ANATOMY PHYSIOLOGY LECTURE AND LABORATORY

3. Surface Anatomy

Anatomy and Physiology

- Study of the structure and function of the human - Study of external features such as bony projections,
body which serve as landmarks for locating deeper
Human body structures.
- Has many intricate parts with coordinated functions - Study of internal structures as they relate to the
maintained by a complex system of check and overlying skin surface
balances 4. Living Anatomy
Coordinated functions - Study of live human beings; dissection cannot be
- Allows us to interact with our surroundings by applied
adjusting how the body responds to changes in - Techniques to study LA:
environmental information o Palpation
o comes from inside and outside of the body o Percussion
o these changes serve as stimuli o Auscultation…
Introduction to Anatomy 5. Embryology/ Development Anatomy
- scientific discipline that investigates the structure of - Study of development of an embryo from a single
the body cell to a complete human being
- to dissect, or cut apart and separate the parts of the - Provides details of the prenatal and postnatal
body developmental changes in the body
- “ana” = apart - Traces structural changes that occur throughout the
- “tomy” = to cut life span
- Covers a wide range of studies: Subdivision of Development Anatomy
o Structure of the body parts o Embryology
o Their microscopic organization  Concerns development changes that
o Process by which they develop occur before birth
- It examines the relationship between the structure of 6. Microscopic Anatomy
a body part and its function - Deals with structure too small to be seen with the
Structure of the body part naked eye
- It allows them to perform specific functions - Most studies, exceedingly thin slices of body tissues
effectively are stained and mounted on glass slides to be
- Ex.: bone cells secrete a hard, mineralized substance examined under the microscope
providing the bones strength and support Subdivision of Microscopic Anatomy:
Gross Anatomy/ Macroscopic o Cytology
- Larger structure  Considers the cells of the body
- Study of large structures visible to the naked eye o Histology
- Ex.: heart, lungs, and kidneys…  Study of tissues
Basic Approaches to the study of Anatomy 7. Clinical anatomy
1. Systemic anatomy - Application of anatomical knowledge to clinical
- Body structure is studied system by system practice
- Study of the body by systems: - Practical aspect of human anatomy and is of supreme
o Cardiovascular system importance for Medical Practitioners
o Nervous system 8. Comparative Anatomy
o Skeletal system - Relates to the comparison of anatomical structure
o Muscular system… (both gross and microscopic) in different animals.
2. Regional anatomy 9. Pathological Anatomy
- The study of the organization of the body areas. - Study of the structural and compositional changes
- Within each region, all systems are studied that occur in organs and tissues as a result of disease
simultaneously: 10. Radiological Anatomy
o Head - Study of bodily structure using radiographs and other
o Abdomen imaging methods
o Arm
Language of Anatomy - Back
- Terminology is used to prevent misunderstanding 5. Medial
- Terms are used for: - Toward or at the midline of the body; in the inner
o Position side
o Direction 6. Lateral
o Regions - Away from the midline of the body; outer side of the
o Structures body; toward the side of the body
Anatomical Position 7. Intermediate
- Standing straight, feet together, looking forward, - Between
arms at the side of your body, palms facing forward
a. Prone Position Midline
- Anatomical position is placed face-down o Imaginary line that divides the body into left
b. Supine position and tight halves
- Anatomical position is placed face-up 8. Proximal
Regional Terms - Closer to the axial body (toward the trunk
Anterior Landmarks 9. Distal
- Further from the axial body (further from the trunk)

Proximal and Distal

o Used when describing parts of appendicular
body
Appendicular Body
o Consists of the limbs or appendages that are
added to the axial body
Axial Body
o Consists of the head, neck, and trunk

- Ex.: Thigh is proximal to the foot; the foot is distal to

the thigh
10. Superficial/ external
- Toward or surface of the body
11. Deep/ internal
Posterior Landmarks - Away from the body surface; more internal
12. Ipsilateral
- On the same side
- Ex.: right hand is ipsilateral to the right foot.
13. Contralateral
- Opposite side

