What is a problem?


Generally, it is a situation you want
to change!
A problem is a situation that
conforms the learner, that requires
resolution, and for which the path of the
answer is not immediately known.
There is an obstacle that prevents one
from setting a clear path to the answer.
What is a Problem Solving

Problem Solving has been defined
as higher-order cognitive process
that requires the modulation and
control of more routine or
fundamental skills" (Goldstein
& Levin, 1987).
A. Understanding Reasoning

Mathematical reasoning refers to the
ability of a person to analyze problem
situations and construct logical
arguments to justify his process or
hypothesis, to create both conceptual
foundations and connections, in order
for him to be able to process available
information.
NCTM pointed out that….

People who can reason and think
analytically tend
To note patterns, structure, or regularities
in both real-world situations and symbolic
objects;
To ask if those patterns are accidental or
if they occur for a reason
To conjecture and prove
Reasoning

Students are expected to:
1. Define a statement
2. Identify the hypothesis and conclusion
in a statement
3. Write conditional statements
4. Write the Converse, Inverse,
Contrapositive of a given conditional
statement.
B. Inductive and Deductive Reasoning

What kind of thinking is
used when solving
problems?
Inductive or deductive?
Two basic categories
of human reasoning

Deduction: reasoning from general premises, which are

known or presumed to be known, to more specific, certain
conclusions.
Induction: reasoning from specific cases to more general, but
uncertain, conclusions.

Both deductive and inductive arguments occur frequently and

naturally…both forms of reasoning can be equally compelling
and persuasive, and neither form is preferred over the other
(Hollihan & Baske, 1994).
Deduction Vs. Induction
Deduction:
commonly associated with
“formal logic.”
involves reasoning from
known premises, or
premises presumed to be
true, to a certain
conclusion.
the conclusions reached are
certain, inevitable,
inescapable.
Induction
commonly known as
“informal logic,” or
“everyday argument”
involves drawing uncertain
inferences, based on
probabalistic reasoning.
the conclusions reached are
probable, reasonable,
plausible, believable.
Deductive Versus
Inductive Reasoning
Deduction
It is the form or structure of a
deductive argument that
determines its validity
the fundamental property of a
valid, deductive argument is
that if the premises are true,
then the conclusion necessarily
follows.
The conclusion is said to be
“entailed” in, or contained in,
the premises.
example: use of DNA testing to
establish paternity
Induction
By contrast, the form or structure
of an inductive argument has
little to do with its perceived
believability or credibility, apart
from making the argument seem
more clear or more well-
organized.
The receiver (or a 3rd party)
determines the worth of an
inductive argument
 Inductive Reasoning

The type of reasoning that forms a conclusion
based on the examination of specific examples is called
inductive reasoning.

Specific
Conclusion
Examples

The formed by using

is often calledinductive
reasoningconclusion a conjecture, since it may
or may not be correct.
Inductive Reasoning

Inductive Reasoning, involves going from a

series of specific cases to a general statement.
The conclusion in an inductive argument is
never guaranteed.

Example: What is the next number in the

sequence 6, 13, 20, 27,…
There is more than one correct answer.
 Inductive Reasoning
Here’s the sequence again 6, 13, 20, 27,…
Look at the difference of each term.
13 – 6 = 7, 20 – 13 = 7, 27 – 20 = 7
Thus the next term is 34, because 34 – 27 = 7.
However what if the sequence represents the dates.
Then the next number could be 3 (31 days in a month).
The next number could be 4 (30 day month)
Or it could be 5 (29 day month – Feb. Leap year)
Or even 6 (28 day month – Feb.)
 Examples
Example 1: 
A baby cries, then cries, then cries to get a
milk.
We conclude that if a baby cries, he/she gets a milk.
Example 2:
Here is a sequence of numbers: 3, 6, 9,
____ 12,
What is the 5th number?
We can easily conclude that the next number is 15.
Example 3:

You are asked to find the 6th 7th
and term in the sequence:
1, 3, 6, 10, 15, ______ , _____
The first two numbers differ by 2. The 2nd
and 3rd numbers differ by 3. The next difference
is 4, then 5. So, the next difference will be 6 and
Thus the 6th term is 15+ 6 = 21 while the 7th is
21 + 7 = 28.
Take note!

Inductive reasoning is not used just to
predict the next number in a list.
We use inductive reasoning to make a
conjecture about an arithmetic
procedure.

