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ANATOMY- Derived from the Greek words -study of normal microscopic, gross features and
development of the nervous system
ANA- apart TOMY- To cut
DIVISION OF HUMAN PHYSIOL
HUMAN ANATOMY- study of the normal structures of
OGY
the human body and their relationships with one another.
Cell Physiology - the study of the functions of living cells
HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY- study of the different functions of
the normal structures of the human body and the - the cornerstone of human physiology.
involved processes of how these body parts work.
Special Physiology - is the study of the functions
DIVISION OF HUMAN AN of specific organs
ATOMY
e.g. cardiac physiology-is the study of the heart
A. Gross / Macroscopic anatomy function
- study of normal structures of the human big enough Systemic Physiology - all aspects of the functions
to be studied by unaided eye. of specific organ systems.
1.. Systemic Anatomy – study of structures of specific e.g., cardiovascular physiology, respiratory
body systems physiology and reproductive physiology
e.g., nervous and circulatory systems. Pathologic physiology - is the study of the effects of
2. Regional Anatomy – study of structures by body diseases on organ or system functions.
regions. HOMEOSTASIS
e.g., head region, thoracic region. - Maintenance of the body’s internal environment
3. Surface anatomy – study of the landmarks on the - Negative feedback loop
body surface of the different visceral organs.
-stability, Balance, Equilibrium
B. Microscopic Anatomy
HOMEOSTASIS REGULATION
- study of structures of the human body through use
1. Autoregulation – cells lack oxygen, chemicals
of microscope.
would be released to dilate blood vessels
1. Cytology – chemical and microscopic study of cells
2. Extrinsic regulation - during exercise nervous
2. Histology – study of normal tissues of the body system commands in of heart rate so blood will circulate
C. Embryology faster.

-study of development of the human body from ESSENTIAL LIFE PROCESS

fertilization of ovum up to the period of extrauterine life. 1. Metabolism –all the chemical processes that
D. Neuroanatomy occur in the body.
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2. Responsiveness – the body’s ability to react to BODY REGIONS

changes in environment both internally or
1. Head
externally. 2. Neck
3. Movement – motion occurring inside the human 3. Trunk
body, either the whole body or individual cells or a. Thorax
even the organelles within these cells b. Abdomen
4. . Growth – an increase in body size that results c. Pelvic cavity
from an increase in the size or number of cells d. Perineum
5. . Differentiation – development of cells from an 4. Upper extremities
Unspecialized to a specialized state. 5. Lower extremities
CAVITIES
6. Reproduction – formation of new cells for
growth, repair or replacement or the production Dorsal -cranial, spinal
of a new individual.
Ventral- thoracic, abdominopelvic
LEVELS OF STRUCTURAL ORGANIZATION OF THE
BODY THE ANATOMICAL POSITION
1. Chemical Level -standing (or lying supine) erect
2. Cellular level
3. Tissue level -head and eyes directed forward.
4. Organ Level
- Upper limbs by the sides with palms facing forward.
5. System Level
-Lower limbs together with toes facing forward.
A N A T O M I C A L P L A N ES
1. Coronal / Frontal Plane
- Vertical planes
-running from side to side
-Divides the body or any of its part into anterior
and posterior portion
2. Sagittal Plane / Lateral Plane
-Vertical plane
-from front to back
- divides into right & left side
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3. Horizontal / Transverse / axial 8. Distal – away from the trunk the elbow is
- -horizontal planes distal to the arm
- -divides the body into upper and lower 9. Superficial - External, nearer tube,
parts epidermis is superficial to dermis
4. Median plane 10. Deep - Internal the dermis is the thicker
layer
- -sagittal plane through the midline of the 11. Central -toward the center
body 12. Peripheral- farther or away from the
- -from front to the back dividing it into center
right and left halves 13. Parietal- external of the body cavity
14. Visceral- covering of the organ
TH0E0 ANATOMICAL TERMS OF
RELATIONSHIP
SECTIONS OF THE BODY
1. Superior / Cranial/Cephalic –towards the
1. Longitudinal section – vertical Section, cut
head end of the body; Upper (the hand is
long the long access of the body
part of the superior extremity)
2. Transverse sections -cross section, right
2. Inferior / Caudal – away from the head;
angle, the part of the body longitudinal
lower (foot is a part of lower extremity)
section of the body
the body part is nearer
3. Oblique sections: Cut the body not along any
3. Anterior / Ventral – front, body part is
body planes (slant), either slunt
nearer to the front (the chest bone is
anterior to the heart
4. Posterior / Dorsal – back, the heart is TYPES OF CELLS
posterior to the
5. Medial – towards the midline; inner 5th
o PROKARYOTIC – Do not contain
finger and 1st toe,
nuclear membrane/ envelope
6. Lateral – away from the midline; outer 1st
o EUKARYOTIC-contains true
finger and 5th toe
nuclear membrane/envelope
7. Proximal – towards or nearest the trunk or
the point of origin of a part
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PROKARYOTES EUKARYOTES
ORGANISM Bacteria protest, fungi, plants
Animals
ORGANELLES few /none nucleus, mitochondria,
PRINCIPAL PARTS OF THE EUKARYOTIC
endoplasmic reticulum, etc. CELL