Body Plane
- An imaginary line drawn through the body which
separates sections of the human body
1. Sagittal Plane
- Divides the body into right and left side
2. Frontal Plane/ Coronal Plane
- Divides the anterior and posterior
3. Transverse Plane
Directional Terms - Divides the body into sections above and below the
1. Superior (Cranial or Cephalad0 midline
- Toward the head end or upper part of structure of the 4. Oblique Plane
body; above - Slant
2. Inferior (Caudal)
- Away from the head end or toward lower part of a
structure the body; below
3. Ventral (anterior)
- In front of; toward Naming Structure of the Body
4. Dorsal (posterior)
PREFIX MEANING EXAMPLE PREFIX MEANING EXAMPLE
abdomin/o abdomen Peritoneal Acr/o extremity Acromegaly
Adenoma/tumor- if left
aden/o gland
untreated it will be cancer
Angiogram- visualization
angi/o vessel
inside the lumen
joint Arthritis- common among
arthr/o elders. inflammation. joints are
affected
cardi/o heart
chondr/o cartilage
cystitis- UTI (urinary tract
Cyst/o
infection)
cyt/o cell cytology
den/o tooth
dermat/o skin
derm/o skin
duoden/o duodenum
gastritis-inflammation of the
gastro stomach
lining of the stomach
hepatitis/ hepatoma-
hepat/o liver
inflammation in the liver
laryngitis- inflammation of the
larynx
voice box
-irritation,
overuse,
smoking
my/o muscle myology/myositis- i
nephritis- inflamed kidney
nephr/o kidney
caused by infection
neurology- disease of the
neur/o nerve
brain, spinal cord
osteoporosis- common to
oste/o bone
elders; weakening of bones
otitis- middle ear is affected;
ot/o ear
infection; inflammation
path/o disease Pathologic Anatomy
rhin/o nose Rhinitis- / Rhinoplasty
stomat/o mouth stomatitis
pleural- water inside the lungs
thorac/o thorax(chest)
of patient/ infection

Body Cavities
Dorsal Body Cavity
o Cranial Cavity
 Within the rigid skull, contains the
brain
o Spinal Cavity
 Runs within the bony vertebral
column, protects the spinal cord
Divisions of the Spinal Cord
Cervical Vertebrae: Cervical Nerves
- Control during movements
Thoracic Vertebrae: Thoracic Nerves
- Nerve root
- Possibility of difficulty in breathing if it is damaged
Lumbar Vertebrae: Lumbar Nerves
- Provides sensory and motor functions
Sacrum: Sacral Nerves
- Lower part of the spine
- Posterior pelvic wall

Ventral Body Cavity

o Thoracic Cavity
contains heart and lungs
 Pleural Cavity
 Visceral Pleura
covers the surface of both
lungs
 Parietal Pleura
lines inner surface of the
thoracic wall Nine Abdominopelvic regions:
 Mediastinum
 Pericardial Cavity 1) Right Hypochondriac
o Abdominopelvic Cavity o Liver
a. Peritoneal Cavity o Gallbladder
space in between the layers 2) Epigastric
b. Visceral Peritoneum o Stomach
covers the organs in abdominopelvic
3) Left Hypochondriac
c. Parietal Peritoneum
o Spleen
wall of abdominopelvic
o Diaphragm
 Abdominal Cavity
4) Right lumbar region
contains digestive viscera
o Ascending Colon of large intestine
 Stomach
5) Umbilical Region
 Intestines
o Small intestine
 Liver etc.…
o Transverse Colon of Large Intestine
 Pelvic Cavity
6) Left Lumbar Region
contains urinary bladder,
o Descending colon of large intestine
reproductive organs, and rectum
Ventral Body Cavity Membranes 7) Right Iliac (inguinal) Region
- Called serous membranes or serosa o Cecum
o Parietal serosa lines internal body walls o Appendix
o Visceral serosa covers the internal organs 8) Hypogastric Region
o Serous fluid separates the serosae o Urinary Bladder
Heart Serosae 9) Left Iliac (inguinal) Region
a. Parietal Pericardium o Initial part of sigmoid colon
outer layer of the heart
b. Pericardial space with serous fluid
c. Visceral pericardium
covers the heart