Make a conjecture about the example 2

and 3 in the previous slide…
 Exercise
Use Inductive Reasoning
to Make a Conjecture
A. Consider the following p r o c e d u r e:
1. Pick a number.
2. Multiply the number by 8,
3. Add 6 to the product
4. Divide the sum by 2, and
5. Subtract 3.
Complete the above procedure for several different numbers.
Use inductive reasoning to make a conjecture about the relationship
between the size of the resulting number and the size of the original
number.
 Exercise
Use Inductive Reasoning
to Make a Conjecture
B. Consider the following proce dure:
1. Pick a number.
2. Multiply the number by 9,
3. Add 15 to the product,
4. Divide the sum by 3, and
5. Subtract 5.
Complete the above procedure for several different numbers.
Use inductive reasoning to make a conjecture about the relationship
between the size of the resulting number and the size of the original
number.
 Exercise
Use Inductive Reasoning
to Make a Conjecture

C. Consider the following procedure:
1. List 1 as the first odd number
2. Add the next odd number to 1.
3. Add the next odd number to the sum.
4. Repeat adding the next odd number to the previous sum.

Construct a table to summarize the result. Use inductive

reasoning to make a conjecture about the sum obtained.
 Exercise
Use Inductive Reasoning
to Make a Conjecture

D. Observe the two sets of polygons
below:

What is the name of a polygon that can be

used to describe the polygons in column 2?
Use inductive reasoning to make a conjecture
polygons
about
in column the
2.
 Exercise
Use Inductive Reasoning
to Make a Conjecture

Scientists often use inductive reasoning. For instance, Galileo
Galilei (1564–1642) used inductive reasoning to discover that the time
required for a pendulum to complete one swing, called the period of
the pendulum, depends on the length of the pendulum. Galileo did
not have a clock, so he measured the periods of pendulums in
“heartbeats.” The following table shows some results obtained for
pendulums of various lengths. For the sake of convenience, a length
of 10 inches has been designated as 1 unit.
Use the data in the table and inductive
reasoning to answer each of the following
questions.
a. If a pendulum has a length of 49 units,
what is its period?
b. If the length of a pendulum is
quadrupled, what happens to its
period?
 Take note:
Conclusions based on 
inductive reasoning may be
incorrect.
As an illustration, consider
the circles shown. For each
circle, all possible line
segments have been drawn to
connect each dot on the circle
with all the other dots on the
circle. For each circle, count
the number of regions formed
by the line segments that
connect the dots on the circle.
 Counterexamples

A statement is a true statement
provided that it is true in all cases.
If you can find one case for which a
statement is not true, called a
counterexample, then the
statement is a false statement
 Exercise 1

Verify that each of the following
statements is a false statement by finding
a counterexample.

For all numbers x:

a. 𝒙 > 𝟎
b. 𝒙𝟐 > 𝒙
c. 𝒙−𝟏 < 𝒙
MMW by Joseph G. Taban , UNP
 Exercise 2

Verify that each of the following statements
is a false statement by finding a
counterexample.

For all numbers x:

 DEDUCTIVE REASONING:

Another type of reasoning is called
deductive reasoning.
Deductive reasoning is distinguished
from inductive reasoning in that it is
the process of reaching a conclusion
by applying general principles and
procedures.
Deductive Reasoning

Deductive Reasoning – A type of logic in

which one goes from a general statement to a
specific instance.
The classic example
All men are mortal. (major premise)
Socrates is a man. (minor premise)
Therefore, Socrates is mortal. (conclusion)
The above is an example of a syllogism.
 
Mathematics is essentially deductive
reasoning
Deductive reasoning is always valid
Deductive reasoning makes use of
undefined terms, formally defined
terms, axioms, theorems, and rules of
inference.
 Example
Use Deductive Reasoning
to make a Conjecture
B. Consider the following proce dure:
1. Pick a number. n
2. Multiply the number by 9, 9n
3. Add 15 to the product, 9n + 15
4. Divide the sum by 3 ( 9n + 15 )/3 3n + 5
5. Subtract 5. 3n + 5 – 5 3n
6. Complete the above procedure for by assuming the
number to be n. Use deductive reasoning to make
a conjecture about the relationship between the
size of the resulting number and the size of the
original number.
The answer is three times the number
 Examples of Deductive Reasoning

Example 1:

If a number is divisible by 2, then it must be
even. 12 is divisible by 2.
Therefore, 12 is an even number.
Example 2:
All math teachers know how to play
sudoku. Resty is a math teacher.
Therefore, Resty knows how to play sudoku.
 Examples of Deductive Reasoning

Example 3:

