HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY WITH PATHOPHYSIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO THE HUMAN BODY
Human Anatomy
 science of body structures and relationships
 derived from Greek, means “to cut” or “cutting
backwards” (putting things together from slices)
 imaging techniques
Human Physiology
 science of body functions, including the study of
homeostasis
Structure and Function
 structure mirrors function
 structure of a part of the body allows
performance of certain functions
Subdivision of Anatomy
1. Surface Anatomy – study of form and marking of
the body surface, often explored through
visualization or palpation (without any “cutting”)
2. Gross Anatomy – study of anatomical structures
visible to unaided eye. After making the
appropriate surface marking in the prior picture, the
gross dissection proceeds through “cutting.”
a. Systematic Approach/Anatomy – study of the
blood vessels, or all of the muscles, or all of the
bones
b. Regional Approach/Anatomy – study of all
anatomical structures of a specific region (e.g.
the thorax, or the head and neck)
3. Developmental Anatomy – study of the fertilized
egg developing into its adult form
a. Embryology – subcategory of a developmental
anatomy (conception of 8th week of gestation)
4. Histology – study of tissues by using a microscope,
but restricts the study to individual cellular
structures
5. Pathology – study of anatomical changes due to
disease
Clinical Correlation
 Autopsy – a postmortem (after death)
examination of the body and internal organs
performed by a pathologist
 An autopsy is usually done to:
1. Determine the cause of death
2. Identify diseases not detected during life
3. Determine the extent of injuries and
contribution to death
4. Identify hereditary conditions
Level of Organization
1. Chemical Level
a. Atoms – smallest unit of matter
b. Molecules – two or more atoms joined together
2. Cellular Level
 Cells – basic structural and functional units of
an organism
 cytologist can recognize under light microscopy
about 210 different kinds of cells
3. Tissue Level
 Tissues – group of cells and materials
surrounding them
 Four Basic Types of Tissues:
a. Epithelial
b. Connective
c. Muscular
d. Nervous
4. Organ Level
 Organs – structures that are composed of two
or more different types of tissues
 specific functions and recognizable shapes
5. System Level
 System – consists of related organs with a
common function
 Organ-system Level
- eleven systems of the human body
6. Organismal Level
 Organism – living individual
 all parts of the body functioning together
Noninvasive Diagnostic Techniques
 Inspection of the body to observe any changes
1. Palpation – gently touching body surfaces
with hands
2. Auscultation – listening to body sounds
using stethoscope
3. Percussion – tapping on the body surface
with fingertips and listening to echoes
Characteristics of Living Human Organism:
Life Processes
1. Metabolism – sum of all the chemical process that
occur in the body
a. Catabolism – breakdown of complex chemical
substances into simpler components
b. Anabolism – building up of complex chemical
substances from smaller, simpler components
2. Responsiveness – body’s ability to detect and
respond to changes
3. Movement – motion of the whole body
4. Growth – increase in body size
5. Differentiation – development of a cell from an
unspecialized to specialized state
 Stem cells – give rise to cells that undergo
differentiation
6. Reproduction – formation of new cells (growth,
repair, or replacement) or the production of a new
individual
Homeostasis
 a condition of equilibrium (balance) in the
body’s internal movement
 a dynamic condition meant to keep body
functions in the narrow range compatible with
maintaining life
 Maintaining the volume and composition of
body fluids are important
Body Fluids
 dilute, watery solutions containing dissolved
chemicals inside or outside of the cell
a. Intracellular Fluid (ICF) – fluid within cells
b. Extracellular Fluid (ECF) – fluid outside cells
 Interstitial Fluid – ECF between cells
and tissues
 HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY WITH PATHOPHYSIOLOGY

 Blood Plasma – ECF within blood vessels

 Lymph – ECF within lymphatic vessels
Directional
 Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF) – ECF in the Meaning
Terms
brain and spinal cord
toward the hear or upper part of a
 Synovial Fluid – ECF in joints superior
structure
 Aqueous Humor – ECF in eyes away from head, or lower part of
inferior
a structure
Homeostasis is constantly being disrupted by:
nearer to or at the front of the
 Physical insults – intense hear of lack of oxygen anterior
body
 Changes in the internal environment – drop in
nearer to or at the back of the
glucose due to lack of food posterior
body
 Physiological stress – demands of work or an imaginary vertical line that
school midline
divides the body equally
 Disruptions medial nearer to midline
a. Mild Disruptions – temporary; balance is lateral farther from midline
quickly restored intermediate between two structures
b. Intense Disruptions – prolonged; poisoning on the same side of the body as
ipsilateral
or severe infections another structure
on the opposite side of the body
contralateral
from another structure
Feedback System
nearer to the origination of a
Three Basic Components: proximal
structure
1. Receptor – monitors changes in a controlled farther to the origination of a
condition and sends input to the control center distal
structure
2. Control Center (Brain) – sets the range values toward or close to the surface of
to be maintained; receives input from receptors superficial
the body
and generates output command to the effector deep away from the surface of the body
3. Effector – receives output from the control
center and produces a response or effect
Body Cavities
Types of Feedback System  Spaces within the body that help to protect,
1. Negative Feedback System – reserves a change separate, and support internal organs
in controlled condition
Types of Body Cavities
2. Positive Feedback System – strengthen or
1. Cranial Cavity – protects brain
reinforce a change in one of the body’s
2. Thoracic Cavity – chest cavity
controlled conditions
a. Pericardial Cavity – fluid-filled space that
surround the heart
Anatomical Terminologies b. Pleural Cavity – two fluid-filled spaces that that
surround each lung
Anatomical Position
3. Abdominopelvic Cavity
 body is standing erect
a. Abdominal Cavity – stomach, liver, gallbladder,
 face facing upward
small and large intestines
 feet are flat on the floor and forward
b. Pelvic Cavity – urinary bladder, internal organs
 upper limbs to the sides
of reproductive system, and portions of the
 palms turned forward
large intestine
a. Prone Position – body is lying face down
4. Oral Cavity – mouth
b. Supine Position – body is lying face up
5. Nasal Cavity – nose
6. Orbital Cavities – eyeball
Planes 7. Middle Ear Cavities – small bones of the middle ear
1. Sagittal Plane – vertical plane divides the body 8. Synovial Cavities – joints
into right and left sides
a. Midsagittal Plane – divides body into equal
Abdominopelvic Regions
right and left sides
1. Tic-Tac-Toe Grid
b. Parasagittal Plane – divides body into
a. Right and Left Hypochondriac Region
unequal right and left sides
b. Epigastric Region
2. Frontal or Coronal Plane – divides the body or
c. Right and Left Lumbar Region
an organ into anterior (front) and posterior
d. Umbilical Region
(back) portions
e. Right and Left Inguinal (Ilicac) Region
3. Transverse Plane (Cross-Sectional or Horizontal
f. Hypogastric (pubic) Region
Plane) – divides the body or an organ into
i. Subcostal Line – top horizontal
superior (upper) and inferior (lower) portions
ii. Transtubercular Line – bottom horizontal
4. Oblique Plane – passes through the body or an
iii. Midclavicular Lines – two vertical lines
organ at an angle
2. Quadrants
a. Right Upper Quadrant (RUQ)
 HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY WITH PATHOPHYSIOLOGY
b. Left Upper Quadrant (LUQ) 1. Stratum Basale or Stratum Germinativum –
c. Right Lower Quadrant (RLQ) deepest layer, where continuous cell division occurs
d. Left Lower Quadrant (LLQ) which produces all the other layers

INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM

Includes the skin and its derivatives including

hair, nails, sweat glands, and sebaceous glands.
