasma of the blood passes through the thin wall of the blood
capillaries enters the tissue spaces and becomes tissues fluid or lymph.
Ordinarily, lymph is colourless, clear, watery liquid having a specific gravity
of about 1.015. It contains a few red cells normally, lymphocytes are present.
Lymph contains water, glucose, gases, proteins, non-protein nitrogenous
substances.
The proteins are the same kind a in blood plasma but the amount is less. This
is especially true of lymph from the limbs, for the capillary walls in these
regions are less permeable to the blood proteins than in other regions.
5. Inter-relationship between the circulatory systems and the lymphatic
system:
Lymphatic system is an open transport system that works in conjunction with
the circulatory system.
Lymphatic vessels collect intercellular fluid (tissue fluid), kill foreign
organisms and return it to the circulatory system.
The lymphatic system also prevents tissue fluid from accumulating in the
tissue spaces.
Lymph capillaries pick up the intercellular fluid.
Lesson 6: The Respiratory System:
- The main function of the respiratory system is to provide oxygen to the cells
of the body. Different species achieve this in different ways. A unicellular
organism gets their O2 by diffusion from the fluid surrounding them and
eliminates CO2, in the same way; larger organism cannot. Some larger
organism that live in air (certain insects) do get enough O2 by diffusion alone,
but they have a special system of air tube (trachea or spiracles) that pipe air
directly to many regions of the body, so that the distance O 2 must diffuse to
reach tissue cells are short. Large animals, including man, make use of two
systems:
(1) A blood circulatory system to carry to and form the tissue cells large
quantities of CO2 and O2, with help of haemoglobin.
(2) A respiratory system, a gas exchanger to load the blood with O 2 and
remove excess CO2.
31
 Penis – is male organ of copulation and serves to introduce the spermatozoa
into the female reproductive tract.
There are three accessory glands which contribute to the bulk of the semen
ejaculated, these are:
(1) Seminal Vesicles - The epithelium of the tubule consists of a type
of sustentacular cells known as Sertoli cells, which are tall, columnar type
cells that line the tubule.
(2) Prostate Gland - The prostate gland is located just below the bladder in men
and surrounds the top portion of the tube that drains urine from the bladder
(urethra). The prostate's primary function is to produce the fluid that nourishes
and transports sperm (seminal fluid).
(3) Cowper’s Gland or Bulbo-rethral gland - The bulbourethral
gland or Cowper's gland (named for English anatomist William Cowper) is
one of two small exocrine glands in the reproductive system of many male
mammals (of all domesticated animals, they are absent only in dogs). [1] They
are homologous to Bartholin's glands in females. The bulbouretheral glands
are responsible for producing a pre-ejaculate fluid called Cowper's
Fluid (colloquially, pre-cum), which is secreted during sexual arousal,
neutralizing the acidity of the urethra in preparation for the passage of sperm
cells.
 The secretions of the accessory glands serve as the vehicle for the transport of
the spermatozoa from the vagina to the oviduct. It stimulates also spermatozoa
47
 The diaphragm is attached around the bottom of the thoracic cage and arches
over the liver and moves downward like piston when it contracts. The
distance of movement is about 1.5 to 7.0 cm.
4. The External Intercostal Muscles
 Runs obliquely downward and forward from rib to rib. The ribs pivot as if
hinged at the back, so that when the external intercostal muscles contract, they
elevate the lower ribs. This pushes the sternum outward and increases the
antero-posterior
diameter of the chest.
5. The
Expiratory Muscles
 Consist
of internal intercostal
muscles and the muscles
of the anterior
abdominal wall. The
internal intercostal
muscles pass obliquely
downward and
posteriorly from rib to
rib.
 The
muscles of the anterior
abdominal wall also aid
expiration by pulling the
rib cage downward and inward; and by increasing the extra abdominal
pressure which pushes the diaphragm upward.
B. The Respiratory Centers
- There are at least three major parts of the respiratory centers. They are:
1. Medullary Center
 Capable of initiating and maintaining sequences of the respiratory cycle.
This contains the minimal number of neurons necessary for the basic
coordinated sequence of inspiration, expiration and inspiration.
 This center is often divided into an Inspiratory and Expiratory Centers,
because maximal expiration follows stimulation of adjacent regions. At
33
the lateral sides of this region, there are special receptors which are
believed to respond to H+ concentration. A rise in H+ results in
hyperventilation.
2. Pneumotaxic Center
 Located in the upper pons above the medullary centers. Stimulation of this
center accelerated respiration, especially expiration. It is postulated that
inspiration sets up impulses that ascends from the medullary inspiratory center
to the pneumotaxic center, where they generate impulses that descend to the
expiratory center and inhibit inspiration, a negative feedback mechanism.
3. Apneustic Center
 Located in the lower pons, between the pneumotaxic center and the medullary
center. The role of this center is revealed when both the pneumotaxic center,
and vagi are inactivated, prolonged apneusis then results (Apneusis is the
cessation of respiration in the inspiratory position).
C. Regulation of Respiration Center Activity
- Respiration would increase whenever cells of the body need more O 2 or from
more CO2 and would decrease whenever they need less O2 or form less CO2.
There are many sensory receptors, in many locations which can influence
respiration rate, appropriate electrical stimulation of almost any sensory nerve
and of many parts of the brain can affect respiration.
- However, some receptors appear to be highly specialized for the task of
respiratory regulation. This receptors are sensitive chemical changes in their
environment – therefore called generally chemoreceptors. The well-known
chemoreceptors are:
1. Medullary Chemoreceptors
Believe to be located on the ventral surface of the brain stem.
It is believed to monitor the H+ concentration of the cerebrospinal fluid or;
possibly the brain interstitial fluid. An increase in H+ concentration stimulates
respiration.
2. Carotid Bodies
Are small, pinkish nodules located just beyond the bifurcation of the common
carotid artery into the external and internal carotids.
The carotid bodies are completely different from the carotid sinuses in
structure and in function.
34
The carotid artery sinuses contain mechanoreceptors that respond to changes
in stretch or deformation of the carotid artery wall; the carotid bodies contain
chemoreceptors that respond to certain changes in their chemical environment.
3. Aortic Bodies
Contain chemoreceptors that function separately from aortic pressoreceptors,
which are in the wall of the ascending arch of the aorta. Most of the aortic
chemoreceptors lie between the arch of the aorta and the pulmonary artery or
on the dorsal aspect of the pulmonary artery.
D. Mechanism of Inspiration
 Inspiration is an active process.
 Contraction of diaphragm increases the longitudal diameter of the chest. Also,
the concentration of the external intercostal muscles elevates the ribs,
resulting in an increased transverse diameter of the thorax.
 At the start of inspiration, the intrapleural pressure is about -2.5 mmHg
(relative to atmospheric pressure). When the chest volume is increased, the
intrapleural pressure is further decreased to about -6mmHg and the lungs are
pulled into a more expanded position. The pressure in the airway becomes
slightly negative and air flows into the lungs.
E. Mechanism of Expiration
 Following an inspiration, the enlarged thorax may return to the its resting
position by purely passive forces, that is, without muscular effort.
 At the end of the inspiration the lung recoil pulls the chest back to the
expiratory position where the recoil pressure of the lungs and chest wall
balance.
 The pressure in the airways becomes slightly positive and air flows out of the
lungs.
 Although in quite breathing expiration is passive, labored breathing is
accompanied by active expiration, that is, the return of the thorax to other
resting position being hastened.
 This is accompanied by the contraction of the anterior abdominal muscles
(internal intercostal muscles and the muscles of the anterior abdominal wall).
Very active expiration is seen also in coughing, talking, laughing, barking etc.
F. Regulation of Respiration
35
Poultry
Quail * 16-19 100-300
Pigeon * 17 10-20
Chicken * 21 50-300
Mallard duck * 28 50-300
Turkey * 28 50-100
Geese * 30 20-50
Muscovy * 36 50-100
duck
Mammals
Rabbit 15-20 32 10-30
Swine 18-21 114 10-25
Sheep 17 147 1-3
Goat 20-21 148 2-5
Cattle 21 280 0.5
Carabao 22-24 316 0.5
Gestation Period – refers to the period of time from conception to birth of the
offspring.
Placenta – a fusion of fetal membranes to the endometrium of the uterus to permit
physiological exchanges between fetus and the mother.
- A unique feature of early mammalian development as it allows provision
nutrients from the maternal organism.
Parturition – the physiological process by which the pregnant uterus delivers the
fetus and placenta from maternal organism; triggered by the fetus; and may divided
into three stages.
Signs of approaching parturition:
 Changes in the pelvic ligaments
 Enlargement and edema of the vulva
 Mammary activity – obvious enlargement of the mammary gland occurs in
almost all farm animals.
 The presence of milk in the mammary gland (a strong indication)
Note: The onset of milk secretion follows parturition, when the fetus is born the
mammary gland is ready to produce milk.
52
H. Gas Exchages
- The exchange between O2 and CO2
- All living things obtain the energy they need by metabolizing energy-rich
compounds, such as carbohydrates and fats. In the majority of organisms, this
metabolism takes place by respiration, a process that requires oxygen. In the
process, carbon dioxide gas is produced and must be removed from the body.
- In animals, gas exchange follows the same general pattern as in plants.
Oxygen and carbon dioxide move by diffusion across moist membranes. In
simple animals, the exchange occurs directly with the environment. But with
complex animals, such as mammals, the exchange occurs between the
environment and the blood. The blood then carries oxygen to deeply
embedded cells and transports carbon dioxide out to where it can be removed
from the body.
- The lungs of mammals are divided into millions of microscopic air sacs
called alveoli (the singular is alveolus). Each alveolus is surrounded by a rich
network of blood vessels for transporting gases. In addition, mammals have a
37
dome-shaped diaphragm that separates the thorax from the abdomen,
providing a separate chest cavity for breathing and pumping blood. During
inhalation, the diaphragm contracts and flattens to create a partial vacuum in
the lungs. The lungs fill with air, and gas exchange follows.
Lesson 7: The Excretory Organs
is a passive biological system that removes excess, unnecessary materials
from the body fluids of an organism, so as to help maintain internal
chemical homeostasis and prevent damage to the body.
The dual function of excretory systems is the elimination of the waste
products of metabolism and to drain the body of used up and broken down
components in a liquid and gaseous state. In humans and
other amniotes (mammals, birds and reptiles) most of these substances leave
the body as urine and to some degree exhalation, mammals also expel them
through sweating.
1. Kidneys
The kidney's primary function is the elimination of waste from the bloodstream by
production of urine. They perform several homeostatic functions such as:-
1. Maintain volume of extracellular fluid
2. Maintain ionic balance in extracellular fluid
3. Maintain pH and osmotic concentration of the extracellular fluid.
4. Excrete toxic metabolic by-
products such as urea,
ammonia, and uric acid.
The way the kidneys do this is

with nephrons. There are over
1 million nephrons in each
kidney; these nephrons act as
filters inside the kidneys. The
kidneys filter needed materials
and waste, the needed
materials go back into the
bloodstream, and unneeded
materials become urine and
are gotten rid of.
38
Cellulose Volatile Fatty Acid (VFA)
Sucrose Glucose and fructose
Lactose Glucose and galactose
Lipids Fatty acids and glycerol
Minerals Any soluble form
Vitamins Any soluble forn
Lesson 2: Classification of Nutrients and their Characteristics