If a student is a DOST scholar, he receives
a monthly allowance.
If a student receives a monthly allowance,
his parents will be happy.
Therefore, if a student is a DOST scholar,
his parents will be happy.
Example 4:
If ∠A and ∠B are supplementary
angles. If m∠A = 100º, then m∠B = 80º
Take note:

The essence of deductive reasoning is
drawing a conclusion from a given
statement.
The deductive reasoning works best
when the statements used in the
argument are true and the statements
in the argument clearly follow from one
another.
 Logic Puzzles

 Logic Puzzles can be solved by deductive reasoning and a chart
that enables us to display the given information in a visual
manner.
Example 1:
Each of four neighbors, Sean, Maria, Sarah, and Brian, has a
different occupation (editor, banker, chef, or dentist).
From the following clues, determine the occupation of
each neighbor.
1. Maria gets home from work after the banker but before the
dentist.
2. Sarah, who is the last to get home from work, is not the
editor.
3. The dentist and Sarah leave for work at the same time.
 SOLUTION
CLUES:
1. Maria gets home from work after the banker but before the dentist.
2. Sarah, who is the last to get home from work, is not the editor.
3. The dentist and Sarah leave for work at the same time.

4. The banker lives next door to Bria

Editor Banker Chef 
Dentist
n.
 We know from clue 1 that the
banker is not the last to get home,
Sean and we know from clue 2 that
X X X Sarah is the last to get home;
Maria therefore, Sarah is not the banker.
X X X
 From clue 3, Sarah is not the
Sarah
X X X dentist.
Brian
X X X  As a result, Sarah is the
Chef.
 From clue 1: Maria is not the  Maria is the Editor.
banker or the dentist.
 From clue 4, Brian is not the
 From clue 2, Sarah is not the banker.
editor.  Brian is the Dentist.
 EXERCISE

 Brianna, Ryan, Tyler, and Ashley were recently elected as
the new class officers (president, vice president, secretary,
treasurer) of the sophomore class at Summit College.

From the following clues, determine which position

each holds:
1. Ashley is younger than the president but
older than the
treasurer.
2. Brianna and the secretary are both the same
age, and
they are the youngest members of the
group.
Group Activity:

Distribute the Activity Sheet:
Watch the movie after 20 minutes.

Can you solve _Einstein’s Riddle -

Dan Van der Vieren.mp4
C. INTUITION, PROOF, AND CERTAINTY


1. INTUITION
Intuition is the ability to acquire
knowledge without proof, evidence, or
conscious reasoning, or without understanding
how the knowledge was acquired.

“Intuition is a sense of knowing how to

act spontaneously, without needing to know
why” – Sylvia Clare
Example of Intuition

Mina and Sarah are getting ready for
school. Mina said, “ I have a very strong
feeling that it will rain this afternoon. Let
us each bring a jacket”
 

By intuition, we know truth simply

by the process of introspection
and immediate awareness.
2.Proof

A proof is a sequence of statements that
form an argument.

There are two common methods of

proof:
1. Direct Proof
2. Indirect Proof
Direct Proof

In a direct proof
You assume the hypothesis p
Give a direct series (sequence) of
implications using definitions,
axioms, theorems and rules of
inference
Show that the conclusion q holds.
Direct proof example

Show that the square of an even number is an
even number .

Rephrase: If n is even, then n2 is even.

Assume n is even
–Thus, n = 2k, for some k (definition of even
numbers) – n2 = (2k)2 = 4k2 = 2(2𝑘 2 )
– As n2 is 2 times an integer, n2 is thus even.
For students

The best way to improve proof skills is
PRACTICE.

Let them prove in Algebra

Ex. Prove that “If 8x – 5 = 19, then x
=3.”
The sum of two odd integers is even.
Indirect Proof

When we use

an indirect
proof to prove
a theory, we
follow three
steps.

An indirect proof is also called a proof by

contradiction, because we are literally looking
for a contradiction to a theory being false in order
to prove that the theory is true.
Indirect proof example

If 𝒏𝟐 is an odd integer then n is an odd integer.
Proof:
Assume the conclusion to be false. n is an
even integer
- n=2k for some integer k (definition of
even numbers)
- n2 = (2𝑘)2 = 4𝑘 2 = 2(2 𝑘 2 )
- Since n2 is 2 times an integer, it is even.
 