DNA Circular / in the Linear / circular

cytoplasm Bounded by a membrane
1. CELL MEMBRANE
- trilaminar
RNA and PROTEIN RNA and protein RNA synthesized in the - semipermeable
synthesize in the same nucleus / protein in the 2. CYTOPLASM
compartment cytoplasm
- colloidal
CELL DIVISION Binary fission Mitosis / meiosis - with organelles, inclusions, and cytoskeleton
3. ORGANELLES
- The cell is the basic unit of biological - Living structure found in cytoplasm
organization 4. INCLUSION
- -Basic composition - Temporary/non-living structure
• Protoplasm/cytoplasm 5. CYTOSKELETON
• cell membrane - Support
• nucleus

PHYSIOLOGICAL PROPERTIES OF
CELL
1. Irritability/excitability -nervous tissue
2. Conductivity- nervous tissue
3. Contractility - muscle tissue
4. Absorption & Secretion – Digestive
Track
5. Excretion - excretory
6. Respiration- respiratory
7. Growth & Reproduction- different
parts of the body
8. Organization
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concentration to an area of low solute

THE CELL MEMBRANE
concentration with a CARRIER
- Double phospholipid layer with embedded
proteins
OSMOSIS
- (TRILAMINAR)
- the one to give shape • Movement of solvent (WATER) from an area of
- -acts as receptor sites
- -plasma membrane LOW solute concentration to an area of HIGH
- -hydrophilic solute concentration
- -hydrophobic

Membrane transport – selectively permeable FILTRATION

membrane ACTIVE- Lesser concentration to greater
• Osmosis concentration
• protein channels
• active transport
• fluid mosaic model ACTIVE TRANSPORT
•
“TRANSPORT PROCESSES ACROSS CELL • Movement of solute from an area of LOW
MEMBRANE” solute

PASSIVE -greater concentration to lesser concentration to an area of HIGH solute

concentration concentration eg. Sodium pottasium
SIMPLE DIFFUSION ISOTONIC- EQUAL
• Movement of solute from an area of high solute HYPERTONIC- SHRINKING
concentration to an area of low solute HYPOTONIC- Swelling eventually; Lysis=Bursting
concentration. .

FACILITATED DIFFUSION
• Movement of solute from an area of high solute
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EXOCYTOSIS – releasing; exit; extrusion of M – Mitochondria

substance E – Endoplasmic reticulum
within the cell. G- Golgi Complex
L- Lysosomes
P- Peroxisomes / micorbodies

Newly Discovered / Temporary to your cells

MELANOSOMES
SECRETORY GRANULLES

Non- Membrane Bound Organelles

RIBOSOMES

ENDOCYTOSIS- entry of particles towards the cell A. MITOCHONDRIA

- MITOCHONDRIA – singular
•Phagocytosis – cell eating
- MITOCHONDRION- plural
•Pinocytosis – cell drinking+ - Powerhouses of the cell
- Cristae - inner folds where cellular
respiration
Cytoplasm of the Cell - occurs
- Mostly water with chemical compounds in - Synthesize ATP Energy requirements of
solution or cell
colloid - determine cristae number Also
accumulate
• Solution: atoms or ions distributed in medium - (THE MORE CRISTAE YOU HAVE THE MORE
• Polar compounds go into solution - ENERGY IS BEING SYNTHESIZED BY
• Nonpolar compounds go into colloidal - MITOCHONDRION)
suspension - Ca, synthesize nucleic acids and
• With organelles, inclusions, Cytoskeleton - proteins, oxidation of fatty acids.
- Bilaminar (outer and inner layer)
ORGANELLES
Membrane bound organelles - MEGLP
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B. RIBOSOMES E. LYSOSOMES
- Distributed throughout Cytoplasm - Digestive enzyme packages
- Attached to rough Endoplasmic - With acid hydrolases
Reticulum - Lack oxidases and catalases
- No membrane covering - Functionplay role in cellular defense
- Site of protein synthesis - digest stored food
Free ribosomes- protein for INTRACELLULAR - maintenance and repair of organelles
USE - suicide agents for old or weak cells
a. a, primary lysosomes
C. ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM b. secondary lysosomes
- System of membranes that makes up c. Residual Bodies
channels F. PEROXISOMES / MICROBODIES
- Connects with outer nuclear and cell CONTAIN::
• CATALASE – converts H2O2 into H2Oand O2
membranes • OXIDASE
G. MELANOSOMES
TYPES OF ER: H. SECRETORY GRANULES
1. Rough / Granular ER- for protein
INCLUSIONS
synthesis attached ribosomeS
- Not membrane found
(protein-EXTRACELLULAR USE)
1. GLYCOGEN
2. Smooth / Non-granular ER- fat
2. LIPID
transport and sex hormone synthesis
3. PIGMENTS
,HCL synthesis, release and recapture
a. Exogenous
Ca+ in skeletal muscles.
b. Endogenous
D. GOLGI COMPLEX/ APPARATUS
i. lipofuscin
(Dictyosomes)
ii. melanin
• Collection of flat saclike cisternae
iii. hemoglobin
• Concentration and collection of cellular
iv. bilirubin
compounds
4. CRYSTALS
• Storage warehouses of the cell
• Carbohydrate synthesis site a. Crystals of Reinke
“packaging” b. Crystals of Charcot-Bottcher
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CYTOSKELETON
Consistency of cytoplasm THE NUCLEUS
1. MICROFILAMENTS (7 nm in dia.) -Control center of the cell
2. INTEMEDIATE FILAMENTS (10 nm in dia.) -Nuclear membrane has pores to allow
substances
a. Keratin- epithelial cells
b. Vimentin- mesenchymal cells passage