1. Water
o Cheapest and the most abundant nutrient.
o Makes up to 65-85 % of the animal body weight at birth and 45 – 60% of
animal body weight at the period of maturity.
o Percentage of body water decreases with animal age and has inverse
relationship with body fats.
2. Carbohydrates
o Made up of C (40%), H (7%) and O (53%) by percentage of molecular
weight.
o Functions in animal body
 Source of energy
 Source of heat
 Building store for other nutrients
 Stored in animal body by converting into fats.
- Deficiencies in abnormal metabolism
 Ketosis – the abnormal increase of ketone bodies in the body.
 Diabetes mellitus
3. Fats (Lipids or Ether Extracts)
o Made up of (molecular weight) C (77%), H (12%) and O (11%).
o Fat will yield 2.25 times more energy than carbohydrates or proteins.
o Function
 Dietary supply
 Source of heat, insulation, protection for animal body
56
 Symptoms – reduce growth and feed efficiency, anorexia and
infertility.
 Amino Acid deficiency – results to deamination (removal of
groups of amino acids)
5. Minerals
- The total content of plants or in animal is sometimes called as ash.
- Classification:
a. Major Minerals – normally present at greater level in animal body or needed
in relatively large amounts in the diet. Includes, Ca, P, Na, Cl, K, Mg and S.
b. Trace Minerals – normally present at low levels in animal body or needed in
very small amount in the diet (Cu, Zn, Co, F, I, Fe, Mn and Se). Most of these
elements are toxic in large quantities.
General Functions:
 Skeletal formation and maintenance – Ca, P, Mg, Cu, Mn
 Function in protein synthesis – P, S, Zn
 Oxygen transport – Fe, Cu
 Fluid balance (osmotic pressure) – Na, Cl, K
 Regulating acid-base balance in the entire system – Na, Cl, K
 Activators and/or components of enzyme system – Ca, P, K, Mg, Fe, Cu, Mn,
Zn
 Mineral-Vitamin relationship – Ca, P, Se, Co
6. Vitamins
- Essential for development of normal tissue necessary foe metabolic activity
but do not enter into structural portion of body.
- Organic components of natural food but distinct from carbohydrates, protein
and water.
- Present in food in minute amounts and effective in animal body in small
amounts.
- Cannot be synthesized by animals.
- When absent from the diet or not properly absorbed or utilized, results in a
specific deficiency disease or syndrome.
- Related substances:
58
5. Hair, claw and skin problems – A, B2, B6, B12, H, PP and Pantothenic Acid
6. Anaemia – E, K, B12, B6, Folic Acid, PP and Pantothenic Acid
7. Impaired feed conversion – B1, B6, B12, H, PP and Pantothenic Acid
8. Lameness or unsteady gait – A, D, E, B2, B6, and Pantothenic Acid
9. Poor Reproduction – A, E, B2, B12, H, Folic Acid and Pantothenic Acid
10. Retarded growth – A, D, E, B1, B2, B6, B12, H and Folic Acid
(c) Ruminants
1. Muscles in coordination or other nervous signs – A and B1
2. Reduced feed intake – A, D and PP
3. Impaired vision or blindness – A
4. Digestive disturbances – A and B1
5. Rough hair coat – A
6. Degeneration of heart and skeletal muscles – E
7. Poor Reproduction – A, D and E
8. Retarded growth – A, D, E
9. Bone deformities and swollen joints – A and D
60
and yeast organs, egg yolk and
milk
Vitamin B2 Acts in the respiratory chains as a Some seed oil, yeast, Liver, kidneys, eggs,
(Riboflavin) constituent of flavin enzymes brewery by-products, milk and other dairy
concerned with hydrogen transfer vegetables, fish meal, products
meat and bone meal and
skimmed milk
Vitamin B6 Active in amino acid metabolism as Grains, milling by- Cereal, green vegetables,
(Pyredoine) coenzyme of several enzyme systems products, oil cakes and red meat, liver, egg-yolk
yeast and milk
Essential in reduction of one-carbon Does not occur in plants, Liver, kidney and egg
Vitamin B12
compounds in fat and protein skimmed milk powder, yolk
(Cyanocobalamin)
metabolism fish meal and meat meal
Biotin (Vitamin Necessary for glycogenesis and fatty Occurs in feeds of Vegetables, yeast,
H) acid synthesis where it acts as vegetable and animal mushroom, kidney, meat,
carboxylation reactions origin but only partly egg yolk, liver
available form
Folic Acid Acts in the one-carbon metabolism Lurcene meal, extracted Dark leafy vegetables,
where it is indispensable in the soybean meal, fish meal liver, kidney, muscles,
formation of amino acids and nucleic milk and dairy products
acids
Nicotonic Acid Acts as an active group of different Brans, dried green crops, Liver, meat of hoofed
(Niacin) coenzymes which are related to citric yeast, vegetable and animals
acids animal protein
62
develop resulting in disrupted
nerve and muscle function
and possible nervous
prostration
 Necessary for many enzyme activities Hypermagnesemic tetany – hyper
Magnesium  Plays a role in carbohydrates metabolism irritability of neuromuscular
 Necessary for the proper functioning of the nervous producing hyper excitability
system incoordination
 Bone and teeth formation – about 80% of body  Rickets in young animals,
phosphorus are found in bones and teeth similar to that of the calcium
 As a component of protein in soft tissues deficiency.
Phosphorus  Milk production – also egg production  Osteomalacia or osteoporosis
 In various metabolic processes in older animals similar to
calcium deficiency.
 Poor appetite, slow gain,
lowered milk production, low
blood and chew on non-feed
objects, but it is not specific
to phosphorus deficiency
Required by livestock for various body functions such as Most unlikely under ordinary
Potassium osmotic balance, acid-base balance, rumen digestion and the conditions. Symptoms of
primary intracellular action in neuromuscular activity deficiency rather than specific such
as decreased feed consumption,
64
The Accessory Glands of FRS:
1. Oviduct
The passageway from the ovaries to
the outside of the body is known as
the oviduct. In female mammals this
passageway is also known as the
uterine tube or Fallopian tube. The
eggs travel along the oviduct. These
eggs will either be fertilized
by sperm to become a zygote, or will
degenerate in the body.
2. Horn of the Uterus
The uterine horns are the points where the uterus and the fallopian tubes meet.
They are one of the points of attachment for the round ligament of uterus. The
uterine horns are far more prominent in other animals (such as cows and cats) than
they are in humans. In the cat, implantation of the embryo occurs in one of the two
uterine horns, not the body of the uterus itself.
3. The Cervix
The cervix is the lower end of
the womb (uterus). It is at the
top of the vagina. It is about 2.5
to 3.5 cm long. The cervical
canal passes through the cervix.
It allows blood from a
menstrual period and a baby
(fetus) to pass from the womb
into the vagina. The cervical
canal also allows sperm to pass
from the vagina into the uterus.
4. The Vagina
It is the primary organ of copulation. It serves as the receptacle of the sperm cells in
many species. It comprises a part of the birth canal of the animal parturition.
5. The Vulva
44
A common passage way for the products of reproduction and for urine. The vulva in
mammals is comparable to the ventral portion of the cloaca of birds. It is also
homologous with the scrotum of the male, since both are derived from the same
embryological structure.
6. The Clitoris
It is a rudimentary organ
located in the ventral
commissure of the vulva in
mammals. It is homologous
to the glans penis of the male.
7. The Broad Ligament
It suspends the female genital
system from the dorsolateral
wall of the pelvic canal.
There are three specialized
regions of the broad ligaments:
(1) Mesometrium - is that portion of the broad ligament which suspends the
anterior portion of the vagina, the cervix and the uterus and comprises the
major portion of the broad ligament
(2) Mesosalpinx – is a lateral fold on the anterior portion of the ligament which
suspends the oviduct (Salpinx).
(3) Mesovarium – is a specialized portion of the anterior edge of the broad
ligament which suspends the ovary proper. In some species a pocket-like
structure called Bursa is formed by fusion of two or more of the
mesovarium, mesosalpinx and infundibulum. It encloses, more or less
completely the ovary.
2. The Male Reproductive System
Produce Sperm
cells
Two main functions
Testis
Produce Male
Hormone –
Testosterone
45
 The main sex organ of the male is the testis. In birds, the two testes are
located within in the body cavity in the dorso-lumbar region.
 In farm animals, the testes are located outside the body cavity within the
scrotum. The scrotum is the cutaneous sac that serves as the external covering
of the testes. It protects
the testes from direct
mechanical injuries and
provides an
environment which is
few degrees (6-9°F)
cooler than the body
temperature which is
required for normal
spermatogenesis. The
thermoregulatory
muscles of the testes
are the cremaster
muscles and the dartos
muscles.
 The male characteristics such as muscular development at the rear quarters
and shoulders, aggressiveness and libido when confronted with an in heat
female of the same species are governed or influenced by the hormone
testosterone.
The Seminiferous Tubules
 Are located within the testes, and are the specific location of meiosis, and the
subsequent creation of male gametes, namely spermatozoa.
 The epithelium of the tubule consists of a type of sustentacular cells known
as Sertoli cells, which are tall, columnar type cells that line the tubule.
 Join together to form the rete testis and come out of the testis as vasa
efferentia. Vasa efferentia converged to form the head of the epididymis, then
the body and tail of the epididymis.
 The convoluted epididymis straightens up to form the vas deferens, which
then enters the inguinal canal and enlarges to form ampulla. The ampulla joins
with the urethra of the penis.
46
 Penis – is male organ of copulation and serves to introduce the spermatozoa
into the female reproductive tract.
There are three accessory glands which contribute to the bulk of the semen
ejaculated, these are:
(1) Seminal Vesicles - The epithelium of the tubule consists of a type
of sustentacular cells known as Sertoli cells, which are tall, columnar type
cells that line the tubule.
(2) Prostate Gland - The prostate gland is located just below the bladder in men
and surrounds the top portion of the tube that drains urine from the bladder
(urethra). The prostate's primary function is to produce the fluid that nourishes
and transports sperm (seminal fluid).
(3) Cowper’s Gland or Bulbo-rethral gland - The bulbourethral
gland or Cowper's gland (named for English anatomist William Cowper) is
one of two small exocrine glands in the reproductive system of many male
mammals (of all domesticated animals, they are absent only in dogs). [1] They
are homologous to Bartholin's glands in females. The bulbouretheral glands
are responsible for producing a pre-ejaculate fluid called Cowper's
Fluid (colloquially, pre-cum), which is secreted during sexual arousal,
neutralizing the acidity of the urethra in preparation for the passage of sperm
cells.
 The secretions of the accessory glands serve as the vehicle for the transport of