2. Stratum Spinosum – layer of 8-10 keratinocytes
Skin 3. Stratum Granulosum – includes keratohyalin
 cutaneous membrane that covers the body (keratin) and lamellar granules; non-dividing cells
 largest organ of the body by surface area and (apoptosis)
weight 4. Stratum Lucidum – only present in thick skin
(fingertips, palms, and soles)
Functions
5. Stratum Corneum - composed of many sublayers of
 protection
flat, dead keratinocytes (20 layers of flat cell-
 prevention of water loss
remnants that are like “bags of turtle wax”) called
 temperature regulation
corneocytes or squames that are continuously shed
 secretion of Vitamin D
and replaced by cells from deeper strata
 immune defense
 sensory reception
 excretion Dermis
 composed of cells of the connective tissue
Tissue Component proper and primarily of collagen fibers,
1. Epithelium – surface covering although both elastic and reticular fibers are
2. Connective Tissue – provides nutrients, strength, also present
and resilience
3. Smooth Muscle – controls blood vessels diameter Two Major Regions
and hair position 1. Papillary Region (superficial)
4. Neural Tissue – sensory receptors in the skin - consists of areolar connective tissue (1/5 of the
thickness of the total layer)
Layers of the Skin
- containing thin collagen and elastic fibers,
1. Epidermis – keratinized stratifies squamous
dermal papillae (including capillary loops),
epithelium
corpuscles of touch, nerve ending, and free
2. Dermis – deeper layer; dense irregular connective
nerve endings
3. Hypodermis/Subcutaneous – deep to dermis;
2. Reticular Region (deeper)
areolar and adipose connective tissue
- attached to subQ layer
Structural Basis of the Skin - consists of dense irregular connective tissue
1. Hemoglobin – oxygen-binding protein present in containing collagen and elastic fibers adipose
red blood cells (bright red) cells, hair follicles, nerves, sebaceous (oil)
2. Melanin – pigment produced and stored in cells glands, and sudoriferous (sweat) glands
called melanocytes (yellow, reddish, tan, brown,
Skin Color as DX Clue
and black shades)
1. Cynotic – bluish; decreased in O2
3. Carotene – comes primarily from diet (yellow-
2. Jaundice – yellowish; build-up of pigment
orange)
bilirubin
Epidermis: Four Types of Cell 3. Erythema – redness; engorgement of capillaries
1. Keratinocytes (90%) – produce keratin and lamellar 4. Pallor – paleness; shock or anemia
granules, which is tough fibrous protein that
provides protection
Accessory Structures of the Skin
2. Melanocytes (9%) – produce the pigment melanin
1. Nail
(color) that protects against damage by ultraviolet
- scale-like modifications of the epidermis that
radiation
form on the dorsal surfaces of the tips of the
a. Albinism – inherited inability to produce
fingers and toes
melanin
- protects the exposed distal tips and prevent
b. Vitiligo – condition In which there is a partial or
damage or distortion during jumping, kicking,
complete loss of melanocytes from patches of
catching, or grasping
skin
- made up of a hard derivatives formed from the
3. Intraepidermal Macrophages “Langerhans Cells” –
stratum corneum layer of the epidermis
involved in immune responses (guard from
 free edge
microbes), arise from red bone marrow
4. Tactile Epithelial “Merkel Cells” (least numerous) –  transparent nail body (plate) with a whitish
function in the sensation of touch along with the lunula at its base (white because of the
adjacent tactile discs thick end region of epithelium)
 nail root embedded in a fold of skin
Epidermal Layers
2. Hair (pili)
 HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY WITH PATHOPHYSIOLOGY
- guards the scalp from injury and sun’s rays perineum 1%
- decrease heat loss from the scalp Rule of 9s (Child)
- touch receptors (hair root plexuses) front back total
- Hirsutism - excessive hair growth; tumor; head 9% 9% 18%
increase in androgens chest 18% 18% 36%
- Alopecia - partial or loss of hair right arm 4.5% 4.5% 9%
left arm 4.5% 4.5% 9%
a. Lanugo – fine, non-pigmented, downy hairs
right leg 6.75% 6.75% 13.5%
that cover the body of the fetus
left leg 6.75% 6.75% 13.5%
b. Vellus Hair – short, fine, pale hairs and
perineum 1%
barely visible
Skin Grafting
c. Terminal Hair – long, coarse, heavily
 done by surgeon when there is a severe
pigment hairs
damage in skin (cannot regenerate)
a. Autograft – getting skin from self
3. Skin Glands
b. Isograft – from identical donor
 Sweat (Sudoriferous) Gland
- regulates body temperature
a. Eccrine – cold sweat (fear or Skin Wound Healing
embarrassment) Skin damage – sets in motion a sequence of events that
b. Apocrine – located mainly in the skin of repairs the skin to its normal (or near-normal) structure
the axilla, groin, areolae, and bearded and function
facial regions (emotional stress and
Epidermal Wound Healing
sexual excitement)
 Common types: abrasion and minor burns
 Oil (Sebaceous) Gland
1. Basal cells – contact with the basement
- oily material that coats hairs shafts; prevent
membrane
hairs from drying out, prevent water loss
2. Enlarge and migrate across the wound
from skin, keeps skin soft, inhibit growth of
3. When epidermal cells encounter one another,
some bacteria
they stop migrating due to a cellular response
 Ceruminous Gland
called contact inhibition
- secretes cerumen (earwax); impede
4. As the basal epidermal cells migrate, a
entrance of foreign bodies and insects into hormone called epidermal growth factor
external ear canal stimulates basal stem cells to divide and replace
the ones that have moved into the wound
Burns 5. The relocated basal epidermal cells divide to
 major cause of accidental death, primarily as a build new strata, thus thickening the new
result of their effects on the skin epidermis
 results primarily from fluid loss, infection, and
Deep Wound Healing
the effects of burned, dead tissue
 Deep wound healing occurs when an injury extends
Classification of Burns Based on Depth to the dermis and subcutaneous layer.
Partial Thickness Burn: 1. Inflammatory phase
1. First Degree (3-6 days) “Superficial Burn” - blood clot forms and loosely unites the
- involves only epidermis wound edges
- characterized by redness, pain, and slight - vascular and cellular response
edema 2. Migratory Phase
- sunburn - clot becomes a scab, and epithelial cells
2. Second Degree (3-4 weeks) “Deep Partial Burn” migrate beneath the scab to bridge the
- involves the epidermis and part of the dermis wound
- skin appears red, tan, or white, and is blistered - fibroblasts migrate along fibrin threads and
and painful begin synthesizing scar tissue and damaged
- scald blood vessels begin to regrow
Full Thickness Burn: 3. Proliferative phase
3. Third Degree Burn - extensive growth of epithelial cells beneath
- involves the epidermis, dermis, and the scab, deposition by fibroblasts of
subcutaneous layer, which are often destroyed collagen fiber and continued growth of
blood vessels
Classification of Burns Based on Body Surface Area 4. Maturation phase
Rule of 9s (Adult) - scab sloughs off once the epidermis has
front back total been restored to normal thickness
head 4.5% 4.5% 9% - collagen fibers become more organized,
chest 18% 18% 36% fibroblasts decrease in number, and blood
right arm 4.5% 4.5% 9% vessels are restored to normal
left arm 4.5% 4.5% 9%
Scars
right leg 9% 9% 18%
left leg 9% 9% 18%
 HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY WITH PATHOPHYSIOLOGY
 Keloid Scars – result of an overly aggressive
healing process
 Hypertrophic Scars – are raised, red scars that
are similar to keloids but do not go beyond the
boundary of the injury
Skin Disorders
Skin Cancer
 excessive exposure to ultraviolet radiation from
the sun or tanning beds
a. Basal Cell Carcinomas
b. Squamous Cell Carcinomas
c. Basal and Squamous Cell Carcinomas (Non-
Melanoma Skin Cancer)
d. Malignant Melanomas (neoplasm of
melanocytes) – most dangerous type
Burns
 tissue damage caused by excessive heat,
electricity, radioactivity, or corrosive chemical
that denature (breakdown) proteins in the skin
a. First Degree Burn (Superficial Partial
Thickness Burn)
b. Second Degree Burn (Deep Partial Thickness
Burn)
c. Third Degree Burn (Full Thickness Burn)
Pressure Ulcers (Decubitus Ulcers or Bedsores)
 caused by a constant deficiency of blood flow to
tissues
 bedridden people are prone to this disease
Psoriasis
 chronic skin disorder in which keratinocytes
divide and move more quickly than normal from
the stratum basale to the stratum corneum
Pruritus
 most common dermatological disorder
 itching, caused by skin disorders (infections),
systemic disorder (cancer, kidney failure),
psychogenic factors (emotional stess), or
allergic reactions
Tinea Corporis (Ringworm)
 fungal infection characterized by scaling,
itching, and sometimes painful lesions
 may appear on any part of the body
Wart
 mass produce by uncontrolled growth of
epithelial skin cells
 caused by papillomavirus
 non-cancerous
Contact Dermatitis
 Inflammation of the skin characterized by
redness, itching, and swelling
 Caused by exposure of the skin to chemicals
that bring about an allergic reaction
Comedo or Blackhead
 collection of sebaceous material and dead cells
in the hair follicle and excretory duct of the
sebaceous (oil) gland
 usually found over the face, chest, and back;
commonly occur during adolescence
Corn
 painful conical thickening of the stratum
corneum of the epidermis
 found over toe joints and between the toes
 caused by friction or pressure
Eczema
 inflammation of the skin characterized by
patches of red, blistering, dry, extremely itchy
skin
 occurs mostly in skin creases in the wrists, back
of the knees, and front of the elbows
Frostbite
 local destruction of skin and subcutaneous
tissue on exposed surfaces as a result of
extreme cold
 hands and feet are prone to frostbite because
they are distal to our body
Hemangioma
 localized benign tumor of the skin and
subcutaneous layer
 results from an abnormal increase in the
number of blood vessels
Hives or Urticaria
 reddened elevated patches of skin that are
often itchy
 caused by infections, physical trauma,
medications, emotional stress, food additives,
and certain food allergies
Keloid
 elevated, irregular darkened area of excess scar
tissue
 caused by collagen formation during wound
healing
Papule
 small, round skin elevation less than 1 cm in
diameter
SKELETAL SYSTEM: BONE TISSUE
A bone is an organ made up of several different
tissues working together. The entire framework of
bones and their cartilages constitute the skeletal
system.