c. Desmin- muscle cells • Chromatin - genetic material inside nucleoplasm

d. Glial fibrillary protein- glial cells of nervous • Nucleolus - site of ribosome formation

system INTERPHASE

e. Neurofilaments- neurons • 18-24 hours

CENTRIOLES • inactive / resting phase

- determine polarity of cell FOUR PHASES OF INTERPHASE

• Centrosome - two centrioles at right angles to 1. . G1 (gap 1) phase

each other (Composed of a set of triplet’s fibers) • (-) DNA synthesis
-Form spindle fibers during cell division • (+) RNA and protein synthesis
-Guide duplicated chromosomes to daughter cells • 30-50% of length of interphase
2. G0 phase
CILIA AND FLAGELLA • cells pull out of the cycle
-Hair like protrusion from cell membrane 3. S (synthesis) phase
-nuclear membrane has pores to allow substances • DNA synthesis/replication
passage • 35-45% of length of interphase
• Cilia – line respiratory tract ; move materials 4. G2 phase
across cell surface • phase before onset of mitosis
• Flagellum-propels cell through a medium
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• 10-20% of length of interphase KARYOTYPE

MITOSIS • 23 PAIRS
Prophase • 22 pairs: autosomes
• 1 pair: sex chromosome
Metaphase • XX : female
Anaphase • XY : male
Telophase COMPARISON OF MITOSIS AND
MEIOSIS
MITOSIS
➢ Two daughter cells with exactly the same
genetic material
➢ Cellular division for growth, maintenance

and repair
MEISOS
➢ Four daughter cells with half the genetic
material
➢ Cellular division for Reproduction
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- Those lining the body surface cavities or

FUNDAMENTALS TYPES OF coverings
TISSUES CLASSIFICATION
• EPITHELIAL TISSUE SUBTYPES:
• CONNECTIVE TISSUE
• MUSCULAR TISSUE A. According to the number of cell layer.
• NERVOUS TISSUE
1. SIMPLE
- Made up of only one layer of cells.
EPITHELIAL TISSUE 2. PSEUDOSTRATIFIED
COMPOSITION: - Made up of single layer od cells but appears to
A. EPITHELIAL CELLS have multiple layers because of the various
location of the nuclei
B. EXTRA/INTERCELLULAR SUBSTANCE - Mostly Columnar
3. STRATIFIED
A. EPITHELIAL CELLS - With several layer of cells and made up of distinct
Characteristics shape of cells on the most superficial layer
- Consist of continuous cells in a position over a large 4. TRANSITIONAL;
portion of their surface - With several layers of cells but the thickness of
- South rest on a continuous extracellular layer the layer varies depending of the functional status
called the basal lamina of the organ
- Absence of blood vessels among the cells
(AVASCULARITY) B. According to the shape of the cells predominating
- Sales are arranged in sheets or layers. of the most superficial surface
Functions 1. SQUAMOS-
- Pharmacy boundary layer that controls the 2. CUBOIDAL-
movement of substances between the external 3. COLUMNAR-
and internal environment
- May be specialized for absorption and separation C. According to the presence of cell surface
- May bear motile cilia to move a film of fluid or specializations.
Mucus over its surface. 1. CILIA
- On the exterior of the body resist abrasion and 2. MICROVILLUS/MICROVILLI
dehydration a. Brush border
CLASSIFICATION b. Striated borders
FUNADAMETAL TYPE: EPITHELIAL TISSUE c. Stereocilia
FORMS OF EPITHELIAL TISSUES

I. MEMBRANE EPITHELIUM
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3. KERATIN A. SIMPLE EPITHELIUM

a. Simple Squamos Epithelium
- Endothelium mesothelium parietal layer of
Bowmanns capsule pulmonary alveoli

B. SIMPLE CUBOIDAL
- Thyroid follicles, germinal epith of ovary, ducts of
many glands.
C. SIMPLE CULUMNAR- NON-CILIATED
- Lining of GIT and gallbladder
D. SIMPLE COLUMNAR CILIATED
- Lining of the uterus and fallopian tubes.