the spermatozoa from the vagina to the oviduct. It stimulates also spermatozoa
47
 Other than the genetic materials in the chromosomes and the possibility that
there may be genetic materials in the cytoplasm, the mother could further
influence the characteristic of her offspring because of the material care she
provides to her young.
 Maternal effect forms part of the total environment of the individual.
Genes in Population:
Gene pool – the totality of the genes that could potentially be transmitted by
individuals in a population to the next generation.
Population – a group of individuals sharing a common gene pool; a community of
sexually interbreeding or potentially interbreeding individuals.
- Characterized by the frequencies in which the genes and genotypes occur in
them.
 The genetic composition of most populations in a flux. It changes from
generation to generation.
Equilibrium population – a state when no change may occur; in Hardy-
Weinberg equilibrium stating that in an indefinitely large population undergoing
random mating, the gene and genotypic frequencies will remain constant from
generation to generation provided that there are no selection, migration and
mutation.
o The British mathematician Hardy and the German physician
Weinberg independently formulated the principle in 1908.
Lesson 4:Factors Affecting the Genetic Composition of a Population
1. Selection
 Process in which certain genotypes contribute more progeny in the next
generation than other genotypes.
2. Migration
 Process in which individuals from one population transfer to another
population.
 The change in the genetic composition in the host population afte migration is
directly proportional to the following two factors:
(1) The number of migrants in proportion to that of the resulting
populations after migration and
(2) The difference in the gene frequencies between the migrants and
the natives.
78
hours to several days; estrogen levels bring about surge of Luteinizing
Hormones and Follicle Stimulating Hormone. \
(3) Metestrus – the phase following estrus when the CL forms and begins to
produce progesterone.
(4) Diestrus – the phase when the CL is highly active in its production of
progesterone.
Terms to Know:
1. Corpus luteum - is a mass of cells that forms in an ovary and is responsible
for the production of the hormone progesterone during early pregnancy. The
role of the corpus luteum depends on whether or not fertilization occurs.
2. Luteinizing Hormone - a hormone produced by gonadotropic cells in the
anterior pituitary gland. In females, an acute rise of LH triggers ovulation and
development of the corpus luteum.
3. Follicle Stimulating Hormone - is one of the hormones essential to pubertal
development and the function of women's ovaries and men's testes. In women,
this hormone stimulates the growth of ovarian follicles in the ovary before the
release of an egg from one follicle at ovulation.
49
c. Classification of Animal Based on the Occurrence of theit Estrous Cycle:
(a) Monoestrus
- An animal that comes in heat once only in a year ex: Dogs (but seasonally
polyestrus).
- Comes in heat in certain seasons, ex: sheep
(b) Polyestrus
- Comes in heat through-out the year, ex: cattle, swine, carabao.
d. Signs of Heat or Estrus
- Perceived through physiological manifestation such as;
 Reddening and swelling of vulva
 Mucus discharges from the vagina
 Frequent urination
 Restlessness and lack of appetite
 Mounting other animals in the heard
 The female stands still when mounted (the best sign)
e. When to breed or inseminate
- Mating and insemination must be done at the time that the ovulation would
likely take place or as close as possible to the expected ovulation time.
- To early insemination reduces the conception rate due to the loss of sperm
viability.
- The best time to insemination is towards the end of the estrus.
- The duration of estrus is variable, when observed that the animal is in heat,
inseminate right away.
(1) Cattle and Carabao – ovulation takes place about 15-18 hours from the end
of estrus.
Rule: estrus duration in carabao lasts 5-36 hours (18 hours average)
(2) Swine – estrus duration is about 2-3 days 9 the best time to inseminate is on
the 2nd or 3rd day of estrus.
(3) Mares (female horse) – estrus duration is about 6-7 days; best time to
inseminate is on 4th or 5th day of estrus.
Semen capacitation – the sperm cell resides in the female reproductive tract before
becoming capable of attaching and penetrating to the ovum; believed to start in the
estrus.
Fertilization – the process when the sperm fuses to the ovum to form a zygote.
50
Beef Cattle Dairy Cattle Goat Sheep Horse
- Post - Milk - Multiple - Fleece - Galloping
weaning yield births weight speed
rate of - Butter (twinning) - Fiber - Trotting
gain yield - Weaning diamete speed
- Marbling - Milk weight r - Jumping
total - Milk yield style
solids - Trotting
pace length
Chicken for Chicken for Ducks for eggs Swine
meat eggs
- Growth - Egg - Egg - Average daily gain
rate producti productio - Litter size
- Feed on n - Loin eye area
conversio - Egg - Egg - Back-fat thickness
n ratio weight weight
- Dressing - Shell - Fertility
percentage thicken - Yolk
ess color
- Haugh
unit
Pedigree
 A record of an individual’s ancestors related to it through its parents
 Ancestral relationship among individuals of family over two or more
generations.
1. Systems of Breeding
- May include selection, introduction of exotic animals (migration) and
subsequent crossbreeding, induction of mutation and assortative and
disassortative mating including inbreeding.
(I) Selection
- It is the process in which some individuals are chosen over others as parents
of the next generation.
80
 Most of the economically important traits of domestic animals are influenced
by many pairs of genes acting in various and complicated ways including
additive, dominance and epistatic effects.
Heritability – measures the proportion of the total phenotypic variance that are
attributable to the additive effects of genes that influence the given trait.
- Heritability ranges from 0 to 1
- Heritability value of 0 suggests that all the phenotypic variation among
individuals in the population is due to environmental and non-additive genetic
effects.
- A heritability of 1 means that all the variability among individuals is only
attributable to additive effect of genes.
 In general, traits that are associated with reproduction (e.g., fertility and litter
size) have lower heritabilities than those that are associated with physical
conditions (e.g., body weight and back-fat thickness).
The estimated heritability of some of the more economically important traits among
farm animals is given in the following table:
Characteristics Heritability
Cattle
Amount of spotting (Holstein) 0.9
Adult body weight 0.6
Milk Production 0.3
Pigs
Percent of ham 0.5
Litter Size 0.2
Chicken
Egg size 0.7
Egg Production 0.2
2. Inbreeding
- A form of non-random mating or a special case of assortative mating where
individuals that are related by ancestry are mated together.
 Hybrid – an offspring of cross between two genetically unlike indiviuals.
 Inbreeding depression – reduction in fitness or vigor because of inbreeding or
normally cross-pollinate organisms.
81
3. Crossbreeding
- The mating between animals of different established breed
- Results to large improvement in the average performance of the F1 progeny
over that of the parents (called hybrid vigor or heterosis effect) in the presence
of large dominance effects crossbreeding.
Animal Reproduction
 Involves the physical and physiological processes in both sexes leading
to the fertilization of the egg by the sperm cell and the subsequent
development of the young.
Artificial Insemination (AI)
 Process of including fertilization in the female reproductive tract
without the benefit of sexual contact between the male and female
animal.
Multiple Ovulation and Embryo Transfer (MOET) Technology
 Increase the rate of reproduction of the females that are selected to
serve as embryo donors to as much as 30 to 50 time; already been
successfully demonstrated in cattle; not as widely practiced as AI.
Multiple ovulations – a process by which the female animals is induced to
simultaneously ovulate more eggs than what is normally shed.
Embryo Transfer – a technique wherein a young embryo is collected from a donor
female parent and then implanted into the uterus of a recipient female parent.
Activity 1. Identification
General Instruction: Read each statement and questions, and provide the
exact answer needed.
1. It refers to the procedure of inducing semen in the female’s organ of
copulation without the benefit of sexual intercourse.
2. A record of ancestral relationship among individuals of family over two or
more generations.
3. It measures the proportion of the total phenotypic variance that is attributable
to the additive effects of genes that influence the given trait.
4. It is the systematic study and art of genetic improvement amongst farm
animals.
5. Individual animals in this factor, transfers from one population to another.
82
6. Refers to the involuntary change in the biochemical structure of the gene
resulting in an entirely different phenotypic effect.
7. The totality of the genes that could potentially be transmitted by individuals in
a population to the next generation, refers to?
8. It is the pair of male sex chromosomes, in mammals.
9. The process of producing the reproductive cells is called as?
10. A Special kind of cell division where genetic materials is transmitted
from parent to offspring through the reduction of division of the germinal cells
and subsequent union of the gametes.
11. Dubbed to be the “father of genetics” and formulated and published his
hypothesis about inheritance of characteristics.
12. They independently rediscovered the works of Mendel in 1901.
13. A biologist whose studies showed that Mendelian Laws are also
applicable to animals.
14. It is a branch of biology that deals with the systematic study on the
principles of heredity and variation in all living things.
15. A biochemical compound consisting of a chain of nucleotides called
polynucleotides.
Activity 2. True or False
General Instruction: Read each statement and write T if the statement is correct and
underline the word or phrase that makes the statement false and write the
correct answer on your paper.
1. Amino acid is known to be the building block of fats.
2. Johannsen coined the term “gene” on the year 1901.
3. DNA is a threadlike structure found in the nuclei of the cell.
4. Watson and Crick hypothesized the chemical nature and function of gene.
5. Embryo transfer is the fusion of two gametes of opposite sexes to form a
zygote or an embryo.
paper.
END OF THE PREFINAL
83
Module 3 – Midterm Coverage will explain the general knowledge on
3 Animal Nutrition – from technical terms to differentiation of elements
and minerals needed animal growth.
1. Discuss the different terms used in animal nutrition.
3. Analyse the significance different chemicals, nutrients and minerals needed by
animals to grow and develop body mass.
Lesson 1: Terms to Know in Nutrition