Functions:
 Supports soft tissue and provides attachment
for skeletal muscles
 Protects internal organs
 Assists in movement, along with skeletal
muscles
 Stores and releases minerals to maintain
homeostasis
 Contains red bone marrow, which produces
blood cells (process called hemopoiesis)
 HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY WITH PATHOPHYSIOLOGY
 Contains yellow bone marrow, which stores
triglycerides (fats)
Compact Bone Tissue
 contains few spaces and strongest form of bone
tissue
 protection and support and resists the stresses
produced by weight and movement
Spongy Bone Tissue (Trabecular/Cancellous Bone
Tissue)
 interior of a bone, protected by a covering of
compact bone
 consists of trabeculae
Structure of Bone
1. Diaphysis – bone’s shaft or body; long cylindrical,
main portion of the bone
2. Epiphyses – proximal and distal ends of the bone
3. Metaphyses
a. Epiphyseal (growth) plate are visible in a
growing bone
b. Epiphyseal lines are the remnants of epiphyseal
plates in a mature bone
4. Articular Cartilage – thin layer of hyaline cartilage
covering the part of the epiphysis; reduces friction
and absorbs shocks
5. Periosteum – tough connective tissue sheath and its
associated blood supply; attached to perforating
fibers or “Sharpey’s fibers”
a. Outer fibrous layer of dense irregular
connective tissue
b. Inner osteogenic layer that consist of cells
6. Medullar Cavity (Marrow Cavity) – hollow space
within the diaphysis that contains fatty yellow bone
marrow
7. Endosteum – lines the medullary cavity; contains a
single layer of bone-forming cells
Four Types of Cells
1. Osteoprogenitor Cells – only bone cells to undergo
cell divison; develop into osteoblasts
2. Osteoblasts – bone-building cells; build the
extracellular matrix (bone deposition)
3. Osteocytes (main cells) – mature bone cells and
maintain its daily metabolism
4. Osteoclasts – breakdown of bone extracellular
matrix (bone resorption)
Factors Affecting Bone Growth
1. Minerals
a. Calcium and Phosphorus – make bone
extracellular matrix hard
b. Magnesium – helps form bone extracellular
matrix
c. Fluoride – helps strengthen bone extracellular
matrix
d. Manganese – synthesis of bone extracellular
matrix
2. Vitamins
a. Vitamin A – stimulates activity of osteoblast
b. Vitamin C – synthesis of collagen (main bone
protein)
c. Vitamin D – increase absorption of calcium
from gastrointestinal into blood
d. Vitamin K and B12 – synthesis of bone protein
3. Hormones
a. Growth Hormone (GH) – promotes general
growth of all body tissues
b. Insulin-like Growth Factors (IGFs) – stimulates
growth hormone
c. Thyroid hormones (T2 and T4) – stimulates
osteoblasts
d. Insulin – increase the synthesis of bone proteins
e. Sex Hormones (Estrogens and Testosterone) –
stimulates osteoblasts and promote “growth
spurt”
f. Parathyroid Hormone (PTH) – promotes bone
resorption by osteoclasts
g. Calcitonin (CT) – inhibits bone resorption
4. Exercise – weight-bearing activities stimulate
osteoblasts
5. Aging – level of sex hormones diminishes during
middle age to older adulthood; bone resorption by
osteoclasts outplaces bone deposition by
osteoblasts
SKELETAL SYSTEM: AXIAL SKELETON
Axial Skeleton
 80 bones
 bones that lie around the longitudinal axis of
the body
 skull (8 cranium, 14 face), 1 hyoid bone, 6
auditory ossicles, 26 vertebral column, thorax (1
sternum, 24 ribs)
Types of Bone
1. Long Bones
- greater length than width
- slightly curved for strength
- femur (thigh bone), tibia and fibula (leg bones),
humerus (arm bone), ulna and radius (forearm
bones), phalanges (finger and toe bones
2. Short Bones
- somewhat cube-shaped and consists of spongy
bone tissue
- most carpal (wrist bones) and tarsal (ankle
bones)
3. Flat Bones
- thin and composed of two nearly parallel plates
of compact bone
- cranial bones, sternum (breastbone), ribs,
scapulae (shoulder blades)
4. Irregular Bones
- complex shapes
- vertebrae (back bones), hip bones, certain facial
bones, calcaneus
5. Sesamoid Bones
- develop in certain tendons where there is
considerable friction, tension, and physical
stress
- protect tendons from excessive wear and tear
- palms and soles
6. Sutural Bones
 HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY WITH PATHOPHYSIOLOGY
- small bones and their numbers varies greatly
from person to person
- sutures (joints), certain cranial bones
Skull
 bony framework of the head
 contains 22 bones (cranial and facial bones)
Two Categories of the Skull
1. Cranial Bones
- encloses and protects the brain
- frontal bone, 2 parietal bones, 2 temporal
bones, occipital bone, sphenoid bone, ethmoid
bone
2. Facial Bones
- 2 nasal bones, 2 maxillae, 2 zygomatic bones,
mandible, 2 lacrimal bones, 2 palatine bones, 2
inferior nasal conchae, vomer
Cranial Bones
1. Frontal Bone – forehead, roofs of the orbits (eye
sockets) and most of the anterior part of the cranial
floor
2. Parietal Bones – greater portion of the sides and
roof of the cranial cavity
3. Temporal Bones – inferior lateral aspects of the
cranium and part of the cranial floor
4. Occipital Bone – posterior part and most of the
base of the cranium
5. Sphenoid Bone – middle part of the base of the
skull, it’s the keystone of the cranial floor
6. Ethmoid Bone – anterior part of the cranial floor
medial to the orbits
Facial Bones
1. Nasal Bones – small, flattened, rectangular-shaped;
form the bridge of the nose
2. Lacrimal Bones – smallest, thin and roughly
resemble a fingernail; form a part of the medial wall
of each orbit
3. Palatine Bones – form the posterior portion of the
hard palate, part of the floor and lateral wall of the
nasal cavity, and a small portion of the floors of the
orbits
4. Inferior Nasal Conchae – form a part of the inferior
lateral wall of the nasal cavity
5. Vomer – triangular bone on the floor of the nasal
cavity; forms the inferior portion of the bony nasal
septum (partition that divides the nasal cavity)
6. Maxillae – form the upper jawbone
7. Zygomatic Bones (cheekbones) – form the
prominences of the cheeks
8. Mandible (lower jawbone) – largest, strongest
facial bone; only movable skull bone
Hyoid Bone
 does not articulate with any other bone
 supports tongue, providing attachment sites for
some tongue muscles and for muscles of the
neck and pharynx
Vertebral Column
 also called spine, backbone, or spinal column
 composed of series of bones called vertebrae
 supports the head and serves as a point of
attachment for the ribs, pelvic girdle, and
muscles of the back and upper limbs
a. 7 cervical vertebrae (neck region)
b. 12 thoracic vertebrae (posterior to the
thoracic cavity)
c. 5 lumbar vertebrae (supporting the lower
back)
d. 1 sacrum (five fused sacral vertebrae)
e. 1 coccyx (four fused coccygeal vertebrae)
Vertebral Regions
1. Cervical Vertebrae (C1-C7)
- smaller than all other vertebrae except those
that form the coccyx
a. Atlas (C1) – ring of bone with anterior and
posterior arches and large lateral masses
b. Axis (C2) – have vertebral body
c. Vertebra Prominens (C7) – may be seen
and felt at the base of the neck
2. Thoracic Vertebrae (T1-T12)
- larger and stronger than cervical vertebrae
a. T1 to T10 – long, laterally flattened, and
directed inferiorly; articulate with the ribs
b. T11 and T12 – shorter, broader, and
directed more posteriorly
- Vertebrocostal joints are the articulations
between the thoracic vertebrae and ribs
a. Facet – formed when the head of a rib
articulates with the body of one vertebra
b. Demifacet – formed when the head of a rib
articulates with two adjacent vertebral
bodies
3. Lumbar Vertebrae (L1-L5)
- largest and strongest of the unfused bones
- amount of body weight supported by the
vertebrae increases toward the inferior end of
the backbone
4. Sacrum
- formed by union of five sacral vertebrae (S1-S5)