E. STRATIFIED SQUAMOS NON-KERATINIZED

- Lining of the oral cavity, esophagus, vagina
F. STRATIFIES SQUAMOS KERATINIZED
- Epidermis
G. PSEUDOSTRATIFIED COLUMNAR NON-
CILIATED
- Lining of the ducts of male reproductive and
SPECIFIC SUBTYPES OF accessory reproductive organs
LINING/SURFACE EPITHELIUM:
II. GLANDULAR EPITHELIUM
According to the number of cells + shape of the -Specialized to synthesize specific products it
cell and its special feature like presence/ absence contains extensive rough endoplasmic reticulum
of cilia or Keratin. Classification Principles:
A. Based on the presence or absence of ducts
1. SIMPLE 1. ENDOCRINE GLAND- DUCTLESS
a. Squamos 2. EXOCRINE- WITH DUCTS
b. Cuboidal B. According to the number of cells that make up a
c. Columnar gland:
a) non-ciliated 1. UNNICELLULAR- made up of single cell (goblet
b) ciliated cells)
2. STRATIFIED 2. MULTICELLULAR- many cells make up a gland
a. Squamos (Salivary glands)
a) Keratinized C. According to the type of secretions:
b) Non-keratinized 1. PURELY SEROUS- secretes a thin and watery
b. Cuboidal product (parotid glands)
c. Column
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2. PURELY MUCUS- thick and viscid product

(goblet cells)
3. UCO-SEROUS (MIXED)- submandibular glands
(predominantly mucus)
4. CYTOGENIC- produce cells as in the testis and
ovaries.
D. According to the mode of Secretion:
1. MEROCRINE- no destruction of the secretion
cells ( eccrine sweat glands)
2. APOCRINE- there is partial destruction of
secretory cells (mammary glands, apocrine
sweat glands of the axillary areas or groin
areas)
3. HOLOCRINE- there is total destruction of
secretory cells ( sebaceous glands) CONNECTIVE TISSUE
E. According to Morphology: - Characterized by large amounts of extracellular
1. TUBULAR materials that separates cells from one another.
a. SIMPLE TUBULAR- (Intestinal crypts of
lieberkuhn) COMPONENTS OF EXTRACELLULAR MATRIX
b. SIMPLE COILED TUBULAR- (eccrine sweat
glands of the skin 1. PROTEIN FIBER
c. SIMPLE BRANCHED TUBBULAR- (fundic a. Collagen
glands of the stomach) b. Reticular
d. COMPUND TUBULAR- (liver,testis)
2. ALVEOLAR/ACINAR/ SACCULAR
c. Elastic
a. SIMPLE ALVEOLAR- ( sebaceous gland) 2. GROUND SUBSTANCES
b. SIMPLE BRANCHED ALVEOLAR- ( - is the shapeless background against which
sebaceous gland) cells and collagen fibers are seen in the light
c. COMPOUND ALVEOLAR- (mammry gland) microscope an important component is
3. TUBULO- acinar/ mixed/ racemose proteoglycans made up of protein and
a. COMPUND TUBULO ACINAR- (salivary polysaccharide
glands)
3. FLUID

Function of Connective Tissue:

- Enclosing in separating tissue
- Connecting tissues to one another
- Supporting and moving
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- Storing energy - Its function is to form a soft internal skeleton that

- Cushioning and Insulating supports other cell types including WBC.
- Transporting 2. Adipose Tissue
- Protecting - Provide reserve food fuel it insulates against heat
loss supports and protects organs.
3. Bone
CLASSIFICATION OF CONEECTIVE TISSUE: - It is a hard connective tissue that consists of living
SUBTYPES: cells and a mineralized matrix
❖ Fibrous/Connective Tissue Proper - Osteocytes are located within the space into
1. Collagenous matrix called LACUNAE
a. Loose Collagenous or Loose Areolar
- Consist of collagen and elastic fiber 2 TYPES OF BONES
- Most common cells found are fibroblasts a. Compact/Dense
- Fibroblasts are responsible for the production of
the fibers of the matrix
- With osteon (haverian system), the basic
b. Dense Regular Collagenous unit
- Same direction of collagen fibers (tendon) - Denser and stronger
c. Dense Irregular Collagenous - Found in diaphysis of long bones, periosteum
- Different direction of collagen fibers (dermis,skin) b. Spongy/Cancellous
- Has marrow spaces and trabeculae
2. Elastic - Located at the end of the long bones
- Bundles in sheets of caliginous and elastic fibers
oriented in multiple directions
(epiphyses) and within the vertebral bodies.
- In the walls of elastic arteries such as aorta lungs 4. Cartilage
and vocal ligaments - Is composed of cells or chondrocytes
- It has a strong yet elastic it allows for recoil of TYPES OF CARTILAGE
tissue after being stretched. a. Hyaline
3. Embryonic - It is the most abundant of the cartilages and
➢ Mesenchymal- source of all adult it covers bones it forms joints, costal
connective tissue
cartilages that attach ribs to sternum.
 Derived from mesoderm
 Delicate collagen fibers b. Fibrocartilage
embedded in semifluid matrix - More collagen than does hyaline cartilage. it
➢ Mucous- found only in the umbilical is found in the disks between vertebrae and
cord. Whartoa’s jelly some joints.
❖ Specialized c. Elastic
1. Reticular
- Network of reticular fibers in a typical lose ground
substance
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- It contains elastic fibers that appear as TYPES OF MUSCLE TISSUE