1. Nutrition
- The series of processes which an organism in and assimilates food for
promoting growth and replacing worn-out and injured tissues.
- Encompasses several field of discipline like biochemistry, chemistry,
physiology, endocrinology, microbiology and genetics.
2. Nutrients
- Any feed constituents or a group of feed constituents of the same general
chemical composition that aids in the support of life.
- May include synthetically produced vitamins, chemical actions, enzyme
activity.
3. Metabolism
- Combination of anabolic and catabolic reactions occurring in the body with
liberation of energy.
- Can occur only after the basic units of nutrients have been absorbed into the
blood.
- Involved all the chemical reactions performed by the cells to use the basic
units of nutrients for their specific functions. i.e. glucose for energy, amino
acid for protein synthesis.
Nutrients Basic Unit
Protein Amino acid
Starch Glucose (non-ruminant)
Volatile Fatty Acid and lactic acid
(ruminant)
55
Cellulose Volatile Fatty Acid (VFA)
Sucrose Glucose and fructose
Lactose Glucose and galactose
Lipids Fatty acids and glycerol
Minerals Any soluble form
Vitamins Any soluble forn
Lesson 2: Classification of Nutrients and their Characteristics

1. Water
o Cheapest and the most abundant nutrient.
o Makes up to 65-85 % of the animal body weight at birth and 45 – 60% of
animal body weight at the period of maturity.
o Percentage of body water decreases with animal age and has inverse
relationship with body fats.
2. Carbohydrates
o Made up of C (40%), H (7%) and O (53%) by percentage of molecular
weight.
o Functions in animal body
 Source of energy
 Source of heat
 Building store for other nutrients
 Stored in animal body by converting into fats.
- Deficiencies in abnormal metabolism
 Ketosis – the abnormal increase of ketone bodies in the body.
 Diabetes mellitus
3. Fats (Lipids or Ether Extracts)
o Made up of (molecular weight) C (77%), H (12%) and O (11%).
o Fat will yield 2.25 times more energy than carbohydrates or proteins.
o Function
 Dietary supply
 Source of heat, insulation, protection for animal body
56
 Source of essentials fatty acids, linoleic, linolenic and arachidonic
acids.
 Serves as carrier for absorption of fat soluble vitamins.
- Deficiencies and Abnormal metabolism of Fat:
 Skin lesions and hair loss and reduced growth rate
 Ketosis – catabolism of body fat
 Fatty Liver – abnormal metabolism of liver
- Location and natural sources of fats
 Animal body – subcutaneous, surrounding internal organs,
marbling and milk.
4. Protein
- Large molecule is made up of (by molecular weight) C (53%), H (7%), O
(23%), N (16%) and P (1%)
a. Crude Protein – composed of true protein and any nitrogenous products;
crude protein = %N x 6.25
- Protein quality – refers to the amount and ratio of essential amino acids
present in protein.
b. Essential Amino Acids – those amino acids which are essential to the animal
and must be supplied in the diet because the animal cannot synthesize them
fast to meet its requirements.
Phenylalanine Methionine
Valine Histidine
Threonine Arginine
Tryptophan Leucine
Isoleucine Lysine
- Functions:
 Basic structural unit of animal body, i.e. collagen, elastin,
contractile protein, keratin proteins and blood proteins.
 Body metabolism – enzymes, hormones, immune antibodies and
hereditary transmission.
- Deficiencies and Abnormal metabolism of Protein:
57
 Symptoms – reduce growth and feed efficiency, anorexia and
infertility.
 Amino Acid deficiency – results to deamination (removal of
groups of amino acids)
5. Minerals
- The total content of plants or in animal is sometimes called as ash.
- Classification:
a. Major Minerals – normally present at greater level in animal body or needed
in relatively large amounts in the diet. Includes, Ca, P, Na, Cl, K, Mg and S.
b. Trace Minerals – normally present at low levels in animal body or needed in
very small amount in the diet (Cu, Zn, Co, F, I, Fe, Mn and Se). Most of these
elements are toxic in large quantities.
General Functions:
 Skeletal formation and maintenance – Ca, P, Mg, Cu, Mn
 Function in protein synthesis – P, S, Zn
 Oxygen transport – Fe, Cu
 Fluid balance (osmotic pressure) – Na, Cl, K
 Regulating acid-base balance in the entire system – Na, Cl, K
 Activators and/or components of enzyme system – Ca, P, K, Mg, Fe, Cu, Mn,
Zn
 Mineral-Vitamin relationship – Ca, P, Se, Co
6. Vitamins
- Essential for development of normal tissue necessary foe metabolic activity
but do not enter into structural portion of body.
- Organic components of natural food but distinct from carbohydrates, protein
and water.
- Present in food in minute amounts and effective in animal body in small
amounts.
- Cannot be synthesized by animals.
- When absent from the diet or not properly absorbed or utilized, results in a
specific deficiency disease or syndrome.
- Related substances:
58
 Provitamins or precursors, i.e. carotene
 Anitvitamins – vitamin antagonist or pseudovitamins.
Classification and Structure:
(a) Fat Soluble – ADEK
(b) Water Soluble – thiamine, riboflavin, niacin, pyridoxine, pantothenic acid,
biotin, choline, folic acid.
Functions and Deficiencies:
(a) Play role as regulators of metabolism; necessary for growth and
maintenance.
(b) Vitamin requirement may also increase in old age due to difficulties in
absorption and utilization.
General Symptoms Indicative of Marginal or Advance Vitamins Deficiency:
(a) Poultry
1. Nervous disorder such as convulsion – A, E, B1, B2, B6, Folic Acid
2. Skin and mouth lesion – A, B2, B6, H, PP and Pantothenic Acid
3. Discharge from eyes or swollen, pasted eyelids – A and Pantothenic Acid
4. Reduces resistance to infectious diseases – A, E, B2, B6, Pantothenic and C
5. Poor Feathering – A, D, B6, H, Folic Acid, PP and Pantothenic Acid
6. Bone abnormalities – A, D, H, Folic acid and PP
7. Leg Weakness and Paralysis – A, D, E, B2, B6 and H
8. Egg production reduced full potential - A, D, E, K, B2, B6, B12
9. Retarded growth – A, E, K, B1, B2, B6, B12, H, Folic Acid, PP, Pantothenic
Acid and C
10. Hatchability reduced/below full potential – A, D, B2, B6, B12, H, Folic
Acid and Pantothenic Acid
(b) Pigs/Swine
1. Muscles in coordination or other nervous signs – A, D, B6, B12 and
Pantothenic Acid
2. Reduced feed intake – A,D, B1, B2, B6, B12, H, Folic Acid, PP and
Pantothenic Acid
3. Impaired visions or blindness – A, B2, B6
4. Scours and/or vomiting – B1, B2, B6, B12 and PP
59
5. Hair, claw and skin problems – A, B2, B6, B12, H, PP and Pantothenic Acid
6. Anaemia – E, K, B12, B6, Folic Acid, PP and Pantothenic Acid
7. Impaired feed conversion – B1, B6, B12, H, PP and Pantothenic Acid
8. Lameness or unsteady gait – A, D, E, B2, B6, and Pantothenic Acid
9. Poor Reproduction – A, E, B2, B12, H, Folic Acid and Pantothenic Acid
10. Retarded growth – A, D, E, B1, B2, B6, B12, H and Folic Acid
(c) Ruminants
1. Muscles in coordination or other nervous signs – A and B1
2. Reduced feed intake – A, D and PP
3. Impaired vision or blindness – A
4. Digestive disturbances – A and B1
5. Rough hair coat – A
6. Degeneration of heart and skeletal muscles – E
7. Poor Reproduction – A, D and E
8. Retarded growth – A, D, E
9. Bone deformities and swollen joints – A and D
60
Vitamins Modes of Action Natural Occurrences
Fat Soluble In feeds In food
Vitamin A Promotes the development of visual Only as provitamin in Liver, egg, milk and
(Retinol) pigments; indispensable for the green crops; fish liver oil other dairy products
formation and protection of epithelial
tissues; Improved resistance to
infections
Vitamin D Regulates the incorporation of Ca Sun-dried forages; fish Eggs, milk and other
(Calciferol) and P into the bone matrix and Ca liver oil dairy products
absorption from the intestinal lumen
Vitamin E Works as a biological antioxidant, as Green crops, cereal Leafy vegetables, some
(Tocopherol) a detoxifying agent and participate as germs and milling by- animal organs, milk
components of the respiratory chains; products butter
functions in nucleic acid and
metabolism and endocrine glands
Vitamin K Functions in the blood coagulation Green forage, liver oil Green vegetables;
(Menadione) system; acts in the maturation of the potatoes, fruits;
bone structure (tomatoes and
strawberries)
Water Soluble
Vitamin B1 Participates in process of Cereal germs, milling Cereals, vegetables,
(Thiamine) carbohydrates metabolism by-products, oil cakes potatoes, fruits; animal
61
and yeast organs, egg yolk and
milk
Vitamin B2 Acts in the respiratory chains as a Some seed oil, yeast, Liver, kidneys, eggs,
(Riboflavin) constituent of flavin enzymes brewery by-products, milk and other dairy
concerned with hydrogen transfer vegetables, fish meal, products
meat and bone meal and
skimmed milk
Vitamin B6 Active in amino acid metabolism as Grains, milling by- Cereal, green vegetables,
(Pyredoine) coenzyme of several enzyme systems products, oil cakes and red meat, liver, egg-yolk
yeast and milk
Essential in reduction of one-carbon Does not occur in plants, Liver, kidney and egg
Vitamin B12
compounds in fat and protein skimmed milk powder, yolk
(Cyanocobalamin)
metabolism fish meal and meat meal
Biotin (Vitamin Necessary for glycogenesis and fatty Occurs in feeds of Vegetables, yeast,
H) acid synthesis where it acts as vegetable and animal mushroom, kidney, meat,
carboxylation reactions origin but only partly egg yolk, liver
available form
Folic Acid Acts in the one-carbon metabolism Lurcene meal, extracted Dark leafy vegetables,
where it is indispensable in the soybean meal, fish meal liver, kidney, muscles,
formation of amino acids and nucleic milk and dairy products
acids
Nicotonic Acid Acts as an active group of different Brans, dried green crops, Liver, meat of hoofed
(Niacin) coenzymes which are related to citric yeast, vegetable and animals
acids animal protein
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Pantothenic Acid Part of coenzyme A which occupies Dried green crops, Cereals, legumes,
a central position in the intermediary milling by-products, oil kidney, liver, egg yolk
metabolism by activating weakly cakes and yeast and milk products
active acids
Vitamin C Essential in formation and Beef, green plans, Potatoes, cabbage,
(Ascorbic Acid) maintenance of skeletal tissues, skimmed milk powder lettuce (and other
participates as an oxidation – vegetables), citrus,
reduction system in cellular tomatoes and other fresh
oxidation processes. Involved in fruits
defensive mechanism
Macro Functions Deficiency

