ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY WITH PATHOLOGY LEC

CHAPTER 1: THE HUMAN ORGANISM

2nd Semester: AY 2022 – 2023
Instructor: Dr. Martin Migrino, MSHS, PhD

ANATOMY - is the study of the organization of the body

- is the scientific discipline that investigates the Examples:
body’s structure
o Head
- describes the shape and size of
bones o Abdomen
- examines the relationship between the structure o Arm
of a body part and its function SURFACE ANATOMY vs ANATOMICAL
DIFFERENT LEVELS OF ANATOMY IMAGING

Developmental anatomy - Both used to examine the internal structures of a

living person
- is the study of the structural changes that occur
between conception and adulthood Surface Anatomy

Embryology - Is the study of external features such as bony

- a subspeciality of developmental anatomy,
considers changes from conception to the end of
the eighth week of development
Cytology
- examines the structural features of cells
projections
Anatomical Imaging
- Involves the use of x-rays, ultrasound, magnetic
resonance imaging (MRI) and other technologies
to create pictures of internal structures

Histology
- examines tissues, which are cells and the
materials surrounding them
Gross anatomy
- the study of structures that can be examined
without the aid of a microscope, can be
approached from either a systemic or regional
perspective
2 BASIC APPROACHES TO THE STUDY OF
ANATOMY
PHYSIOLOGY
- Is the scientific discipline that deals with the
processes or functions of living things
Goals of Physiology:
 To understand and predict the body’s responses
to stimuli
 To understand how the body maintains
conditions within a narrow range of values
Physiology divided according to:

I. Systemic Anatomy 1. the organisms involved

2. levels of organization within the given organism
- is the study of the body by systems
Human Physiology
Examples of systems:
- Is the study of a specific organism, the human
o Circulatory
o Nervous Cellular and Systemic Physiology
o Skeletal
o Muscular - Are examples of physiology that emphasize
specific organizational levels
II. Regional Anatomy
 DIFFERENT LEVELS OF PHYSIOLOGY 4. Nervous
Cell physiology IV. Organ level

- examines the processes occurring in cells Organ is composed of two or more tissue types that
together perform one or more common functions
Systemic physiology
Examples:
- considers the functions of organ systems
o Urinary bladder
Neurophysiology o Skin
- focuses on the nervous system o Stomach
o Eye
Cardiovascular physiology o Heart
- deals with the heart and blood vessels V. Organ System level
Pathology Organ system is a group of organs classified as a unit
- is the medical science dealing with all aspects of because of a common function or set of functions
disease, with an emphasis on the cause and Example:
development of abnormal conditions as well as
the structural and functional changes resulting o Urinary system consists of kidneys, ureter,
from disease urinary bladder, and urethra

Exercise physiology VI. Organism

- focuses on changes in function, but also An organism is any living thing considered as a whole,
structure, caused by exercise whether composed of one cell, such as a bacterium, or
trillions of cells, such as human.
6 STRUCTURAL AND FUNCTIONAL LEVELS OF
ORGANIZATION - the human organism is a complex of organ
systems that are mutually dependent on one
I. Chemical level another
- involves interactions among atoms and their
combinations into molecules
- the function of molecule is related intimately to
its structure
II. Cell level
Cells are the basic structural and functional units or
organisms such as plants and animals

- molecules can combine to form organelles

Organelles w/c are the small structures that make up

cells
III. Tissue level
Tissue is a group of similar cells and the materials
surrounding them
4 Primary Tissue Types:
1. Epithelial
2. Connective
3. Muscle
 ORGAN SYSTEMS OF THE BODY

- group of organs classified as a unit because of a

common function or set of functions
 Integumentary System
 Skeletal System
 Muscular System
 Lymphatic System
 Respiratory System
 Digestive System
 Nervous System
 Endocrine System
 Cardiovascular System
 Urinary System
 Female Reproductive System
 Male Reproductive System
INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM

- provides protection
- regulates temperature
- prevents water loss
- produces vitamin D precursors
- consists of skin, hair, nails, and sweet glands
MUSCULAR SYSTEM

- produces body movements

- maintains posture
- produces body heat
- consists of muscle attached to the skeleton by
tendons

LYMPHATIC SYSTEM

SKELETAL SYSTEM - removes foreign substances from the blood and

lymph
- provides protection and support - combats diseases
- allows body movements - maintains tissue fluid balance
- produces blood cells - absorbs fats from digestive tract
- stores minerals and fats
- consists of bones, associated cartilages,
ligaments and joints
 NERVOUS SYSTEM

- major regulatory system that detects sensations

and controls movements, physiologic processes,
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
and intellectual functions
- exchanges oxygen and carbon dioxide between - consists of the brain, spinal cord, nerves, and
blood and air sensory receptors
- regulates blood pH
- consists of lungs and respiratory passages

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

- major regulatory system that influences

metabolism growth, reproduction, and many
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM other functions
- consists of glands, such as the pituitary, that
- performs the mechanical and chemical processes secrete hormone
of digestion
- absorption of nutrients
- elimination of wastes
- consists of mouth, esophagus, stomach,
intestines, and accessory organs.