NERVOUS TISSUE
- Forms the brain, spinal cord and nerves
- It contains very important cells which are neurons
and neuroglia.

coiled fibers among bundles of collagen

fibers.
-

BLOOD
- It is unique because the matrix is liquid
enabling blood cells to move through blood
vessels.

MUSCLE TISSUE
- Main characteristic is its ability to contract or
shorten.
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 Composed of stratified squamous keratinized that

THE INTEGUMENTARY varies in thickness
SYSTEM  Alll but the deepest layes of the epidermis are
composed of dead cells.
1. SKIN
 Composed ofn4-5 layers depending on its location
2. SKIN APPENDAGES within the body
a. Sweat gland
 Palms and soles have five layers because these
b. Sebaceous gland
areas are exposed to most friction.
c. Hairs
1. STRATUM BASALE
d. Nails
- Composed of single layer of clls contact with the
dermis.
- It has 4 types”
SKIN a. KERATINOCYTES
- Also called integument - Pordice keratin which toughnes and waterproof
- Simply means “covering” skin.
FUNCTIONS -
b. Melanocytes
Synthesize the pigment melanin providing a
- Keeps water in other precious molecules in the protective barrier to UV radiation in sunlight.
body c. TACTILE CELLS (MERKEL CELS)
- Keeps water out - Aid in tactile (touch) reception.
- Protect the body from external agent d. NON-PIGMENTED GRANULAR DENROCYTES
- Insulates and cautions deeper body organs (LANGERHANS CELLS)
- Protects body from mechanical and chemical and - Protective macrophagic cells that ingest bacteria
thermal damage and also bacteria and other foreign debris
- Regulates heat loss from body surface
- Acts as mini excretory system, urea, salt, water 2. STRATUM SPINOSUM.
is lost when we sweat. - Cuboidal or slightly flattened cells
- Manufactures several proteins important - Contains several layers of cells
immunity - Spiny appearance due to changed shape of
- Storage of Vitamin D precursor keratinocytes
- Contains cutaneous receptors that serve as - With limited mitosis
sensors for touch, pressure, temperature, and - This layer plus stratum basale is collectively called
pain. TRATUM GERMINATIVUM

3. STRATUM GRANULOSUM
2 PRINCIPAL LAYER - Consist of only 3-4 f;lattened rows of cells
- Cells here appear granular due to the presence of
EPIDERMIS keratohyaline granules
 Superficial protective layer of the skin
4. STRATUM LUCIDUM (CLEAR LAYER)
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- Locally and organelles also cell membranes are no ❖ VIRTILIGO- lack of melanocytes in localized area
longer visible so this layer appears clear of the skin causing distinct white spots.
- Consist only in the lips and the and the thickened
skin of soles and palms.
- Contains a translucent substance call ELEIDIN