- serves as a strong foundation for the pelvic
girdle
5. Coccyx
- formed by the fusion of usually four coccygeal
vertebrae (Co1-Co4)
Thorax
 entire chest region
 Throcic Cage – bony enclosure formed by the
sternum, ribs, and their costal cartilages, and
the bodies of the thoracic vertebrae
a. Sternum (breastbone)
– flat, narrow bone located in the center
of the thoracic wall that measures
about 15 cm
– sternal angle formed by junction of the
manubrium and body
 HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY WITH PATHOPHYSIOLOGY
– suprasternal notch is the depression on
its superior surface of the manubrium
– clavicular notches that articulate with
the medial ends of the clavicles to form
the sternoclavicular joints
b. Ribs
- numbered 1-12 from superior to
inferior
- True Ribs (Vertebrosternal) are first
through seventh pairs of ribs
 direct anterior attachment to the
sternum by costal cartilage (strip of
hyaline cartilage)
 costal cartilage contribute elasticity
– False Ribs (Vertebrochondral) are
eleventh and twelfth pairs of ribs
 designated as floating ribs
 does not attach to the sternum at
all
Normal Curves of the Vertebral Column
1. Thoracic and Sacral Curves – primary curves
because they retain; concave (cupping in)
2. Cervical and Lumbar Curves – secondary curves
because they begin to form later; convex (bulging
out)
Abnormal Curves of the Vertebral Column
1. Scoliosis – most common; lateral bending of the
vertebral column
2. Kyphosis – increase in the thoracic curve; produces
a “hunchback” look
3. Lordosis (hollow back) – increase in the lumbar
curve
Spina Bifida
Spina Bifida – congenital defect of the vertebral
column, which laminae of L5 and/or S1 fail to develop
Fractures
1. Open (Compound) – broken ends of the bone
protrude through the skin
2. Close (Simple) – fracture does not break the skin
3. Greenstick – partial fracture that only occurs in
children; one side is broken and other side bends
4. Impacted – forcefully driven into the interior of
other
5. Pott – fracture of the distal end of the lateral bone
(fibula); serious injury of the distal tibial articualtion
6. Colles – fracture of the distal end of the lateral
forearm bone (radius); distal fragment is displaced
posteriorly
SKELETAL SYSTEM: APPENDICULAR SKELETON
Appendicular Skeleton
 126 bones
 primary function is movement
 upper and lower limbs (extremities or
appendages), two girdles
Pectoral (Shoulder) Girdle
 attach the bones of the upper limbs to the axial
skeleton
Two Pectoral (Shoulder) Girdle
1. Clavicle (Collarbone)
- s-shaped
- articulates with the manubrium of the sternum
at the sternoclavicular joint
2. Scapula (Shoulder Blade)
- large, triangular, flat bone
- articulates with the clavicle at the
acromioclavicular joint and with the humerus at
the glenohumeral (shoulder) joint
Upper Limb (Extremity)
 has 30 bones in three locations
- humerus in the arm
- ulna and radius in the forearm
- 8 carpals in the carpus (wrist)
- 5 metacarpals in the metacarpus (palm)
- 14 phalanges (bones of the digits) in the
hand
Components Upper Limb (Extremity)
1. Humerus (arm bone) – longest and largest bone of
the upper limb
2. Ulna – medial aspect (little-finger side) of the
forearm and is longer than radius
3. Radius – smaller bone of the forearm and located
on the lateral aspect (thumb side) of the forearm
4. Carpus (wrist) – proximal region of the hand and
consists of eight small bones called carpals
Proximal row, from lateral to medial:
a. Scaphoid – boat-like
b. Lunate – moon shaped
c. Triquetrum – three cornered
d. Pisiform – pea shaped
Distal row, from lateral to medial:
e. Trapezium – four-sided figure with no two sides
parallel
f. Trapezoid – four-sided figure with two sides
parallel
g. Capitate – head shaped
h. Hamate – hooked
5. Metacarpus (palm) – intermediate region of the
hand and consists of five bones called metacarpals
6. Phalanges (bones of the digits) – make up the distal
part of the hand; phalanx (single bone of a digit)
a. Pollex (thumb) – proximal and distal phalanges
b. Other four digits – proximal, middle, and distal
phalanges
Pelvic (Hip) Girdle
- unite anteriorly at a joint called pubic symphysis
- consists of two hip bones also called coxal, or
pelvic bones, or os coxa
Components of Pelvic (Hip) Girdle
1. Ilium (hip pointer) – superior; largest hip bone
2. Ischium – inferior and posterior of the hip bone
3. Pubis (pubic bone) – inferior and anterior of the hip
bone
True and False Pelvis
 HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY WITH PATHOPHYSIOLOGY
1. False (greater) Pelvis – portion of the bony pelvis
superior to the pelvic brim
2. True (lesser) Pelvis – portion of the bony pelvis
inferior to the pelvic brim
Lower Limb (Extremity)
 consists of 30 bones in four location
- femur in the thigh
- patella (kneecap)
- tibia and fibula in the leg
- 7 tarsals in the metatarsus
- 14 phalanges (bones of the digits) in the
foot
Components of Lower Limb (Extremity)
1. Femur (thigh bone) – longest, heaviest, and
strongest bone in the body
2. Patella (kneecap) – located anterior to the knee
joint; sesamoid bone
3. Tibia (shin bone) - larger, medial, weight-bearing
bone of the leg; means flute
4. Fibula – parallel and lateral to the tibia,
considerably smaller
5. Tarsus (ankle) – proximal region of the foot and
consists of 7 tarsal bones
Posterior part:
a. Talus – ankle bone
b. Calcaneus – heel; strongest tarsal
Anterior part:
c. Navicular – like a little boat
d. Three Cuneiform Bones – wedge shaped
 third (lateral), second (intermediate), and
first (medial)
e. Cuboid – cube-shaped
6. Metatarsus – intermediate region of the foot and
consists of 5 metatarsal bones (I-V or 1-5)
a. proximal base
b. intermediate shaft
c. distal head
7. Phalanges – distal component of the foot and
resemble those of the hand both in number and
arrangement
a. Hallux (great or big) toe
b. Other four toes
Arches of the Foot
1. Longitudinal Arch – tarsal and metatarsal bones
arranged to form an arch from the anterior to the
posterior part of the foot
2. Transverse Arch – medial and lateral aspects of the
foot and is formed by the navicular, three
cuneiforms, and the bases of the five metatarsals
MUSCULAR SYSTEM
TYPES OF MUSCULAR TISSUE
1. Skeletal Muscle Tissue
 Bones of the skeleton
 Controlled by somatic (voluntary) division
 Most are controlled subconsciously
 e.g., diaphragm – continues to alternately
contract and relax; and skeletal muscles –
maintain posture or stabilize body position
2. Cardiac Muscle Tissue
Forms the heart wall
Controlled by autonomic (involuntary) division;
Autorhythmicity (built-in rhythm) – ability to
contract on its own
3. Smooth Muscle Tissue
 Located in walls of hollow internal structures
 Blood vessels, airways, and most organs in the
abdominopelvic cavity
 Controlled by autonomic (involuntary) division
 Looks non-striated, which is why it is referred to
as smooth
FUNCTIONS OF MUSCULAR TISSUE
1. Producing body movements – movement of the
whole body
2. Stabilizing body positions – skeletal muscle
contractions stabilize joints and help maintain body
positions
3. Storing and moving substances within the body
- smooth muscles “sphincters” for storage
(urinary bladder, stomach);
- cardiac muscles for moving substances
(contractions of the heart pump blood through
the blood vessels of the body)
4. Generating heat “Thermogenesis” – involuntary
contractions of skeletal muscles, known as
shivering, can increase the rate of heat production
PROPERTIES OF MUSCULAR TISSUE
1. Electrical excitability
- Respond to stimulus “action potential”
- Two main types: autorhythmic (electrical signal)
such as heart’s pacemaker; and chemical stimuli
such as neurotransmitters
2. Contractility
– Ability to contract forcefully when stimulated by
an action potential
– Generates tension (force of contraction)