Minerals
 Bone and teeth formation – 99% of body calcium in  Rickets in young animals;
Calcium bones and teeth joints being enlarged; bones
 Nerve and muscle functions; acid base balance, milk become soft and deformed
production, also egg production  Osteomalacia or osteoporosis
in older animals; bones
become porous and weak
Chlorine  Formation of digestive juices  Un-thrifty appearance and
and  Control of body fluid concentration impaired performance
Sodium  Control of body fluid pH  Heavy perspiring animals, an
 Nerve and muscle activity acute salt deficiency may
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develop resulting in disrupted
nerve and muscle function
and possible nervous
prostration
 Necessary for many enzyme activities Hypermagnesemic tetany – hyper
Magnesium  Plays a role in carbohydrates metabolism irritability of neuromuscular
 Necessary for the proper functioning of the nervous producing hyper excitability
system incoordination
 Bone and teeth formation – about 80% of body  Rickets in young animals,
phosphorus are found in bones and teeth similar to that of the calcium
 As a component of protein in soft tissues deficiency.
Phosphorus  Milk production – also egg production  Osteomalacia or osteoporosis
 In various metabolic processes in older animals similar to
calcium deficiency.
 Poor appetite, slow gain,
lowered milk production, low
blood and chew on non-feed
objects, but it is not specific
to phosphorus deficiency
Required by livestock for various body functions such as Most unlikely under ordinary
Potassium osmotic balance, acid-base balance, rumen digestion and the conditions. Symptoms of
primary intracellular action in neuromuscular activity deficiency rather than specific such
as decreased feed consumption,
64
lowered feed efficiency, slow
growth and emaciation.
 As component of amino acid – cysteine and methionine Seldom experienced under ordinary
and the vitamins – biotin and thiamine conditions. Deficiency will express
Sulfur  In the synthesis of sulphur containing amino acids in itself as a protein deficiency –
the rumen generally un-thrifty and poor
 In the formation of various body compounds performance
Micro
Minerals Functions Deficiency
 As a component of vitamin B12 molecule General malnutrition symptoms –
Cobalt  In the rumen synthesis of vitamin B12 poor appetite, un-thriftiness,
anemia, decreased fertility, slow
growth and decreased milk and
wool production
 In iron absorption  Low blood and liver copper;
Copper  In haemoglobin formation bleaching of hair in cattle;
 In synthesis of keratin for hair and wool growth abnormal wool growth in
 In various enzyme systems sheep; abnormal bone
metabolism
 Muscular incoordination;
weakness at birth; anemia
Fluorine  Reduces incidence of dental caries in human and In children excessive dental caries
65
possibly in other animal
 Possibly retards osteoporosis in mature animals
Iodine In the production of thyroxine by the thyroid gland Goiter at birth or soon thereafter;
dead or weak at birth; hairlessness
at birth; infected navels –
especially in foals
Iron  Necessary for haemoglobin formation In young pig: low blood
 Essential for formation of certain enzymes related to haemoglobin; labored breathing;
oxygen transport and utilization listlessness; Pale eyelids, ears and
 Enters into the formation of certain compounds that nose; flabby, wrinkled skin, edema
serves as iron stores in the body – specially ferritin, of heat and shoulders
found primarily in the liver and spleen and
hemosiderin, found mainly in the blood
Manganese In enzyme systems influencing estrys, ovulation, fetal Delayed estrus; reduced ovulation;
development, udder development, milk production and reduced fertility; abortions;
growth and skeletal development resorptions; deformed young; poor
growth, lowered serum alkaline
phosphatise; lowered tissue
manganese, “knuckling over” in
calves
Molybdenum  As a component of enzyme – xanthine oxidase –
especially important to poultry for uric acid formation
 Stimulates action of rumen organisms
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 In vitamin E absorption and utilization  Nutritional muscular
Selenium  Essential component of enzymes – glutathione dystrophy (white muscle
peroxidase, which functions to destroy toxic peroxides disease) in lambs and calves:
in the tissue thereby having sparing effect in the retained placenta in cows,
vitamin E requirement. heart failure, paralysis, poor
 Other compounds of selenium seem to work in growth, low fertility, liver
concert with vitamin E in the maintenance of normal necrosis
cell functions and membrane health.  Pancreatic fibrosis in chicks
Zinc  Prevents parakeratosis Frequently experienced in growing
 Promotes general thriftiness and growth and fattening swine being fed on
 Promotes wound healing concentre with rations containing
 Related to hair and wool growth and health recommended levels of calcium.
 Deficiency impairs testicular growth and function Deficiency symptoms include:
Parakeratosis, General un-
thriftiness, poor growth, unhealthy
looking hair or wool, slow wound
healing
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Lesson 3: Growth and Maintenance
Basal metabolism or fasting Catabolism – refers to the minimum energy
expenditure to maintain essential life processes.
1. Growth
- The correlated increase in the mass of the body to reach the size at maturity
fixed by heredity
- Reflected in increased weight and size
- Characterized by: Increase in the number of cells, increase in size of the cells.
Protein Requirement for Growth and Maintenance
The “adult growth” functions – i.e., feathers, hairs, hoofs, nails etc.
- A broiler starter and pig starter mashes may require more than 20% protein
(with good quality protein feeds like fish meal, meat meal, soybean meal,
skim milk powder, etc.) whereas the hog/finisher mash may contain only 14%
protein (with little amount of the good quality protein in feeds)
Energy Requirement for Growth
- Energy coming mainly from carbohydrates; provided also by fats and proteins
are the driving force for tissue synthesis or anabolism.
- Ways of Energy Restriction – to limit the energy intake of an animal either or
both of these ways may be followed:
 Limits the total feed intake
 Lower the energy content or density of the ration – i.e., make the
ration bulky
- The energy: protein ratio is an important factor in the efficiency and economy
of growth.
Growth Rates and Feed Efficiency
 The practical measure of growth performance of farm animals are average
daily gain in weight (ADG) and feed efficiency (F/G).
 The values are greatly affected by two major factors:
Heredity (particularly the breed or strain of the animal)
Environment (Particularly by the nutrition and management)
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F/G kg
ADG (kg) feed/kg Live
weight gain
Growing pigs (improved 0.4-0.6 2.5-3.5
crossbreds)
Growing cattle (native) 0.4-0.5 11.0-12.0
Growing cattle (native- 0.5-0.7 10.0-11.0
Zebu grades)
Broiler (modern strains) 1.5 -1.8 (6-7 2.0-2.3
weeks)
Feeds and Nutrients Resources:
Feeds - constitute a large portion of expenses in any livestock enterprise
Roughages
(a) Alabang X (Discanthium aristatum)
(b) Centrosema/kudzu/calopogonium (Centrosema pubescens)
(c) Guinea grass (Panicum maximum)
(d) Ipil-Ipil (Leucaena leucocephala)
(e) Kakawate/madre de cacao (Gliricidia sepium)
(f) Napier grass (Pennisetum purpureum)
(g) Para grass (Brachiaria mutica)
(h) Star grass (Cynodon plectostachyus)
(i) Rice straw
(j) Corn stover
(k) Setaria
Concentrates
(a) Banana meal
(b) Blood meal
(c) Bone meal
(d) Cassava meal
(e) Coconut oil
(f) Copra meal
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 Flaying or skinning – this is the removal of the hide.
 Shrouding – this is wrapping the carcass with cheese cloth. The cloth is
soaked in luke warm water and wrapped around the carcass while its warm.
The cloth absorbs the remaining blood at the surface of the carcass, smoothens
the internal fat covering, causes fat to appear white and dense and prevents
excessive shrinkage and oxidation.
3. In Goats
Two methods of slaughtering goats:
(a) Singed Method
After stunning and sticking, singeing is done with either a blow torch or
an open fire. While singeing, the hairs are continuously craped with a
dull knife until hairs are all burned. The belly must be pinched to avoid
bursting of the whole belly cavity. After singeing, the canked skin is
sliced off for the preparation of kilawin. Evisceration is done similar
wit that in cattle.
(b) Flayed Method
The process of stunning and sticking in the singed method is followed
but the skin is not utilized for food. The removal of fleece or flaying is
made slightly different from that in cattle and carabao. Be sure not to
allow the meat to come in contact with hairs to avoid imparting goat
odor to meat. Evisceration and chilling in goats are similar with that in
cattle except that in goats, splitting of the carcass is not done.
Lesson 5: Meat and Meat Products

(1) Meat – properly dressed flesh derived from mature animals in good
condition at the time of slaughter.
(2) Carcass – the body of any slaughtered animals after bleeding and dressing.
(3) Dressing percentage – percent yield of the carcass, carcass weight divided
by the slaughter weight multiplied by 100 or %YC = CW/SW x 100.
(4) Loin ear area – the cross sectional area of the longissimus dorsi muscle of
pork/beef.
(5) Fresh meat – meat from an animal that has not undergone any substantial
physical, microbiological and chemical change from the time of change.
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General Direction: Write true if you believe that the statements below are correct;
write false if you think it’s not.
1. Nutrients refers to any feed constituents or a group of feed constituents of the
same general chemical composition that aids in the support of life.
2. Metabolism is the series of processes by which organism takes place in and
assimilates food for promoting growth and replacing worn out tissue.
3. Nutrition refers to the combination of anabolic and catabolic reactions
occurring in the body with the liberation of energy.
4. Water is the cheapest and most abundant nutrient.
5. Protein is the source of energy, heat and building stores for nutrients in the
body.
6. Fats or lipids are made up of 53% - C, 7% - H, 23% - O, 16% - N and 1% - P
7. Examples of essential amino acids are Phenylalanine, valine, threonine and
isoleucine.
8. The total mineral content of plants or animals is often called ash.
9. Vitamins are essential for development of normal tissue but cannot be
synthesized by the animal.
10. Retinol promotes the development of visual pigments.
General directions: Read each statements carefully and provide the correct answer.
1. It regulates the incorporation of Ca and P into the bone matrix and ca
absorption from the intestinal lumen.
2. Functions in nucleic acid nucleic acid metabolism and in endocrine glands.
3. Traces of this vitamin are found in cereal germs, milling by-products, oil
cakes and yeast.
4. The deficiency of this nutrients leads to Rickets in young and osteomalacia in
mature animals.
5. These minerals are essential for the formation of digestive juices and the
control of bodily fluids.
6. Deficiency of this nutrient leads to hypermagnesemic tetany.
7. Referred to the increased weight and in size of an animal.
8. It is necessary for the production of thyroxine.
9. It reduces the incidence of dental caries in all animals.
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10. Necessary for haemoglobin formation, in synthesis of keratin for hair
and wool growth in animals.
paper.
END OF THE MIDTERM
72
PREFINAL COVERAGE will tackle the GENETICS AND
4 LIVESTOCK IMPROVEMENT. This module aims to inculcate the
underlying lessons on the introductory concept of genetics and
livestock improvement.
1. Discuss the importance of genes and their role in animal science.
2. Enhance knowledge in scientific production of farm and domesticated animals,
through the advent of theories and concept in genetics and improvement.
3. Analyse the significance of genetics and livestock improvement in animal
agriculture.
Lesson 1: Genes and their role in Animal Productivity