5. STRATUM CORNEUM
- 25 to 30 layers of flat and scale like anucleated
cells, which are continuously shed as flake-like 2. CAROTENE
residues of cells. - A yellowish pigment found in epidermal cells and
- This surface layer is cornified and is the real fatty parts of dermis
protective layer of the skin - Abundant skin of Asians
- Cornification it’s brought on keratinization and - Together with melanin, accounts for the
hardening flattening process that takes place as yellowish-tan color of Asians.
the cells die and are pushed to the surface.
- Fiction at the surface of the skin stimulates 3. HEMOGLOBIN
additional mitotic activity of stratum basale - Not pigment of the skin, rather it is the oxygen-
resulting in the formation of a callus for additional binding pigment found I RBC
protection - Oxygenated blood flowing through dermis gives
the skin its pinkish tones.
COLORATION OF SKIN
- Caused by expression of a combination of 3 SURFACE PATTERNS
pigments.
1. MELANIN
1. CONGENITAL PATTERNS
- Brown black pigment produced by the a. Fingerprints or friction ridges
melanocytes of stratum basale. - Present by the pull of elastic within the
- It guards skin against damaging effect of UV dermis
rays of sunlight - Function to prevent slippage when grasping
- Gradual exposure to sunlight promotes increased objects.
production of melanin 2. ACQUIRED LINES
- In albino there is a normal number off
melanocytes but lacks enzyme tyrosinase, that
a. Deep Flexion Creases
converts the amin acid tyrosine to melanin. - Found on the palms
b. Shallow Flexion Lines
- Seen on knuckles and surface of other
❖ FRECKLES- caused by palms
aggregated patch of c. Furrows in the forehead and face
melanin (wrinkles)
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- Acquired from continual contraction of
facial muscles such as from smiling or
squinting in bright light or against the wind
facial lines become more strongly delineated
as one ages
3. LANGER LINES
- Lines of tension in the skin produced by the
orientation of collagen and elastic fibers in
nonrandom pattern or arrangement.
- Surgical incision should be made paralles to
anger lines to promote better wound
healing.
DERMIS
- Deeper and thicker than the epidermis
- A strong and stretchy envelope that helps to hold
the body together
- Blood vessels within the dermis nourish the living
portion of epidermis
- With numerous collagenous, elastic and reticular
fibers that give support to the skin
- Highly vascular glandular
- Contains many nerve ending and hair follicles.
LAYERS OF DERMIS
1. PAPILLARY LAYER
- In contact with epidermis
- Accounts for about 1/5 of the entire
dermis
- With numerous projections called DERMAL
PAPILLAE that extend from the upper
portion of the dermis into the epidermis
- DERMAL PAPILLAE contain capillary loops,
which furnish nutrients tot e epidermis
- Some papillae house pain receptor (free
nerve ending) and touch receptors
(meissner’s corpuscles)
- Dermal Papillae form the base for the
friction ridges on the fingers and toes.
2. RETICULAR LAYER
- Deepest skin layer
- Contains blood vessels, sweat and oil glands
and deep pressure receptors (Pacinian
Corpuscles)
- Many phagocytes are found here: they
engulf bacteria that have managed to get
through the epidermis,
CUTANEOUS GLANDS
1. SEBACEOUS (OIL) GLANDS
- Found all over the skin, except on palms and soles.
- Ducts usually empty into half follicle but some open
directly onto skin surface
- Secretion is called SEBUM a mixture of oil
substances and fragmented cells that keep skin
soft and moist and prevents hair from becoming
brittle
- If the drainage pathways for sebaceous glands
becomes blocked for some reasons, the lands may
become infected resulting inn acne.
- SEDUM also contains chemicals that kills bacteria
- Become very active when sex hormones are
produces in increased amount during adolescence,
thus skin is oiler during the period of life.
2. SWEAT GLANDS
- Also called sudoriferous gland
- Widely distributed in the skin: numerous in palms
soles, axillary and pubic regions
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- Secretion evaporates and cools in the body.
- It has 2 types;
❖ MEROCRINE SWEAT GLAND
- More numerous and found all over the body
especially in forehead, back, palms and soles
- Secretion reaches skin surface via a duct that
open directly on surface of skin through sweat
pores.
- Secretion is mostly water with few salts
❖ MAPOCRINE SWEAT GLANDS
- Much larger, localized gland found in axillary and
pubic regions where they secrete into hair follicle
- Not functional until puberty
- Secretion is thick organic substances which is
odorless when released but quickly broken downe
by bacteria into substances responsible for body
3 LAYERS OF HAIR IN CROSS SECTION
odor
3. MAMMARY GLAND
- Found within breast
- Specialized sudoriferous or sweat gland that
secrete milk during lactation
- Under the stimulus of pituitary gland.
HAIR
- Characteristics of all mammals but its distribution,
function, density and texture vary across
mammalian species
- Humans are relatively hairless with only the scalp
face pubis and axilla being densely haired
- Men with more obvious here because of the male
hormone
- Certain regions of the body are hairless like the
palms soles lips and penises labia minora
- Lifespan of her three to four months for
eyelashes three to four years for scalp
PRIMARY FUNCTION OF HAIR:
-protection (eyebrows protection for sunlight)
PART OF HAIR
1. SHAFT- the visible but dead portion of hair
projecting above surface of the skin
2. ROOT- enclosed in the follicle
3. HAIR BULB MATRIX- the growth zone;
contains melanocytes that give color to hair.
1. MEDULLA – inner part
2. CORTEX- thick middle part
3. CUTUCLE- covers cortex and forms toughened
outer portion.
3 DISTINCT KINDS OF HAIR IN
HUMANS
1. LANUGO
- fine, silky fetal hair that appears during the last
trimester of development
- Usually not evident on baby at birth unless it has
been born prematurely.
2. ANGORA
- Grows continuously in length, as on scalp and on
face of males.
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3. DEFINITIVE
- Grows to a certain length and then creases to
grow
- Most dominant type of hair
Eg eyelashes, eyebrow. Pubis, and axillary hair
- A sebaceous gland and an erector pili muscle are
attached to the hair follicle
- When the muscle involuntarily contracts due to
thermal or psychological stimuli, the hair follicle
unpulled into an upright position causing the hair to
“stand on its end” and producing goosebumps.
❖ NAIL MATRIX
- Proximal part of the nail bed
- Growth area of the nail
❖ LUNULA
- Whitish crescent (half moon) shaped area at the
proximal aspect of nail.
NOTE:
- Fingernail grow approximately 1mm per week
- Growth of toe nail is slower
- Nails are transparent and nearly colorless but they look
pink because of the rich blood supply in the underlying
dermis.