3. Extensibility
- Ability to stretch within limits without being
damaged
- Normally, smooth muscle is subject to the
greatest amount of stretching (e.g., stomach)
- Cardiac muscle also is stretched each time the
heart fills with blood
4. Elasticity – ability to return to its original length and
shape after contraction or extension
THREE LAYERS OF CONNECTIVE TISSUE
1. Epimysium – outer layer, encircling the entire
muscle
2. Perimysium – surrounds groups of 10 to 100 or
more muscle fibers called “fascicles”
3. Endomysium – penetrates the interior of each
fascicle and separates individual muscle fibers
The epimysium, perimysium, and endomysium are all
continuous with the connective tissue that attaches
skeletal muscle to other structures.
 Tendon (ropelike) – formed when all three
layers extend beyond the muscle fibers that
 HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY WITH PATHOPHYSIOLOGY
attaches the muscle to the periosteum of a
bone
 Aponeurosis – when the connective tissue
elements extend as a broad, flat sheet
MICROSCOPIC ORGANIZATION OF SKELETAL MUSCLE
Skeletal Muscle Fiber
- Most important components of skeletal muscle
- Arises during embryonic development from the
fusion of small mesodermal cells called
“myoblasts”
Sarcolemma, Transverse Tubules, and Sarcoplasm
 Sarcolemma – plasma membrane of a muscle
cell
 Transverse (T) Tubules – tiny invaginations of
sarcolemma; “highway” of action potential or
stimulus
 Sarcoplasm – presence of glycogen (used for
synthesis of ATP); and myoglobin (protein that
binds oxygen molecules)
Myofibrils and Sarcoplasmic Reticulum
 Myofibrils – contractile organelles of skeletal
muscle
 Sarcoplasmic Reticulum (SR) – fluid-filled
system of membranous sacs that encircles each
myofibrils
Filaments and the Sarcomere
 Filaments or Myofilaments
- Within myofibrils are smaller protein
structures
- Arranged in compartments called
“sarcomeres”
 Sarcomere
- Basic functional units of myofibril
- Z Discs: separate one sarcomere from
the next
- A Band: dark, extends the entire length
of the thick filaments (myosin); zone of
overlap
- I Band: lighter, less dense area that
contains the rest of the thin filaments
(actin) but no thick filaments
- H Zone: center of each A band contains
thick filaments but not thin filaments
- M Line: middle of the sarcomere
MUSCLE PROTEINS
Contractile Proteins – generate force during
contraction; responsible for muscles to move
1. Myosin – thick filaments; motor protein
2. Actin – thin filaments; myosin-binding site
Regulatory Proteins – help switch the contraction
process on and off; also part of the actin (thin filament)
1. Tropomyosin – cover the actin “myosin-
binding”
2. Troponin – molecule; undergoes
conformational change (change in shape)
Structural Proteins – keep proper alignment
1. Titin – helping to stabilize thick filament
position
2. α-Actin – attaches to actin molecules of thin
filaments and to titin molecules
3. Myomesin – forms M line of sarcomere
4. Nebulin – wraps around entire length of each
thin filament
5. Dystrophin – links thin filaments of sarcomere
to integral membrane proteins in sarcolemma
MUSCULAR CONTRACTION (SLIDING FILAMENT
MECHANISM)
Contraction Cycle
- Repeating sequence of events that causes the
filaments to slide
- Only continues if ATP is available and Ca2+ level
in sarcoplasm is high
- Key of the cycle: Calcium ions (Ca2+)
1. ATP hydrolysis – larger molecules breakdown to
smaller molecules; myosin head hydrolyzes ATP and
becomes energized and oriented
2. Attachment of myosin to actin – myosin head binds
to actin, forming a “cross-bridge”
3. Power stroke – myosin head rotate, pulling the thin
filament past the thick filament toward center of
the sarcomere
4. Detachment of myosin from actin – as myosin head
binds ATP, the cross-bridge detaches from actin
NEUROMUSCULAR JUNCTION (NMJ)
Somatic Motor Neurons – the neurons that stimulate
skeletal muscle fibers to contract
Neuromuscular Junction (NMJ) – synapse between a
somatic motor neuron and a skeletal muscle fiber
Synapse – region where communication occurs
between a somatic motor neuron and a muscle fiber
 Presynaptic Membrane
 Postsynaptic Membrane
Synaptic Cleft – small gap that separates the two cells
Neurotransmitter – chemical messenger
A nerve impulse (nerve action potential) elicits a muscle
action potential in the following way:
1. Release of acetylcholine – Ach is released from
synaptic vesicle
 Axon terminal – end of the motor neuron and
divides into a cluster of synaptic end bulbs
 Synaptic end bulbs – neural part of the NMJ
 Acetylcholine – neurotransmitter released at
the NMJ
2. Activation of ACh receptors – ACh binds to ACh
receptor
 Motor end plate - muscular part of the NMJ
 Acetylcholine receptors – integral trans-
membrane proteins to which ACh specifically
binds; abundant in junction folds
 Junction folds – deep grooves in the motor end
a plate that provide a large surface area for Ach
3. Production of muscle action potential – change in
the membrane potential triggers a muscle action
potential
4. Termination of ACh activity - effect of ACh binding
lasts only briefly
 HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY WITH PATHOPHYSIOLOGY
 Acetylcholinesterase (AChE) – breakdown
Ach
SOURCES OF ENERGY FOR MUSCLE CONTRACTION
1. Phosphocreatine – energy-rich molecule that is
found in muscle fibers
2. Glycolysis (Anaerobic Cellular Respiration) –
breakdown of glucose gives rise to lactic acid when
oxygen is absent or at a low concentration
3. Oxidative Metabolism (Aerobic Cellular
Respiration) – series of oxygen-requiring reactions
(the Krebs cycle and the electron transport chain)
that produce ATP, carbon dioxide, water, and heat
TYPES OF SKELETAL MUSCLE FIBER
1. Slow Oxidative Fibers
- Small, appear dark red, and least powerful type
- Fatigue resistant
- Used for endurance like running a marathon;
maintaining posture
2. Fast Oxidative-Glycolytic Fiber
- Intermediate in size, appear dark red
- Moderately resistant to fatigue
- Used for walking, sprinting
3. Fast Glycolytic Fibers
- Large, white, and powerful
- Suited to intense anaerobic activity of short
duration
- Rapid, intense movement in short duration
 Red muscle fibers (the dark meat in chicken legs)
have a high myoglobin content, more mitochondria,
more energy stores, and a greater blood supply
 White muscle fibers (the white meat in chicken
breasts) have less myoglobin, mitochondria, and
blood supply
TYPES OF MUSCLE CONTRACTION
1. Isometric Muscle Contraction
- Important for maintaining posture and
supporting objects in a fixed position
- Tension or force: increase greatly
- Muscle length: no change
- Movements: none
- Example: holding a book steady
2. Isotonic Muscle Contraction
- Important for body movements and for moving
objects
- Tension or force: remains constant
- Muscle length: increases or decreases
- Movements: yes
- Example: picking or lowering a book
IMBALANCE OF HOMEOSTASIS
Myasthenia Gravis
- Autoimmune chronic disease
- Progressive destruction of NMJ
Muscular Dystrophy
- Inherited
- Muscle destroying disease
- Progressive degeneration of skeletal muscle
- Mutation of protein dystrophin (structural
protein)
Abnormal Contraction of Skeletal Muscles
- Spasm – sudden involuntary contraction of a
single group of muscles
- Cramp – painful spasmodic contraction
(inadequate blood flow, overuse of muscle,
dehydration, decrease in potassium level)
- Tremor – rhythmic, involuntary, purposeless
contraction that produced shaking movements
(problem in nervous stem)
- Fasciculation – involuntary, quick twitch; visible
under the skin
- Fibrillation – spontaneous contraction but not
visible under the skin (detected by
Electromyography or EMG)
NERVOUS SYSTEM
Nervous system is one of the smallest and yet
the most complex of the 11 body systems.