Genetics – is the branch of biology that deals with the principles of heredity and
variation in all living things.
Important Contributors to the field of Genetics:
1. Gregor Mendel (1866) – the Father of Genetics; an Austrian monk who
conducted breeding experiments on garden peas (Pisum sativum L.),
formulated and published his hypothesis about the mechanics of inheritance of
characteristics were determined by elementary factors (now called genes)
2. Hugo de Vries (in the Netherlands), Carl Correns (in Germany) and Erick
Von Tshermark (in Austria) – independently rediscovered the works of
Mendel in 1901.
3. William Bateson (1906) – an English biologist, who studies the inheritance of
certain characteristics of the chicken, showed that the Mendelian laws also
applied to animals.
4. Johannsen (1909) – a Danish biologist, coined the term “gene” to refer to the
particulate factor that Mendel hypothesized as the basic unit of inheritance.
Genetic Improvement
- Improvement with the performance of the animals brought about by selection
assuming that the environment is favourable.
1. DNA
o Deoxyribonucleic Acid; the primary genetic material of all cells
73
o A biochemical compound consisting of a chain of nucleotides called
polynucleotides; each nucleotide consists of phosphates (P) and Sugar (S) and
a base (B).
Chromosomes – threadlike structures found in the nuclei of the cell
Amino Acid – the building blocks of proteins; specific combinations of 3 bases;
20 of which are normally found in proteins and referred to as essential amino
acids.
2. Gene
o A segment of the DNA which determines the base sequence of nucleotide in
the messenger ribonucleic acid (m-RNA) that makes up the code for certain
biological functions.
o The genetic information that is stored must be such that it can be decoded and
translated into action in the developing individual.
3. Mitosis
o The mechanism of cell divisions by which the genetic and chromosome
composition of a cell is faithfully reproduced in each of the daughter cells.
o Means of growth and replacement in multicellular organisms.
4. Meiosis
o A special kind of cell division in sexually reproducing organisms whereby the
chromosome number of cells s reduced to half; a process by which the
germinal cells divided to produce haploid cells each carrying only one-half of
the genetic complement of the individual.
o The genetic materials is transmitted from parent to offspring is made possible
through the reduction division of the germinal cells and subsequent union of
the gametes.
Diploid – a cell tissue or organism that contains two genomes or chromosomes
set.
Haploid – cells that contain half as many chromosomes as the somatic cells.
5. The G x E Interaction
 The mechanics by which the gene is able to synthesize protein in the cell
underlies the relationship among the genotype (G) and the environment (E) in
the formation of the phenotype (P) of the organism.
Genotype – refers to the specific combination of genes that are associated with
particular characteristics of the individual; ex: In breeding, the accumulation of
74
and proper combination among the genes that are favourable to the expression of
superior performance is desired.
Environment – the totality of non-genetic factors affecting the individual; ex:
Provided well-balanced and nutritious feed, good housing and other favourable
environmental factors in the aim of good husbandry practices.
Phenotype – the observable manifestation of a given character of an individual;
the phenotype may change but the genotype remains.
 Express mathematically as P = G+E+ (G x E), where G x E is the interaction
between the genotype of the individual and the environment under which it is
raised.
 The effect of G x E interaction becomes significant when certain genotypes
perform well under certain environments than other genotypes. For example,
the Zebu (humped) called grow and reproduce better in warm tropical
environment that the European (hump less) cattle and vice-versa.
6. Gene Action
 Gene may be active only when they occur in pairs of alleles during diploid
phase.
Allele – one of two or more alternative forms of a gene which are usually
recognizable by the phenotype.
Structural genes – directly responsible for the synthesis of certain biochemical
products during cell metabolism.
Regulator genes – control or regulate the function of other genes; may function in
terms of quantity, quality or timing of the activity of certain structural genes.
 The action of genes as they influence genotypic values may be any or a
combination of the following types:
(a) Additive – a pair of allelic genes contribute independently to the genotypic
value; ex: Inheritance of the roan coat color in cattle.
(b) Dominance – the corresponding trait determined by an allele which is
manifested in the heterozygous form.
- A gene suppresses the expression of its allele; the former is called the
dominant gene while the latter is referred to as the recessive.
- Ex: a homozygous pea comb (genotype PP) and a single comb (genotype pp)
are crossed; the progeny will be heterozygous pea comb (genotype Pp).
(c) Epistasis – taken from the Greek word which means “to stand upon”
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- Interaction of between two or more genes so that one of them (epistatic gene)
interferes with or even inhibits the phenotypic expression of the other gene
(hypostatic gene).
- Special form of epistasis: complementary gene action
7. The Mechanics of Inheritance
Animal reproduction – allows the flow of the genetic material from generation to
generation; involves two processes: gametogenesis and fertilization.
(a) Gametogenesis – the process of producing the reproductive cells
 Spermatogenesis – is the process of differentiation of a mature sperm cell
from undifferentiated germ line cell, including meiosis; male produces sperm
cells.
 Oogenesis – the process of differentiation of a mature egg cell from an
undifferentiated germ line cell, including meiosis; female produce egg cells.
 Gamete – a mature reproductive cell capable of fusing with a similar cell of
the opposite sex to form a zygote; also called sex cell.
 Spermatozoa – the male gametes of animals
 Ovum – the female gamete
(b) Fertilization – the fusion of two gametes of opposite sexes to form a
Lesson 2: The Mendelian Inheritance
The process of segregation and recombination of genes is governed purely by
chance and that the occurrence of each new combination may be predicted
according to the rules of probability.
1. Law of Segregation – states that the unit of hereditary characters occur in
pairs, and that in the information of gametes during meiosis, these separate
from each other so that only one member of the pair goes into the particular
gamete; Each parent must have contributed equally to the progeny; it is a
matter of chance whether the gamete gets the dominant or the recessive allele.
2. Law of Independence – states that genes for the different characters re
inherited independently from each other and randomly combine during
meiosis.
The Non-Mendelian Inheritance
The inheritance of some characters did not follow the Mendelian laws
The deviations were due to chromosomal phenomena.
76
1. Linkage – a measure of the tendency of some genes to be inherited as a group
rather than individually because of the proximity of their loci in the
chromosome.
2. Locus – (plural Loci) a place at which a particular gene resides on the genetic
or linkage map.
3. Autosomes – carry genetic material but do not determine sex
4. Sex chromosomes – determine the sex of an individual.
Sex Chromosome Pair
Class of Animal Male Female
Mammals XY XX
Birds ZZ ZW
5. Sex-linked genes – genes that are located in the sex chromosomes

6. Sex-linkage – the inheritance of certain characteristics that are associated with
one sex or the other because the genes controlling them are located in the sex
chromosomes.
- The heteogametic offspring could only receive the gene from its homogametic
parent while the homogametic offspring receives the allelic genes from both
parents.
- The distribution of the genotypes in the male and female progeny is not the
same when reciprocal crosses are made between pure recessive and dominant
genotypes.
- Ex: Haemophilia; color-blindness (in some mammalian species); barring
plumage pattern and dwarfism (in some species of poultry)
Lesson 3: The Non-nuclear Inheritance
1. Cytoplasmic Inheritance
 Occurs in plants; the chlorophyll – bearing plastids are carried in the
cytoplasm.
 Quite rare in animals.
 There are some evidences that cytoplasmic genetic material affecting milk
production may be present in cattle
2. Maternal Influence
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 Other than the genetic materials in the chromosomes and the possibility that
there may be genetic materials in the cytoplasm, the mother could further
influence the characteristic of her offspring because of the material care she
provides to her young.
 Maternal effect forms part of the total environment of the individual.
Genes in Population:
Gene pool – the totality of the genes that could potentially be transmitted by
individuals in a population to the next generation.
Population – a group of individuals sharing a common gene pool; a community of
sexually interbreeding or potentially interbreeding individuals.
- Characterized by the frequencies in which the genes and genotypes occur in
them.
 The genetic composition of most populations in a flux. It changes from
generation to generation.
Equilibrium population – a state when no change may occur; in Hardy-
Weinberg equilibrium stating that in an indefinitely large population undergoing
random mating, the gene and genotypic frequencies will remain constant from
generation to generation provided that there are no selection, migration and
mutation.
o The British mathematician Hardy and the German physician
Weinberg independently formulated the principle in 1908.
Lesson 4:Factors Affecting the Genetic Composition of a Population
1. Selection
 Process in which certain genotypes contribute more progeny in the next
generation than other genotypes.
2. Migration
 Process in which individuals from one population transfer to another
population.
 The change in the genetic composition in the host population afte migration is
directly proportional to the following two factors:
(1) The number of migrants in proportion to that of the resulting
populations after migration and
(2) The difference in the gene frequencies between the migrants and
the natives.
78
3. Mutation
 A spontaneous change in the biochemical structure of the gene resulting in an
entirely different phenotypic effect.
 If mutation occurs in the somatic cells (as in the case of cancer), it is not
heritable.
 If it occurs in the germinal cells, then it could be transmitted to the next
generation.
Small population size would result in change in the gene frequency simply
because of chance variation.
Because of certain physical, physiological or psychological factors, some
individuals tend to mate more often together than with some other individuals.
4. Non-random mating
 Occurs when some individuals do not have the same chances of mating with
individuals of the opposite sex.
 The only changes the genotypic frequency in the population
Important forms of non-random mating:
(1) Assortative – individuals that are more phenotypically similar tend to mate
to drive the population toward homozygosis.
(2) Disassortative mating- individuals which are less phenotypically similar
tend to mate more other together than would be expected by chance; tend to
maintain the production of more heterozygous at the expense of
homozygotes.
Complete disassortative mating – sex dimorphism in mammals (i.e.
the maintenance of male and female sexes) where only the mating
between XX and XY genotypes is successful.
(3) Inbreeding – individuals that are related by decent tend to mate more often
than under random mating; also tend to drive the population towards the
increase in the frequency of homozygotes.
Lesson 5: Animal Breeding
ANIMAL It is the art and science of the genetic

BREEDING improvement of farm animals.
Economically Important Traits in Farm Animals
79
Beef Cattle Dairy Cattle Goat Sheep Horse
- Post - Milk - Multiple - Fleece - Galloping
weaning yield births weight speed
rate of - Butter (twinning) - Fiber - Trotting
gain yield - Weaning diamete speed
- Marbling - Milk weight r - Jumping
total - Milk yield style
solids - Trotting
pace length
Chicken for Chicken for Ducks for eggs Swine
meat eggs
- Growth - Egg - Egg - Average daily gain
rate producti productio - Litter size
- Feed on n - Loin eye area
conversio - Egg - Egg - Back-fat thickness
n ratio weight weight
- Dressing - Shell - Fertility
percentage thicken - Yolk
ess color
- Haugh
unit
Pedigree
 A record of an individual’s ancestors related to it through its parents
 Ancestral relationship among individuals of family over two or more
generations.
1. Systems of Breeding
- May include selection, introduction of exotic animals (migration) and
subsequent crossbreeding, induction of mutation and assortative and
disassortative mating including inbreeding.
(I) Selection
- It is the process in which some individuals are chosen over others as parents
of the next generation.
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 Most of the economically important traits of domestic animals are influenced
by many pairs of genes acting in various and complicated ways including
additive, dominance and epistatic effects.
Heritability – measures the proportion of the total phenotypic variance that are
attributable to the additive effects of genes that influence the given trait.
- Heritability ranges from 0 to 1
- Heritability value of 0 suggests that all the phenotypic variation among
individuals in the population is due to environmental and non-additive genetic
effects.
- A heritability of 1 means that all the variability among individuals is only
attributable to additive effect of genes.
 In general, traits that are associated with reproduction (e.g., fertility and litter
size) have lower heritabilities than those that are associated with physical
conditions (e.g., body weight and back-fat thickness).
The estimated heritability of some of the more economically important traits among
farm animals is given in the following table:
Characteristics Heritability
Cattle
Amount of spotting (Holstein) 0.9
Milk Production 0.3
Pigs
Percent of ham 0.5
Litter Size 0.2
Chicken
Egg size 0.7
Egg Production 0.2
2. Inbreeding
- A form of non-random mating or a special case of assortative mating where
individuals that are related by ancestry are mated together.
 Hybrid – an offspring of cross between two genetically unlike indiviuals.
 Inbreeding depression – reduction in fitness or vigor because of inbreeding or
normally cross-pollinate organisms.
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3. Crossbreeding
- The mating between animals of different established breed
- Results to large improvement in the average performance of the F1 progeny
over that of the parents (called hybrid vigor or heterosis effect) in the presence
of large dominance effects crossbreeding.
Animal Reproduction
 Involves the physical and physiological processes in both sexes leading
to the fertilization of the egg by the sperm cell and the subsequent
development of the young.
Artificial Insemination (AI)
 Process of including fertilization in the female reproductive tract
without the benefit of sexual contact between the male and female
animal.
Multiple Ovulation and Embryo Transfer (MOET) Technology
 Increase the rate of reproduction of the females that are selected to
serve as embryo donors to as much as 30 to 50 time; already been
successfully demonstrated in cattle; not as widely practiced as AI.
Multiple ovulations – a process by which the female animals is induced to
simultaneously ovulate more eggs than what is normally shed.
Embryo Transfer – a technique wherein a young embryo is collected from a donor
female parent and then implanted into the uterus of a recipient female parent.
General Instruction: Read each statement and questions, and provide the
exact answer needed.
1. It refers to the procedure of inducing semen in the female’s organ of
copulation without the benefit of sexual intercourse.
2. A record of ancestral relationship among individuals of family over two or
more generations.
3. It measures the proportion of the total phenotypic variance that is attributable
to the additive effects of genes that influence the given trait.
4. It is the systematic study and art of genetic improvement amongst farm
animals.
5. Individual animals in this factor, transfers from one population to another.
82
6. Refers to the involuntary change in the biochemical structure of the gene
resulting in an entirely different phenotypic effect.
7. The totality of the genes that could potentially be transmitted by individuals in
a population to the next generation, refers to?
8. It is the pair of male sex chromosomes, in mammals.
9. The process of producing the reproductive cells is called as?
10. A Special kind of cell division where genetic materials is transmitted
from parent to offspring through the reduction of division of the germinal cells
and subsequent union of the gametes.
11. Dubbed to be the “father of genetics” and formulated and published his
hypothesis about inheritance of characteristics.
12. They independently rediscovered the works of Mendel in 1901.
13. A biologist whose studies showed that Mendelian Laws are also
applicable to animals.
14. It is a branch of biology that deals with the systematic study on the
principles of heredity and variation in all living things.
15. A biochemical compound consisting of a chain of nucleotides called
polynucleotides.
Activity 2. True or False
General Instruction: Read each statement and write T if the statement is correct and
underline the word or phrase that makes the statement false and write the
correct answer on your paper.
1. Amino acid is known to be the building block of fats.
2. Johannsen coined the term “gene” on the year 1901.
3. DNA is a threadlike structure found in the nuclei of the cell.
4. Watson and Crick hypothesized the chemical nature and function of gene.
5. Embryo transfer is the fusion of two gametes of opposite sexes to form a
paper.
END OF THE PREFINAL
83
FINAL COVERAGE will tackle the principles in
5 SLAUGHTHERING OF ANIMALS. This module aims to inculcate
the underlying lessons on the introductory animal slaughtering and the
processing of their products.
1. Discuss the different guiding principles in slaughtering of farm animals.
2. Enhance knowledge in scientific production of farm and domesticated animals,
through the advent of theories and concept in processing of animal products.
3. Analyse the significance of correct slaughtering or standards in slaughtering of
animals.
Lesson 1: Basic Principles of Slaughtering