SKELETAL SYSTEM
NAILS - Skeletal system is form of bones and cartilage which
- Found on distal dorsum of each finger and toes are connected by ligaments to form the structural
- Forms from a hardened transparent, stratum framework for the body
corneum of epidermis
FUNCTION OF BONES
1. Supports surrounding structure.
CONSIST OF 2. It protects vital visceral organs
3. Gives attachment to the muscles and provides
❖ NAIL BODY leverage so assisting in body movements.
- Visible attached portion
4. Produce blood cells. This occurs in the red bone
❖ NAIL ROOT marrow
- Part of the nail covered skin 5. For storage of minerals salts, especially
❖ NAIL BED phosphorus and calcium.
- Where nail root attached.
❖ FREE EDGE HISTOLOGY OF BONES
- The distal exposed border attached to 1. BONCE CELLS
undersurface of hyponychium
2. MATRIX
❖ HYPONYCHIUM a. COLLAGENOOUS FIBERS
- Beneath the free edge
- Give resilience to bones
❖ EPONYCHIUM (CUTICLE) b. CALCIFIED GROUND
- covers the nail root
- frequently splits causing a hangnail SUBSTANCES
- Give hardness to bones
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- Calcium phosphate CLASSIFICATION OF BONES

- Calcium carbonate
❖ According to shape
BONE CELLS 1. LONG BONES
A. OSTEOBLAST - Consist of a shaft, or diaphysis and two extremities
- Embryonic bone cells each, called “epiphysis”
- Active in bone formation - E.g- humerus,radius,tibia and fibula
B. OSTEOCYTES 2. SHORT BONES
- Principal cells of mature bone - Typified by the carpal bones of the wrist and the
tarsal bones of the ankcle, with a somewhat irregular
C. OSTEOCLASTS shape
- Bone reabsorption/resorption and remodeling 3. FLAT BONES
- These bones consist of two flat plates of compact
MAINTANING THE BONE tissue
• ENDOCRINE CONTROL - Enclosing a layer of spongy bone
• PARATHORMONE
- Calcium release
• CALCITONIN
- Calcium storage

CLASSIFICATION OF BONES
• ACCORDING TO STRUCTURE
1. COMPACT/DENSE
- Dense and strong
- E.g outer surfaces of bones
2. SPONGY/CANCELLOUS - E.g ribs,scapula,,part of the hip bone and skull.
- With many spaces, red bone marrow, where 4. IRREGULAR BONES
hemopoiesis takes place - Comprises bone peculiar and differing shape, such as
- E.g inside flat bones like in skull,, sternum, ribs. the vertebrae and the ossicle of the ear.
5. SESAMOID BONE
HAVERSIAN SYSTEM - Bone that are enclosed in tendon and fascial tissue and
- The basic unit of structure of compact bone, are found adjacent to joints.
- E. g patella
comprising a haversian canal and concentrically
arranged lamellae bone in which osteocytes
are embedded. ❖According to Development
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1. Bones are formed by intramembranous

ossification
- Involves the direct mineralization of dense connective
tissue membrane forming bones
- E. g flat bones of the cranium
2. Bones formed by endochondral
ossification
- Most bones in the body are formed by the process of
endochondral ossification, the replacement of hyaline
cartilage by bone.

CLAVICLE- 1ST bone to start developing (5th week

intrauterine)
CALVARIUM
- Frontal
DIVISION OF SKELETON - Parietal
- There is a total of 206 bones in the skeleton - Temporal
A. AXIAL SKELETON - Sphenoid
- Consist of 80 bones - Occipital
- Skull 28 (8 cranial, 14 facial, 6 ear ossicles
- The hyoid bone, the vertebrae 26, the ribs 24 and PTERION
the sternum. - H shaped union of
B. APPENDICULAR SKELETON - Frontal
- Consist of 126 bones - Parietal
a. Bones of Upper extremities - Sphenoid
- 64 bones including the shoulder girdle - Temporal
*Related to the MIDDLE MENINGEAL ARTERY (common
cause of EPIDURAL HEMORRHAGE)
SUTURE.
- Coronal
- Sagittal
- Lambdoidal.
FONTANELLES
- Anterior Fontanelle
- Posterior Fontanelle
*SUNKEN FONTANELLE- DEHYDRATION
*BULGING FONTANELLE- MENINGITIS
b. Bones of Lower extremities
- 61 bones including pelvic girdle
OSSICLES
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- Small bones in the middle ear