Functions:
 Sensory Function – detect internal stimuli or
external stimuli
 Integrative Function – process sensory
information by making decision for response
(integration)
 Motor Function – may elicit an appropriate
motor response by activation effectors (muscles
and glands)
 Transmits information, and controls coordinates
all essential functions of the body
Two Main Subdivision of Nervous System
1. Central Nervous System
- consists of the brain and spinal cord
 Brain – contains about 85 billion neurons
 Spinal Cord – contains about 100 million
neurons
- main centers: meninges, CSF, skull and vertebral
column
- composed of neurons which are supported by
neuroglia
2. Peripheral Nervous System
- consists of all nervous tissue outside the CNS
(cranial nerves, spinal nerves, and associated
ganglia)
 Nerve – bundle of hundreds to thousands
of axons (nerve fibers)
 12 pairs of cranial nerves
 31 pairs of spinal nerves
- conduct information to and from the CNS and
fibrous sheats
Basic Cell of the Nervous System
Neuroglia
 HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY WITH PATHOPHYSIOLOGY
 smaller cells, but they greatly outnumber
neurons—perhaps by as much as 25 times
 support, nourish, and protect neurons, and
maintain the interstitial fluid that bathes them
Neuron
 basic functional cell of nervous system
 transmits impulses up to 250 mph
 sensing, thinking, remembering, controlling
muscle activity, and regulating glandular
secretion
 Electrical Excitability – ability to respond to a
stimulus and convert into action potential
 Stimulus – any change in the environment
that initiate an action potential
 Action Potential – electrical signal
Parts of a Neuron
1. Dendrite – receive stimulus and carries it impulses
toward the cell body
2. Soma (cell body) – contains nucleus and most
cytoplasm
3. Axon – fiber which carries impulses away from the
cell body toward another neuron
4. Schwann Cells – produce myelin sheath (fat layer in
the peripheral nervous system); oligodendrocytes
(fat layer in the central nervous system)
5. Myelin Sheath – dense lipid layer which insulates
the axon
6. Node of Ranvier – gaps or nodes in the myelin
sheath
Three Types of Neurons
1. Sensory Neuron or Afferent Neuron – bring
messages to CNS (brain and spinal cord)
2. Motor Neuron or Efferent Neuron – carry messages
from CNS
3. Interneurons – between sensory and motor
neurons in the CNS
A. Impulse
 Stimulus – change in the environment with
sufficient strength to initiate a response
 Excitability – ability of neuron to respond to the
stimulus and convert it into a nerve impulse
 All of Nothing Rule – stimulus Is either strong
enough to start an impulse or nothing happens
 impulses are always the same strength along a
given neuron and they are self-propagation –
once it starts it continues to the end of the
neuron in only one direction- from dendrite to
cell body to axon
 nerve impulse causes a movement of ions
across the cell membrane of the nerve cell
B. Synapse
 small gap or space between the axon of one
neuron and the dendrite of another
 the neurons do not actually touch at the
synapse
 it is junction between neurons which uses
neurotransmitters to start the impulse in the
second neuron or an effector (muscle or gland)
 synapse insures one-way transmission of
impulses
C. Neurotransmitters
 chemicals in the junction which allow impulses
to be started in the second neuron
 Inhibitory – GABA (Gamma-Aminobutyric
Acid)
 Excitatory – Acetylcholine, Glutamate
Primitive Structure of Neuron
1. Ectoderm – outermost; composed of columnar
epithelium and forms the nervous system
2. Mesoderm – gives rise to muscles, connective
tissues, and vascular system
3. Endoderm – innermost; gives rise to
gastrointestinal tract, lungs, and the liver
Development of the Nervous System
Neurulation
 marks the beginning of the formation of the
central nervous system
 process whereby neural plate forms into a
neural tube
 begins in 3rd week of development and
completes in the 4th week
Peripheral Nervous System
A. Somatic Nervous System (Voluntary)
 relays information from skin, sense organs and
skeletal muscles to CNS
 bring responses back to skeletal muscles for
voluntary responses
a. Cranial Nerves
- 12 pairs
- attached to undersurface of brain
- classified as sensory, motor, or mixed
sensory and motor
b. Spinal Nerves
- 31 pairs
- attached to spinal cord
c. Meninges
Cranial Nerves
 Olfactory (I) – sensory; olfaction (smell)
 Optic (II) – sensory; vision (sight)
 Oculomotor (III), Trochlear (IV), Abducens (VI) –
motor; extraocular muscles of the eye
 Trigeminal (V) – mixed; masseter
 Facial (VII) – mixed; taste on the 2/3 of tongue,
swallowing, and phonation (produce certain
sounds)
 Vestibulocochlear (VIII) – sensory; equilibrium and
hearing
 Glossopharyngeal (IX) – mixed; taste on the
posterior 1/3 of the tongue
 Vagus (X) – mixed; wanderer
 Spinal Accessory (XI) – motor; trapezius muscles
and sternocleidomastoid (SCM); assist movement of
head and pectoral girdle
 Hypoglossal (XII) – motor; tongue movement
Spinal Nerves
 HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY WITH PATHOPHYSIOLOGY
Mixed nerve, which carries motor, sensory, and
autonomic signals between the spinal cord and the
body
 Cervical Nerves (C1 – C8)
 Thoracic Nerves (T1 – T12)
 Lumbar Nerves (L1 – L5)
 Sacral Nerves (S1 – S5)
 Coccygeal Nerve (C0)
B. Autonomic Nervous System (Involuntary)
 concerned with the innervation of involuntary
structures; heart, smooth muscles, and glands
a. Sympathetic
- prepare the body for an emergency
- “fight of flight response”
b. Parasympathetic
- conserving and restoring energy
- “rest and digest”
Sympathetic Autonomic Nervous System
 increase heart rate, cardiac output, stroke volume
 increase in blood pressure (peripheral
vasoconstriction)
 decrease in digestion (constipation)
 bronchodilation
 mydriasis (pupillary dilation)
 dilates pupils; inhibits salivation; relaxes bronchi;
accelerates heartbeat; inhibits digestive activity;
stimulates glucose release by liver; relaxes bladder
Parasympathetic Autonomic Nervous System
 decrease in heart rate, cardiac output, stroke
volume
 increase in digestion
 increase in juice production
 bronchoconstriction
 miosis (pupillary constriction)
 contracts pupils; stimulates salivation; contracts
bronchi; slows heartbeat; stimulates digestive
activity; stimulates gallbladder; contracts bladder