Slaughtering – from fasting through stunning , bleeding up to skinning and
evisceration.
Abattoir or Slaughterhouse – the premises used in the slaughter of animals for
human consumption.
Guiding Principles on Selecting Animals for Slaughter:
- The produced should possess the characteristics necessary for the poducts.
Consideration:
(1) Sex
 Barrows and gilts have no distinct differences in meat quality
 Boar taint odor is only apparent in un-castrated male after reaching
seven months of age. Thus, less than seven months boar is fit for
slaughter.
 Meats from castrated hogs are fatter than their female and un-
castrated male counterparts of the same age. The quality of meat
obtained from stags partly depends on the age of the animal and on
the length of time from castration to slaughter.
 Meat from pregnant animal is low in quality. The meat may be fishy
in odor when the animal is at an advance stage of pregnancy.
 In cattle, meat from the bull is generally less tender and lower in
overall acceptability than that of stress.
(2) Age
84
 Recommended for swine is 6 to 12 months, 3 years of younger for cattle
and carabao, and about a year for goats.
 Meat from older animals tends to become darker, tougher, fatter and
poorer in quality than meat from younger animals. However, it is
flavorful, has a high water binding and emulsion capacity which is
associated with high degree of marbling.
 In beef, marbling increases up to 30 months but beyond this age limit, it
is already stationary.
 The most important quality factor which changes with age is, tenderness.
Beyond 42 months of age, meat from young and old animals is a;ready
equal in terms of tenderness.
 In general, meat from old animals is juicer than meat from young ones.
 Pork follows the same trend a beef. Very little change in tenderness
occurs after eleven months of age.
(3) Size
 The recommended slaughter weight of animals for fresh meat
retailing and intact meat processing are hogs, 80 to 110 and for cattle
and carabao, 300 to 450 kg. within these weight ranges, the retail cut
yield from the different livestock is optimum.
(4) Class
 Shute are utilized for the production of quality leachon or roasted
pigs, it command the highest price.
 The differences in carcass yield and characteristics are the function of
sex, age, size and amount of exercise each class receives.
(5) Health
 Only healthy animals shall be considered for slaughter, however,
those with minimal defects can also be slaughtered when they pass
the anti-mortem inspection.
 Unhealthy animals must first be treated to become normal prior to
slaughter. Meat from unhealthy animals is poor in quality and is not
recommended.
(6) Meat Yield
85
 The average dressing percentage of swine in the Philippines, head off
is about 69% and the total trimmed lean cuts amount to 36% of the
live weight.
 Beef and carabeef have similar average dressing percentage of 48%
but differ in the total lean yield with 34% and 33% respectively.
 Goats on the other hand have 43% dressing percentage and 27% total
lean yield.
(7) Loin Eye and other Measurements
 Wide loin eye area in swine is indicative of high lean cut and low fat
cut yields.
 Slaughter hogs with wide loin eye area are ideal for slaughtering.
(8) Degree of Fatness
 Consumers discriminate fatty meat; however, fat greatly influences
flavour, tender\ness and juiciness.
 For communicated beef and pork products, 30 to 40% fat seems to be
the most acceptable in terms of flavour, tenderness, juiciness and
overall acceptability.
Lesson 2: Handling Prior to Slaughter
(1) Fasting
 Feed is withdrawn but sufficient water is given.
 Pigs being simple stomach animals are fated for 12-24 hours while carabaos
and cattle being ruminants are fasted for 24-48 hours.
 Advantages of Fasting:
o Savings of feed
o Ease of cleaning entrails
o Ease of cleaning and eviscerating carcass
o A thoroughly bled and brightly colored carcass
o Long shelf life
o Low shrinkage of the resulting meat.
(2) Stress – shipping stress, over-crowding stress, driving stress, heat strees
and others.
 Any form of stress should not be given to the animal prior to slaughter.
 Animals must be allowed to relax for 1-3 days in the luggage area and be
properly conditioned before they are slaughtered.
86
 Disadvantages of Stress;
o Loss of muscle glycogen
o High temperature of carcass
o Low water binging capacity of meat
o Low aroma, flavour, texture and juiciness scores
 Meat from stressed animals is not recommended for curing
 The condition of the meat is pale, soft and exudative (PSE) if the stress is not
severe and it becomes dry, firm and dark (DFD) when the stress is severe.
 The pH of meat from undressed animals is 5.3 and the drop is very gradual.
The meat from stressed animals has pH within the range of 6.0 to 7.0 and the
pH drop is rapid.
(3) Mishandling
 Blood clots developed in the part of an animal whipped, kicked or boxed prior
to slaughter due to the breaking of some blood vessels in these affected areas,
 Meat with blood clots and red spots are not good materials for processing
because they always spoil before the curing period is completed.
Slaughtering Guidelines:
- Set by the National Meat Inspection Commission now, NMIS or National
Meat Inspection Service.
- Provided the minimum set of equipment and the standard features of a
slaughterhouse.
Lesson3: Classification of Slaughtering in the Philippines
(a) AAA – those adequate facilities and operational procedure of which meat
processed herein is eligible for sale in any market in and out of the country.
(b) AA – those with facilities and operational procedures sufficiently adequate
that the meat processed herein is eligible for sale in any market in the
Philippines.
(c) A – Those with facilities and operational procedures of minimum
adequacy, the meat processed herein is eligible for sale only in the city or
municipality in which the plant is located.
1. Basic Requirement in Slaughtering
- The cleanliness of the meat produced
- The hygiene of production
- The efficiency of meat inspection
- The adequacy of meat preservation
87
2. Steps in General Slaughtering
a. Ante mortem inspection – conducted by qualified meat inspector of to
determine whether the animal is fit for slaughter.
b. Stunning – rendering the animal unconscious without killing them to make
the restraining easy and sticking humane.
c. Sticking – withdrawing blood from the carcass; cautioned not to pierce the
heart that may cause instant death of the animal and will prevent thoroughly
bleeding; efficiently cutting the carotid artery or the jugular vein not later than
3-5 minutes after stunning.
d. Cleaning of the carcass – includes scalding, scarping, shaving, flaying, de-
hiding.
e. Eviscerating – removing visceral organs from the carcass.
f. Splitting – cutting of the entire backbone of the carcass.
g. Washing – with clean potable water to remove dirt, blood, etc.
h. Post-mortem inspection – done by qualified meat inspector to determine if
the meat is fit for human consumption.
 Inspected and Passed – the carcass so marked have been found to be
sound, healthful, wholesome and fit for human consumption.
 Passed for sterilization – carcasses or parts of carcasses so marked
inspected and passed for food, subject to the condition that these must be
sterilized by streaming in an appropriate apparatus or by boiling in an
open kettle.
 Inspected and condemned – carcasses or parts of carcasses so marked
are unsound, un-healthful, unwholesome or unfit for human
consumption; those unfit for both human and animal are denatured with
strong chemical disinfectants prior to final disposal.
 Passed for rendering – carcasses or parts of carcasses that may be
converted into animal feed. After sufficient heat treatment; shall be dyed
(food grade blue color) and cooked.
i. Chilling – the carcass chilled at 0-4°C for 24 hours before fabrication to allow
the rigor mortis to pass.
88
Lesson 4: The Process of Slaughtering Livestock animals
1. In Swine
• Ante mortem inspection
• Stunning
• Sticking (cleaning)
• Scalding
• Removal of head
• Evisceration
• Splitting
• Washing
• Post mortem inspection
• chilling (12-24 hours)
 Scalding – dipping the carcass in hot water to loosen up hairs and scarf; the
water temperature must be maintained at 54 to 84°C; too hot water can cause
hair setting while too cold water cannot effect loosening of hairs and scarf.
 Scarping – removal of hair using a scraping knife.
2. In Cattle and Carabao
• Ante morteminspection
• Stunning
• Sticking (cleaning)
• Flaying
• Removal of head
• Evisceration
• Splitting
• Washing
• Post mortem inspection
• chilling (36-48 hours)
89
 Flaying or skinning – this is the removal of the hide.
 Shrouding – this is wrapping the carcass with cheese cloth. The cloth is
soaked in luke warm water and wrapped around the carcass while its warm.
The cloth absorbs the remaining blood at the surface of the carcass, smoothens
the internal fat covering, causes fat to appear white and dense and prevents
excessive shrinkage and oxidation.
3. In Goats
Two methods of slaughtering goats:
(a) Singed Method
After stunning and sticking, singeing is done with either a blow torch or
an open fire. While singeing, the hairs are continuously craped with a
dull knife until hairs are all burned. The belly must be pinched to avoid
bursting of the whole belly cavity. After singeing, the canked skin is
sliced off for the preparation of kilawin. Evisceration is done similar
wit that in cattle.
(b) Flayed Method
The process of stunning and sticking in the singed method is followed
but the skin is not utilized for food. The removal of fleece or flaying is
made slightly different from that in cattle and carabao. Be sure not to
allow the meat to come in contact with hairs to avoid imparting goat
odor to meat. Evisceration and chilling in goats are similar with that in
cattle except that in goats, splitting of the carcass is not done.
Lesson 5: Meat and Meat Products