HYOID CERVICAL VERTEBRAE-
- Horseshoe shaped in upper part of anterior neck. - Vertebrae in neck region:7
TRUNK ( 56 BONES ) - Transverse foramen for passage of vertebral asrtery
A. VERTEBRAE
- 26 bones TYPES
- Framework of the back A. TYPICAL
Parts of typical Vertebrae - C3 TO C6 (with bifid spine)
a. Body B. ATYPICAL.
- No body
b. Vertebral arch - With odontoid
- Consist of pedicles, laminae, spinous and transverse 1. C1 ATLAS
process 2. C2 AXIS
3. C7 with vertebral prominence, along with
single spine
VERTEBRAE
a. CERVICAL 7
- Neck region
b. THORACIC 12
- Vertebrae in thoracic region (with facets for ribs)
c. LUMBAR 5
- Between thorax and pelvis
d. SACRUM 1 (5 FUSED )
- Back of pelvic cavity
e. COCCYX1 (4 FUSED )
- Terminal vertebrae in pelvis
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LUMBAR VERTEBRAE
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PECTORAL GIRDLE
HUMERUS
RADIUS ULNA

CARPAL/METACARPALS/PHALANGES
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- These joints are classified on the basis of

material between the bones and also
according to degree of movement allowed.
❖ Fibrous – immovable (suture,
gomphosis, schindylesis, syndesmosis)
❖ Cartilaginous- slightly movable
(symphysis, synchondrosis)
❖Synovial -with a fibrous capsule
around a synovial cavity between the
articulating bones.
• Spheroid (cotyloid/ball & socket)- hip &
shoulder Joint
• Ginglymus/Hinge joint – elbow, ankle, &
knee joint
• Trochoid/Pivot joint – atlantoaxial &
superior radio-ulnar joint
• Condyloid joint – metacarphophalangeal
joint
• Ellipsoid Joint – radiocarpal joint *some
books condyloid & ellipsoid are considered the
same type of joint.
• Sellar/Saddle- between the trapezium &
the metacarpal of the thumb
• Plane Joint – between 2 carpal bones

ARTICULAR SYSTEM
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MUSCULAR SYSTEM
- Fundamentals types of tissue that primary function
of which is contractility.
- Responsible for locomotion and for movements of
the various part of the body.
FUNCTION OF MUSCULAR TISSUE
- like nervous tissue muscles excitable or “irritable”.
- They have the ability to respond to a stimulus unlike
nerves however muscles are also
 CONTRACTIBLE (they can shorten in length)
 EXTENSIBLE (they can extend or sketch)
 ELASTIC (they can return to their original
shape)
TYPES OF MUSCULAR TISSUE
A. SKELETAL MUSCLE
B. CARDIAC MUSCLE
C. VICSERAL SMOOTH MUSCLE
SKELETAL MUSCLE
- Is the only organ of the muscular system
- Composed of skeletal muscle tissue and a lso contains
nervoys tissue , blood vessels and connective tissue
- * Half of the body’s w eight is muscle tissue
SKELETAL MUSCLE-40% in males, 32% in
females
TERMS AASPCIATED WITH MUSCLE TISSUE
1. SARCOLEMA
- Cell membrane of muscle
2. SARCOPLASM
- Cytoplasm of muscle cells and fibers which is
acidophilic in staining
3. MYOFIBRILS
- Fine, threadlike structure in the sarcoplasm
whoosh is responsible for muscle contraction
4. Sarcoplasm reticulum
- the endoplasmic reticulum in muscle cell
5. SARCOMERE
- Structural and functional unit of skeletal
muscle
CONNECTIVE TISSUE COVERINGS OF
SKELETAL MUSCLE
1. ENDOMYSIUM
- Connective tissue around single muscle fiber
2. PERIMYSIUM
- Around a fascicle (bundle) of fibers.
3. EPIMYSIUM
- Covers the entire skeletal muscle
4. FASCIA
- On the outside of the epimysium
CHARACTERISTICS OF SKELETAL MUSCLE
TISSUE
- Long thin contractile fibers that are striated
- Striations due to arrangement of thick and thin
filaments
- Attached to the bones of the skeleton by tendons
- Allow for movement, facial expressions, breathing,
swallowing, writing, talking and singing, posture, heat
production, joint stability
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SKELETAL MUSCLE ARRANGEMENT

- A single muscle cell is a muscle fiber
- Fibers are made up of myofibrils
- Myofibrils are made up of thick and thin filaments
SARCOLEMMA- muscles cell membrane
SACOPLASM- muscle cell cytoplasm

SKELETAL MUSCLE CELLS

- Myofibrils are striated
o Striation due to arrangement of thick and thin
filaments
o Seen as alternating area of light and darn bands
- The length of each myofibril is divides into repeating
units called sarcomeres
o A sarcomere is the functional of skeletal muscle
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SLIDING FILAMENT THEORY

- Sarcomere is the functional unit of skeletal
muscle
- When a skeletal muscle contracts, sarcomeres
shorten
- This is described by the sliding filament theory
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