Central Nervous System
Meninges (Protection)
Composed of neurons supported by specialized
neuroglial cell
 Gray Matter – consists of nerve cells and the
proximal portions of their processes (projections),
embedded in the neuroglia (cell body)
 White Matter – consist of nerve fibers (axons)
embedded in neuroglia; myelin sheath
Layers of the Meninges
1. Dura Mater – outermost layer, very tough
2. Arachnoid Mater – middle layer; adheres to the
dura mater and has web-like attachments to the
innermost layer (pia mater)
a. Pia Mater – very thin, transparent, but
tough; covers the entire brain, following it
into all its crevices (sulci) and spinal cord
Cerebrospinal Fluid (80 – 150mL) – buffers, nourishes,
and detoxifies the brain and spinal cord; flows through
the subarachnoid space, between arachnoid mater and
pia mater
Regions of Central Nervous System
1. Cerebral Cortex/ Cerebrum
- receives sensory information
- sends messages to move skeletal muscles
- integrates incoming and outgoing nerve
impulses
- performs activities such as thinking, learning,
and remembering
2. Basal Ganglia
- helps coordinate slow, sustained movements
- suppresses useless patterns of movement
3. Thalamus
- relays most sensory information from the spinal
cord and certain parts of the brain to the
cerebral cortex
- interprets certain sensory messages such as
those of pain, temperature, and pressure
4. Hypothalamus
- controls various homeostatic functions such as
body temperature, respiration, and heartbeat
- directs hormone secretions of the pituitary
5. Cerebellum
- coordinates subconscious movements
- contributes to muscle tone, posture, and
balance
6. Brain Stem
- origin of many cranial nerves
- reflex center for movements of eyeballs, head,
and trunk
- regulates heartbeat and breathing
- plays a role in consciousness
- transmits impulses between brain and spinal
cord
Cerebral Cortex/ Cerebrum
 largest portion of the brain, encompasses about
two-thirds of the brains mass
 consists of two hemisphere (left and right) divided
by a medial longitudinal fissure, connected by the
corpus callosum
 includes cerebral cortex, medullary body, and basal
ganglia
Lobes of Cerebrum
1. Frontal – motor area involved in movement and
in planning and coordinating behavior
2. Parietal – sensory processing, attention, and
language
3. Temporal – auditory perception, speech, and
complex visual perceptions
4. Occipital (visual center) – plays a role in
processing visual information
Medullary Body – white matter if the cerebrum and
consists of myelinated axons
a. Commissural Fibers – conduct impulses
between the hemispheres and form corpus
callosum
b. Projection Fibers – conduct impulse in and out
of the cerebral hemispheres (thalamus,
brainstem, and spinal cord)
 HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY WITH PATHOPHYSIOLOGY
c. Association Fibers – conduct impulses within - chronic autoimmune, neuromuscular disease
the hemispheres (neuromuscular junction)
-  antibodies (immune proteins produced by the
body’s immune system) block, alter, or destroy
Hemispheres of the Brain
the receptors for acetylcholine at the
1. Left Hemisphere (Dominant Hemisphere)
neuromuscular junction, which prevents the
- left brain; right side of body control
muscle from contracting
- number skills
-  hallmark of myasthenia gravis is muscle
- math/scientific skills
weakness that worsens after periods of activity
- written language
and improves after periods of rest
- spoken language
- objectivity Guillain-Barre Syndrome (GBS)
- analytical - acute demyelinating disorder in which
- logic macrophages strip myelin from axons in the
- reasoning PNS (myelin sheath: Schwann cells)
2. Right Hemisphere (Non-Dominant Hemisphere) - may result from the immune system’s response
- right brain; left side of body control to a bacterial infection
- 3D shapes
- music/art awareness
- intuition ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
- creativity Endocrine System
- imagination  2nd great controlling system in the body
- subjectivity  composed of ductless glans and produce
- synthesizing hormones in the blood or lymph system
- emotion
- face recognition Functions:
 regulating almost body functions, including
metabolism, growth and development, water
Diseases of the Nervous System and electrolyte balance, reproduction, and
Multiple Sclerosis behavior
- progressive destruction of myelin sheaths  endocrine system is controlled by the feedback
surrounding neurons in the CNS mechanism
(oligodendrocyte); autoimmune disease
- usually appears between the ages of 20 and 40 Feedback Mechanism
- females twice as often as males 1. Negative Feedback Mechanism
- major mechanism of hormone action; its effects
causes the process to slow down or turn off
2. Positive Feedback Mechanism
- accelerates the original process. It can ensure
Epilepsy that the pathway continues to run can speed up
- characterized by short, recurrent attacks of its activities
motor, sensory, or psychological malfunction
Three General Types of Hormones
- initiated by abnormal, synchronous electrical
1. Proteins and Polypeptides
discharges from millions of neurons
- anterior and posterior pituitary gland:
- causes, including brain damage at birth (the
- the pancreas (insulin and glucagon)
most common cause); metabolic disturbances
- parathyroid gland (parathyroid hormone)
(hypoglycemia, hypocalcemia, uremia, hypoxia);
2. Steroids
infections (encephalitis or meningitis); toxins
- adrenal cortex (cortisol and aldosterone)
(alcohol, tranquilizers, hallucinogens); vascular
disturbances (hemorrhage, hypotension); head - ovaries (estrogen and progesterone)
injuries; and tumors and abscesses of the brain - testes (testosterone)
- placenta (estrogen and progesterone)
Excitotoxicity 3. Derivatives of Amino Acids Tyrosine
- high level of glutamate (excitatory - thyroid (thyroxine and triiodothyronine)
neurotransmitter) in the interstitial fluid of the - adrenal medullae (epinephrine and
CNS norepinephrine)
- most common cause of excitotoxicity is oxygen
deprivation of the brain due to ischemia
(inadequate blood flow), as happens during a Glands
stroke A. Hypothalamus
- Decreased Oxygen = Increased Glutamate =  master control center of the endocrine system
Brain Cell Damage  indirect control
Myasthenia Gravis (MG)  Functions: temperature regulation, control the
body weight, drive to eat and drink, emotions.
 HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY WITH PATHOPHYSIOLOGY
B. Pituitary Gland (Hypophysis)
 Lies inferior to the hypothalamus
 Connected thru the infundibulum
Division of Pituitary Gland
1. Anterior Pituitary Gland/ Adenohypophysis
a. Growth Hormone (GH) / Somatotropin –
stimulates protein synthesis and overall growth
of most cell (i.e. osteoblast) and tissues
b. Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH) – thyroid
gland; stimulates synthesis and secretion of
thyroid hormones (thyroxine and
triiodothyronine)
c. Adrenocorticotropic (ACTH) – renal or kidney;
stimulates synthesis and secretion of
adrenocortical hormones (cortisol, androgens,
and aldosterone)
d. Prolactin – promotes development of the
female breasts and secretion of milk
e. Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH) – male:
stimulates release of sperm; female: initiates
development of oocytes and induces ovarian
release of estrogen
f. Luteinizing Hormone (LH) – male: stimulates
testosterone synthesis in Leydig cells of testes;
female: stimulates ovulation, formation of
corpus luteum, and estrogen and progesterone
synthesis in ovaries
g. Melanocyte Stimulating Hormone (MSH) –
increases skin pigmentation
2. Posterior Pituitary Gland/ Neurohypophysis
a. Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH) / Vasopressin –
increases water reabsorption by the kidneys
and causes vasoconstriction and increased
blood pressure
b. Oxytocin – stimulates milk ejection from
breasts and uterine contractions; milk ejection
via sucking reflex
C. Pineal Gland
 small endocrine gland attached to the roof of
the third ventricle of the brain at the midline
 Part of the epithalamus, it is positioned
between the two superior colliculi, has a mass
of 0.1–0.2g
 Melatonin: controls the body's biological clock
D. Thymus Gland
 located behind the sternum between the lungs
 thymosin, thymic humoral factor (THF), thymic
factor (TF), and thymopoietin — promote the
maturation of T cells (a type of white blood cell
that destroys microbes and foreign substances)
and may retard the aging process
E. Thyroid Gland
 located immediately below the larynx on each
side and anterior to the trachea
 one of the largest of the endocrine glands,
normally weighing 15 to 20 grams in adults
a. T3 (Triiodothyronine) and T4 (Thyroxine) –
increase body metabolic rate; important in
growth and development
b. Calcitonin – parafollicular cells of the
thyroid gland; reduces blood calcium levels
by acting on osteoclasts in the process of
bone resorption
F. Parathyroid Gland
 embedded in the posterior surface of the lateral
lobe of the thyroid gland
 small, brownish-red glands
 Parathyroid Hormone
- stimulates osteoclasts to resorb bone and
release calcium ions from bone matrix into
the bloodstream
- stimulates calcitriol hormone synthesis in
the kidney
- promotes calcium absorption in the small
intestine
- prevents the loss of calcium ions during the
formation of urine
G. Adrenal Gland (Suprarenal)
 The two adrenal glands, each of which weighs
about 4 grams, lie at the superior poles of the
two kidneys
Kinds of Adrenal Gland
1. Adrenal Medulla
- the central 20 percent of the gland, is
functionally related to the sympathetic nervous
system;
- Secretes catecholamine hormones:
a. the hormones epinephrine (slightly more of
an effect on your heart); and
b. norepinephrine (more of an effect on your
blood vessels)
- They are the flight-or-fight hormones that are
released when the body is under extreme
stress.
2. Adrenal Cortex
- secretes an entirely different group of
hormones, called corticosteroids
a. ZONA GLOMERULOSA – Mineralocorticoids
(Aldosterone)
- Increases renal sodium reabsorption,
potassium secretion, and hydrogen ion
secretion;
- increase water and electrolyte
reabsorption
b. ZONA FASCICULATA – Glucocorticoids
(Cortisol)
- Has multiple metabolic functions for
controlling metabolism of proteins,
carbohydrates, and fats;
- also has anti-inflammatory effects;
- resistance to stress
 HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY WITH PATHOPHYSIOLOGY
c. ZONA RETICULARIS Androgen (Secondary
sex characteristics of males)
- Stimulate growth of axillary and pubic
hair
- If more in females they develop male
characteristics, clitoris develops
- similar to penis
H. Pancreas
 flattened organ that measures about 12.5–15
cm (5–6 in.) in length, the pancreas is located in
the curve of the duodenum (first part of the
small intestine) and consists of a head, a body,
and a tail
Pancreatic Islet (Islet of Langerhans)
1. Alpha Cells – glucagon, increases blood sugar levels
2. Beta Cells – insulin, decreases blood glucose levels
3. Delta Cells – somatostatin, balance/controls the
number of insulin and glucagon (acts like mediator);
inhibit both insulin and glucagon release from
neighboring beta and alpha cells
4. F Cells – pancreatic polypeptide, inhibits
somatostatin secretion, gallbladder contraction, and
secretion of digestive enzymes by the pancreas
I. Gonads
 Ovaries (Female)
a. Estrogens: Promotes growth and
development of female reproductive
system, female breasts, and female
secondary sexual characteristics
b. Progesterone: Stimulates secretion of
“uterine milk” by the uterine endometrial
glands and promotes development of
secretory apparatus of breasts
c. Relaxin: Increases flexibility of pubic
symphysis during pregnancy; helps dilate
uterine cervix during labor and delivery
d. Inhibin: Inhibits secretion of FSH from
anterior pituitary
 Testes (Male)
a. Testosterone: Promotes development of
male reproductive system and male
secondary sexual characteristics
b. Inhibin: Inhibits secretion of FSH from
anterior pituitary.
ORGANS
A. Placenta
 Pregnancy:
1. Human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG)
Stimulates corpus luteum in ovary to
continue production of estrogens and
progesterone to maintain pregnancy
2. Human somatomammotropin (hCS):
Stimulates development of mammary
glands for lactation
3. Estrogen: help prepare mammary glands to
secrete milk.
4. Progesterone
B. Stomach
1. Gastrin : Promotes secretion of gastric juice;
increases movements of the stomach (dissolves
what we eat)
2. Glucose-dependent insulinotropic peptide
(GIP): Stimulates release of insulin by pancreatic
beta cells (to balance the blood sugar level)
3. Ghrelin: hunger hormone
C. Kidney
1. Renin: part of reaction sequence that raises
blood pressure by bringing about
vasoconstriction (constriction of blood vessels)
and secretion of aldosterone
2. Erythropoietin: increases rate of red blood cell
formation
3. Calcitriol : Aids in absorption of dietary calcium
and phosphorus
D. Heart
a. Atrial natriuretic peptide: Increases sodium
excretion by kidneys, reduces blood pressure
E. Adipose Tissue
a. Leptin: Inhibits appetite and thermogenesis
(body heat)
Homeostatic Imbalances of Endocrine System
Diabetes Insipidus (DI)
 most common abnormality associated with
dysfunction of the posterior pituitary
 This disorder is due to defects in antidiuretic
hormone (ADH) receptors or an inability to
secrete ADH
 Neurogenic diabetes insipidus & Nephrogenic
diabetes insipidus
 A common symptom of both forms of DI is
excretion of large volumes of urine
Diabetes Mellitus (DM)
 deficiency or absence of insulin secretion of the
beta cells of the pancreas or by defects of the
insulin receptors
 Type 1 diabetes mellitus (T1DM); also known
as insulin-dependent, juvenile-onset diabetes
while
 Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM), also known as
non-insulin dependent, adult onset diabetes.
 Characteristics: polyuria, excessive urine
production due to an inability of the kidneys to
reabsorb water; polydipsia, excessive thirst;
and polyphagia, excessive eating
Thyroid Gland Diseases
• Graves Disease “Hyperthyroidism “
• autoimmune disorder in which the person
produces antibodies that mimic the action of
thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)
• Characteristics: Goiter is simply an enlarged
thyroid gland. It may be associated with
hyperthyroidism, hypothyroidism, or
euthyroidism which means normal secretion of
thyroid hormone.
• Myxedema “Hypothyroidism”
 HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY WITH PATHOPHYSIOLOGY
Parathyroid Gland Disorders
 Hypoparathyroidism (Hyporcalcemia) - too
little parathyroid hormone which leads to a
deficiency of blood Ca2++ ; leads to twitches,
spasms, and tetany (maintained contraction) of
skeletal muscle
 Hyperparathyroidism (Hypercalcemia) -
excessive resorption of bone matrix, raising the
blood levels of calcium and phosphate ions and
causing bones to become soft and easily
fractured

Adrenal Gland Diseases

 Cushing’s Syndrome - hypersecretion of cortisol
by the adrenal cortex;
- Symptoms: elevated level of cortisol causes
hyperglycemia, osteoporosis, weakness,
hypertension, increased susceptibility to
infection, decreased resistance to stress, and
mood swings
 Addison’s Disease - hyposecretion of
glucocorticoids and aldosterone;
- Symptoms: which typically do not appear until
90% of the adrenal cortex has been destroyed,
include mental lethargy, anorexia, nausea and
vomiting, weight loss, hypoglycemia, and
muscular weakness