URINARY SYSTEM
 - removes waste products from blood
- regulates pH, ion balance, and water balance
- consists of the kidneys, urinary bladder, and
ducts that carry urine
FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
- produces oocytes and is the site of fertilization
and fetal development
- produces milk for the newborn
- produces hormones that influence sexual
functions and behaviors
- consists of the ovaries, vagina, uterus, mammary
glands, and associated structures
MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
- produces and transfers sperm cells to the female
- produces hormones that influence sexual
functions and behaviors
- consists of the testes, accessory structures, ducts,
and penis
CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE
- the important common feature of all organisms
is life
I. Organization
- is the condition in w/c the parts of an organism
have specific relationships to each other and the
parts interact to perform specific functions
- all organisms are composed of one or more cells
II. Metabolism
- is the ability to use energy to perform vital
functions, such as growth, movement, and
reproduction
- plants can capture energy from sunlight, and
humans obtain energy from food
III. Responsiveness
- is the ability of an organism to sense changes in
the environment and make the adjustments that
help maintain its life
- responses include movement toward food or
water and away from danger or poor
environmental conditions
IV. Growth
- results in an increase in size of all or part of the
organism
- it can result from an increase in cell number, cell
size, or the amount of substance surrounding
cells
V. Development
 - includes the changes an organism undergoes
through time; it begins with fertilization and
ends at death
VI. Reproduction

- is the formation of new cells or new organisms

- without reproduction of cells, growth and tissue
repair are impossible
- without reproduction of an organism, the species
becomes extinct

HOMEOSTASIS
Homeostasis is the existence and maintenance
of a relatively constant environment within the body. A
small amount of fluid surrounds each cell of the body.
For cells to function normally, the volume, temperature,
and chemical content— conditions known as variables
because their values can change—of this fluid must
remain within a narrow range. Body temperature is a
variable that can increase in a hot environment or
decrease in a cold one.
Homeostatic mechanisms, such as sweating or
shivering, normally maintain body temperature near an
ideal normal value,
or set point. Note that these mechanisms are not able to
maintain body temperature precisely at the set point.
Instead,
body temperature increases and decreases slightly
around the set point to produce a normal range of
values. As long as body
temperature remains within this normal range,
homeostasis is maintained.
NEGATIVE FEEDBACK

- most systems of the body are regulated by

negative-feedback mechanisms, w/c function to
maintain homeostasis
Negative means that any deviation from the set point is
made smaller or is resisted.
Negative feedback does not prevent variation but
maintains variation within a normal range.
The maintenance of normal blood pressure is an example
of a negative-feedback mechanism. Normal blood
pressure is important because it is responsible for
moving blood from the heart to tissues.
Many negative-feedback mechanisms, such as the one
maintaining normal blood pressure, have three
components:
TERMINOLOGY AND THE BODY PLAN
1. receptor
2. control center - most of the terms derived from Latin or Greek
3. effector and are descriptive in the original languages
- words are often modified by adding a prefix or
suffix
- the suffix “-itis” means inflammation

BODY POSITIONS

- the anatomical position refers to a person

standing erect with the face directed forward, the
upper limbs hanging to the sides, and the palms
of the hands facing forward
Supine

- when lying face upward

Prone

- when lying face downward

DIRECTIONAL TERMS

- describes parts of the body relative to each other

Up – superior
Down – inferior
Front – anterior
Back - posterior
The word anterior means which goes before, and
Receptor monitors the value of a variable such a blood ventral means belly.
pressure The word posterior means that which follows, and
Control center, such as part of the brain, establishes the dorsal means back.
set point around w/c the variable maintained Proximal – means nearest
Effector, such as the heart, can change the value of the Distal – means distant
variable
Medial – means toward the midline
POSITIVE FEEDBACK
Lateral – means away from the midline
Positive-feedback mechanism are not homeostatic and
are rare in healthy individuals. Superficial – refers to a structure close to the surface of
the body
Positive implies that when a deviation from a normal
value occurs, the responses of the system is to make the Deep – is toward the interior of the body
deviation even greater.
Positive feedback therefore usually creates a cycle
leading away from homeostasis and in some cases
results in death.
BODY PARTS AND REGIONS
Upper limb divided into:

 arm
 forearm
 wrist
 hand
Arm – extends from the shoulder to the elbow
Forearm – extends from the elbow to the wrist
Lower limb divided into:

 thigh
 leg
 ankle
 foot
Thigh – extends from the hip to the knee
Leg – extends from the knee to the ankle
The central region of the body consists of the head,
neck, and trunk.
Trunk can be divided into the:

 thorax (chest)
 abdomen (region between thorax and pelvis)
 pelvis (the inferior end of the trunk associated
with the hips)
The abdomen is often subdivided superficially into four
quadrants by two imaginary lines—one horizontal and
one vertical—that intersect at the navel.
The quadrants formed are:

 right upper
 left upper
 right lower
 left lower
The abdomen is sometimes subdivided into nine
regions by four imaginary lines – two horizontal and two
verticals.
The nine regions are:

 epigastric
 right and left hypochondriac
 umbilical
 right and left lumbar
 hypogastric
 right and left iliac
PLANES

- imaginary flat surfaces

Sagittal plane

- runs vertically through the body and separates it

into right and left parts
- the word sagittal literally means “the flight of an
arrow” and refers to the way the body would be
split by an arrow passing anteriorly to
posteriorly
Median plane

- is a sagittal plane that passes thru the midline of

the body and divides it into equal right and left
halves
Transverse or Horizontal plane

- runs parallel to the surface of the ground and

divides the body into superior and inferior parts
Frontal or Coronal plane

- runs vertically from right to left and divides the

body into anterior and posterior parts
SECTIONS
Longitudinal section

- a cut thru the long access of the organ

 Imagine an inflated balloon into which a fist has
been pushed . The fist represents an organ, the inner
balloon wall in contact with the fist represents the
Transverse or Cross section visceral serous membrane covering the organ, and the
outer part of the balloon wall represents the parietal
- a cut at a right angle to the long access serous membrane. The cavity or space between the
visceral and parietal serous membranes is normally filled
Oblique section
with a thin, lubricating film of serous fluid produced by
- a cut is made across the long access at other than the
a right angle membranes. As organs rub against the body wall or
against another organ, the combination of serous fluid
BODY CAVITIES and smooth serous
- the body contains many cavities, among which membranes reduces friction.
are the nasal, cranial, and abdominal cavities Visceral Serous Membrane
3 Large Cavities of Trunk - covering the internal organs
1. Thoracic cavity Parietal Serous Membrane
2. Abdominal cavity
3. Pelvic cavity -
Thoracic cavity

- Is surrounded by the ribcage and is separated Three serous membrane-lined cavities of Thoracic
from the abdominal cavity by the muscular Cavity:
diaphragm
1. Pericardial cavity
- It is divided into right and left parts by a median
2. Two Pleural cavities
structure called mediastinum
Mediastinum – is a partition containing the heart,
thymus, trachea, esophagus and other structures Pericardial cavity

- rounds the heart

The visceral pericardium covers the heart, which is

Abdominal cavity
- Is bounded primarily by the abdominal muscle
and contains the stomach, intestines, liver,
spleen, pancreas and kidneys
Pelvic cavity
- is a small space enclosed by the bones of the
pelvis and contains the urinary bladder, part of
the large intestine, and the internal reproductive
organs
The abdominal and pelvic cavities are not physically
separated and sometimes are called the abdominopelvic
cavity.
SEROUS MEMBRANES
- line the trunk cavities and cover the organs of
these cavities
contained within a connective tissue sac lined with the
parietal pericardium. The pericardial cavity, which
contains pericardial fluid, is located between the visceral
and parietal pericardia.
Pleural cavity
- surrounds each lung, which is covered by
visceral pleura
The abdominopelvic cavity contains a serous membrane-
lined cavity called the peritoneal cavity.
Mesenteries which consist of two layers of peritoneum
fused together, connect the visceral peritoneum of some
abdominopelvic organs to the parietal peritoneum on the
body wall or to the visceral peritoneum of other
abdominopelvic organs. The mesenteries anchor the
organs to the body wall and provide a pathway for
nerves and blood vessels to
reach the organs. Other abdominopelvic organs are more
closely attached to the body wall and do not have
mesenteries. Parietal peritoneum covers these other
organs which are said to be retroperitoneal behind the
peritoneum). The retroperitoneal organs include the
kidneys, the adrenal glands, the pancreas, parts of the
intestines, and the urinary bladder.