(1) Meat – properly dressed flesh derived from mature animals in good
condition at the time of slaughter.
(2) Carcass – the body of any slaughtered animals after bleeding and dressing.
(3) Dressing percentage – percent yield of the carcass, carcass weight divided
by the slaughter weight multiplied by 100 or %YC = CW/SW x 100.
(4) Loin ear area – the cross sectional area of the longissimus dorsi muscle of
pork/beef.
(5) Fresh meat – meat from an animal that has not undergone any substantial
physical, microbiological and chemical change from the time of change.
90
(6) Finish – the amount, character and distribution of fat in the carcass.
(7) Lean cuts – cuts of pork composed of the loin, ham and shoulder.
(8) Retail cuts – cut of meat handled in small quantities and which may be
prepared for the table without further cutting and trimming.
(9) Wholesale cuts – meat cuts that are handled in bulk and usually require
further cutting before these are prepared for the table.
(10) Green weight – weight of a cut of meat in ints fresh state before curing or
processing.
(11) Green hams – uncured smoked hams.
(12) Brand – any mark or stamp approved by the controlling authority.
(13) Rigor mortis – the stiffening of the muscles after an animal dies, believes
to be due to muscle contraction.
(14) Greening – formation of green color in the skin and other collagenous
tissues as a result of excess nitrite; may also be due to microbial action.
(15) HACCP – Hazard Analysis Critical Control Points
(16) Hot boned meat – meat deboned before the development of rigor mortis.
(17) Hot meat – meat from an unaccredited slaughterhouse or obtained from
illegal source of meat.
The following are terms used to refer to the meat of a specific animal:
Animal Name of Meat
Beef Ox, one year old and above
Carabeef Carabao beef, caraveal
Chevon Goat’s meat
Game meat Game animals
Horse meat Horse
Lamb Sheep, less than one year old
Mutton Sheep, one year old and above
Pork Pig
Veal Ox, less than one year old
Venison Deer
1. Meat Composition
 Contains lean, fat, bones, connective tissues and other similar
 The lean is the most important part of meat in relation to human nutrition.
91
 Meat protein has high biological value. It can supply the essential nutrients
needed for normal growth and physiological function of human adults without
being fortified.
 Meat also contains sufficient B-vitamins, phosphorus, iron and potassium but
deficient in calcium.
2. Meat Fabrication
 Cutting carcasses into standard wholesale and retail cuts
 Proper fabrication lowers of cutting losses
 Basic principle: separate tender meat from tough meat and thick portion from
the thin portion because they require different methods of cooking.
 The cheap parts must be separated from the expensive parts
 The cutting of the muscles across the meat fibers to improve the tenderness of
the cut.
3. Meat Processing
- Chilling – to firm up the meat and check on the growth of microorganisms (2-
4 degrees for 24 hours)
- Trimming – remove excess fat, parts with blood clot and bruises; weighing
washing and dripping.
4. Meat Curing
 The meat is subjected to the process of salting, pickling, drying and or
smoking.
 The meat is being preserved because some of the curing ingredients have
antagonistic effect of the microorganisms.
 With four general methods:
(a) Dry cure method – curing ingredients are applied (rubbed) in dry
form; ex. Tocino, tapa and bacon
(b) Sweet pickle method – similar to dry cure but the ingredients are
dissolved in water; Ex, corned beef, chicken ham
(c) All injection method – ingredients are dissolved in water and
injected to meat; ex. Cured ham
(d) Combination method – injection method is combined with either
dry cure or sweet pickle method; Cured ham.
Lesson 6: Milk Production
92
 Relatively good dairy cows in the Philippines and in most of the tropics
correspondingly yield only about 8-12 kg daily.
 A common “rule of thumb” is to feed one kg of reasonably good concentrate
mixture for every 2.5 kg of milk in excess of 5kg if the forage is of good
quality.
1. Milk Composition
o Mainly of water, fat, protein, lactose (milk sugar) and ash.
o Varies depending upon the animal species, breed, individuality, season,
lactation level of nutrition and management.
o A rich source of calcium, riboflavin (B2), vitamin B12, iodine and phosphorus.
o Contains all essential amino acids.
o Its protein is composed of globulins, casein and lactalbumin. Portions of the
globulin of milk are structural parts of antibodies. Casein is the most abundant
protein constituents of milk.
2. Colostrum – the first secretion of the mammary gland; higher than milk in
dry matter, proteins, vitamins and minerals; also contains antibodies that give
new-born animals protection against disease.
 Milk produced under ideal condition has slightly sweet and pleasant taste.
 Milk with low fat content tends to be flat while that with higher fat ha creamy
and fuller flavour.
 Milk fat is the most variable milk constituent.
3. Lactose – a sugar milk and can be digested by the enzyme lactase produce by
humans.
 Lactose Intolerance – occurs when man does not produce enough
lactase to completely digest the lactose. This undigested lactose stays in
the intestinal tract and with the action of microorganisms causes
abdominal pain, diarrhea and flatulence (gas).
 Pasteurization – process of heating milk to a certain temperature for a
certain period of time required to destroy any pathogenic
microorganisms.
4. Milk Products
(a) Whole Milk
 Upon drying: whole milk powder
 Upon separation: cream and skim milk
(b) Cream
93
 Upon churning: butter and buttermilk
(c) Butter
 Upon evaporation: butter oil or anhydrous milk
(d) Buttermilk
 Upon drying: buttermilk powder
(e) Skim milk
 Upon drying: skim milk powder or non-fat dry milk
 Upon acidification or addition of rennet: cheese (add casein)
(f) Whey
 Upon drying: whey powder
(g) Evaporated milk – whole milk from which 60% of the water has been
removed and contains not less than 25.8% total milk solids and 7.8% milk
fat; also known as sweetened condensed milk; compared to raw milk, it has
greater viscosity and is creamy in color.
(h) Homogenized milk – milk which has been treated in such a manner as to
ensure break-up of the fat granules.
5. Egg Production
The major factors affecting nutrient requirements for egg
production are.
a. Rate of egg production
b. Egg size or weight
c. Egg shell thickness
d. Body size of layer
The principal factor affecting egg shell quality is dietary calcium.
Egg shell quality can be measured by specific gravity of egg, shell
thickness, shell smoothness, breaking strength and percentage of
cracks or shell appearance.
Low dietary calcium levels, less than 2.0 percent, decrease egg
shell quality in chickens.
Egg Composition:
- Largely proteins and lipids and various minerals and vitamins with A, D,
thiamine and riboflavin in bulk amount; poor source of carbohydrates.
94
Activity 1. Define it to Know it!
General Directions: Read each word and provide the definition of each word.
1. Milk:
2. Slaughter:
3. Slaughterhouse:
4. Abattoir:
5. Scalding
6. Flaying:
7. Evisceration:
8. Curing:
9. HACCP:
10. Carcass:
General Direction: Give the name of meat of every farm animal given below.
1. Beef
2. Chicken
3. Goat
4. Sheep
5. Swine
paper.
END OF THE FINAL
95
Reference:
Introduction to Animal Science – Lecture Syllabus (UP - Los Baňos)
Prepared by
RAMIL B. ENTANA JR.

Instructor
Reviewed and Checked by:
JELLIE R. GANUB
SHS Principal
Attested by:
NANCY CHIONG - MAGBANUA, MSIT

Academic Dean
Verified by:
DR.EUFEMIO D. JAVIER JR.

School President
96
SIBUGAY TECHNICAL INSTITUTE INCORPORATED
LOWER TAWAY, IPIL, ZAMBOANGA SIBUGAY
www.sibugaytech.edu.ph
Telefax:(062)222-2469, Mobile No: 09285033733
CHED COURSES OFFERED
BACHELOR SCIENCE IN AGRICULTURE (BSA)

MAJORS IN:
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MAJOR IN:
 HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT
BACHELOR SCIENCE IN CRIMINOLOGY (BS CRIM)
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LADDERIZED MIDWIFERY
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97
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OFFERS!!
AGRICULTURAL CROPS PRODUCTION NC II

ANIMAL PRODUCTION (POULTRY-CHICKEN) NC II
ANIMAL PRODCUTION (RUMINANTS) NC II
ANIMAL PRODUCTION (SWINE) NC II
BARTENDING NC II
BOOKKEEPING NC III
BREAD & PASTRY PRODUCTION NC II
CAREGIVING NC II
DRVING NC II
ELECTRONIC PRODUCTS ASSEMBLY SERVICING NC II
EVENTS MANANGEMENT SERVICES NC III
FOOD AND BEVERAGE SERVICES NC II
FRONT OFFICE SERVICES NC II
HEAVY EQUIPMENT OPERATOR (HYDRAULIC EXCAVATOR) NC II
HOUSEKEEPING NC II
MOTORCYCLE/SMALL ENGINE SERVICING NC II
ORGANIC AGRICULTURE NC II
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An - Sci 1 Intro To Animals Science 2

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SIBUGAY TECHNICAL INSTITUTE INCORPORATED

Lower Taway, Ipil, Zamboanga Sibugay

School President: 0917-1271826/0917-1217190 Academic Dean: 09064393454

Figure 1. Diagram of interrelationship of the components of an ecosystem

Lesson 2: Animal and their economic utility

1. In your cognition, when we talk about Animal Science it implies?

What is Animal Science?

Figure 1. Diagram of interrelationship of the components of an ecosystem

Lesson 2: Animal and their economic utility

ANIMAL AND THEIR ECONOMIC UTILITY

 The relationship between Animal Agriculture and the Population creates

A. In what way does animal science relates to animal industry?

END OF THE UNIT TEST

Eye Dilation of Pupil Constriction of pupil

Two Major Division of the Autonomic System:

Lesson 3. The Endocrine System

Lesson 5: The Lymphatic System

 Adrenal medulla is in effect a sympathetic ganglion in which the post

3. Role of ADH in Water

A. White Blood Cells – are of three type; Granulocytes, Lymphocytes and

The way the kidneys do this is

Lesson 2: Classification of Nutrients and their Characteristics

Lesson 1: Terms to Know in Nutrition

Lesson 2: Classification of Nutrients and their Characteristics

Macro Functions Deficiency

Lesson 5: Meat and Meat Products

END OF THE MIDTERM

Lesson 1: Genes and their role in Animal Productivity

5. Sex-linked genes – genes that are located in the sex chromosomes

ANIMAL It is the art and science of the genetic

Economically Important Traits in Farm Animals

Lesson 1: Basic Principles of Slaughtering

Lesson 5: Meat and Meat Products

RAMIL B. ENTANA JR.

Reviewed and Checked by:

NANCY CHIONG - MAGBANUA, MSIT

DR.EUFEMIO D. JAVIER JR.

CHED COURSES OFFERED

BACHELOR SCIENCE IN AGRICULTURE (BSA)

BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION (BSBA)

BACHELOR SCIENCE IN CRIMINOLOGY (BS CRIM)

BACHELOR OF ARTS IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE STUDIES (BAELS)

BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN COMPUTER SCIENCE (BSCS)

BACHELOR SCIENCE IN INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY (BSIT)

BACHELOR OF TECHNICAL-VOCATIONAL TEACHERS

AGRICULTURAL CROPS PRODUCTION NC II

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