Indirect Proofcan be done by showing
that the contrapositive is true.
Consider an implication: p→q
–It’s contrapositive is ¬q→¬p
–Thus, show that if ¬q is true, then
¬p is true
- To perform an indirect
proof, do a direct proof on the
contrapositive.
3. Certainty

There are three lines of inquiry to address
the problem of certainty in mathematics.
1. Look at the historical development of
mathematics
2. Sketch the individual cognitive
development in mathematics
3. Examine the foundations of certainty
for mathematics and investigate its
strengths and deficiencies
 D. PROBLEM -SOLVING STRATEGIES


Ancient mathematicians who were
interested in problem-solving are Euclid,
Rene Descartes, and Gottfried Wilhelm
Leibnitz.
One of the foremost recent mathematicians
to make a study of problem solving was
George Polya (1887–1985). He was born in
Hungary and moved to the United States
in 1940.
 POLYA’S STEPS IN
PROBLEM SOLVING

Understand
the
Problem
Devise a Plan

Carry out the Plan

Look Back
 Devise a Carry out
Look Back
Plan the Plan


 Do you understand all the words used in stating the
problem?
 What are you asked to find or show?


 Can
Can you
you restate
think ofthe problem
a picture orin your own
diagram thatwords?
might help you
understand the problem?
 Is there enough information to enable you to find a
solution?
 Understand the Carry out
Look Back
Problem the Plan


Find the connection between the
data and
the unknown. You may be obliged to consider
auxiliary problems if an immediate connection
cannot be found. You should obtain eventually a
plan of the solution.
Polya mentions that there are many
reasonable ways to solve problems. The skill at
choosing an appropriate strategy is best learned by
 Understand the Carry out
Problem
j the Plan
Look Back

AMake a listlist
partial of the known
of strategies 
isTry to solve a similar but
included:
information. simpler problem.
 Make a list of information  Look for a pattern.
that is needed.  Write an equation. If
 Draw a diagram. necessary, define what
 Make an organized list that each variable represents.
shows all the possibilities.  Perform an experiment.
 Make a table or a chart.  Guess at a solution and then
 Work backwards. check your result.
46
Understand the Devise a Look
Problem Plan
Back

■Work carefully.
■Keep an accurate and neat record of all
your attempts.
■Realize that some of your initial plans will
not work and that you may have to devise
another plan or modify your existing plan.
Understand the Devise a Carry out
Problem Plan the Plan


Once you have found a solution, check the
solution.

■Ensure that the solution is consistent with the

facts of the problem.
■Interpret the solution in the context of the
problem.
■Ask yourself whether there are generalizations of
 Group Activity

 Discuss the 5 examples and give
comments/suggestions on how to improve the
strategies
 Apply Polya’s four steps in problem solving

Activity sheets - STRATEGY in PROBLEM

SOLVING
.pdf
 

DEMONSTRATION
E. Mathematical
Problems
Involving Patterns

Predict the next term in a sequence
nth-term Formula for a Sequence
Word Problems which involves
numerical pattern
 TERMS OF A SEQUENCE

An ordered list of numbers such as
5, 14, 27, 44, 65, ...
is called a sequence. The numbers in a sequence that are
separated by commas are the terms of the sequence. In the
above sequence, 5 is the first term, 14 is the second term, 27
is the third term, 44 is the fourth term, and 65 is the fifth
term. The three dots “...” indicate that the sequence
continues beyond 65, which is the last written term. It is
customary to use the subscript notation an to designate the
nth term of a sequence. That is,
Exercise:

Give problems involving sequence of
numbers and worded problems
involving numerical patterns
Ex. 1. Find the 10th term in the sequence
3, 7, 11, 15,
…
2. Mark saves money from his allowance.
Each day he saves 12 pesos more than the
previous day. If he started saving 8 pesos in the
first day, how much will he set aside in the 5th
 F. Recreational Problems
using Mathematics
Sudoku

Magic Squares
A magic square of order n is an arrangement of
numbers in a square such that the sum of the n numbers in
each row, column, and diagonal is the same number..
KenKen Puzzles
KenKen is an arithmetic-based logic puzzle that was
invented by the Japanese mathematics teacher Tetsuya
Miyamoto in 2004. The noun “ken” has “knowledge” and
“awareness” as synonyms. Hence, KenKen translates as
knowledge squared, or awareness squared.
KenKen puzzles are similar to Sudoku puzzles, but
they also require you to perform arithmetic to solve the
puzzle.
KenKen Puzzle


SOLUTION
Solve a KenKen Puzzle

Distribute Activity Sheets:

KENKEN PUZZLE.docx
 Activity: Exploration

 Activity Sheet - TOWER of HANOI.docx
 

QUIZ
 

Problem Set # 1
References

 Mathematical Excursions (Ch. 1) by R. Aufmann , et
al.
 Mathematical Excursions Ch. 2) by R. Aufmann et
al.