Abdominopelvic Quadrant
a. Right upper
b. Right lower
c. Left upper
d. Left lower Other Body cavities:
a. Oral and Digestive Cavities
- Contains teeth and tongue
- Part of and continuous with the digestive organs,
which open to the exterior at the anus
b. Nasal Cavities
- Located within and posterior to the nose
- Part of the respiratory system
 c. Orbital Cavities - Molecules
- Houses the eyes and present them in an anterior it can combine to form organelles
position - Organelles
d. Middle Ear Cavities the smallest structures that make up some cells
- Carved into the skull lie just medial to the eardrums Basic component of cells
- Contain tiny bones that transmit sound vibrations to - Cell types differ in their structure and function, they
the hearing receptors in the inner ears have many characteristics in common
e. Synovial Cavities 3.) Tissue level
- Tissue
Physiology a group of similar cells and the material
- The study of nature surrounding them
- The scientific discipline that delas with the process or have a common function
functions of living things - The characteristics of the cells and surrounding
- Important to recognize structures as dynamic rather material determine the functions of the tissue
than fixed and unchanging Four Primary types of tissue that make up
- Focuses on events at the cellular or molecular level the body:
- Rests on principles of physics, which helps explains a. Epithelial
electric current, blood pressure and the way muscles  Covers the body surface and lines
use bones to cause body movement, among other its cavities
things. b. Connective
 Supports and protects the body
Major Goals for studying physiology organs
a. To understand and predict the body’s responses to c. Muscle
stimuli  Provides movement
b. To understand how the body maintains internal d. Nervous
conditions within a narrow range of value in the  Provides a means of rapid internal
presence of continually changing internal and communication by transmitting
external environments electrical impulses
4.) Organ Level
Pathophysiology - Composed of two or more tissue types (four is more
- “Pathos” = suffering common) that together perform one or more common
- The study of functional changes associated with functions
disease and aging - Different tissues combine to form organs
- Extremely complex function become possible
Human Physiology - Ex.: heart, stomach, liver, and urinary bladder
- Study of a specific organism: the human 5.) Organ System Level
- Group of organs classified as a unit because of a
Cellular Physiology and Systemic Physiology common function or set of functions
- Subdivisions that emphasize specific organizational - The coordinated activity of the organ systems is
levels necessary for normal function
- The organs systems are so interrelated that a
Human Body and Chemical Levels of Organization dysfunction in one organ system can have profound
Structural and Functional Organization of the human body effects on other systems
Eleven major organs system
Six structural Levels a. Integumentary
1.) Chemical Level  Forms the external body
- The structural and functional characteristics of all covering, and protect
organisms are determined by their chemical make-up deeper tissues from injury
- Involves how atoms (tiny building blocks of matter)  Synthesized vitamin D and
interact and combine into molecules houses cutaneous (pain,
Atoms pressure, etc.) receptors,
a molecule’s structure determines its and sweat and oil glands
function b. Skeletal
2.) Cell level  Supports and protects
- Cells body organs
basic structural and functional units of organism
smallest units of living things
  Provides framework that  Breaks down food into
muscles use to cause absorbable units that enter
movement the blood for distribution
 Blood cells to body cells
formed within bones  Indigestible foodstuffs are
 Bones eliminated as feces
store minerals j. Urinary
c. Muscular  Eliminates nitrogenous
 Allows manipulation of wastes from the body
the environment,  Regulates water,
locomotion and facial electrolytes, and acid-base
expression balance of the blood
 Maintains posture and k. Reproductive
produces heat  Overall function is product
d. Nervous Male Reproductive System
 Fast acting control system testes produce sperm
of the body and male sex hormone and
 Responds to internal and male ducts and glands aid
external changes by in delivery of sperm to the
activating appropriate female reproductive Tract
muscles and glands Female Reproductive System
e. Endocrine Ovaries produce eggs
 Glands secrete hormones and female sex hormones
 Hormones the remaining female
regulate processes such structures serve as sites for
as growth, reproduction, fertilization and
nutrient use (metabolism) development of the fetus
by body cells mammary glands of
f. Cardiovascular female breasts produce
 Blood vessels transport milk to nourish the
blood newborn
 Blood 6.) Organism Level
carries oxygen, carbon - Highest level of organization
dioxide, nutrients, wastes, - Represents the total of all structural levels working
etc. together to keep us alive
g. Lymphatic (closely associated - Organ system make up an organism
with immune system) - Any living thing considered as a whole whether
composed of one cell or of one trillion of cells
 Pick up fluid leaked from
- Human organism
blood vessels and return it
a complex of organ systems that are mutually
to the blood
dependent upon one another
 Disposes of debris in the
multicellular organisms and our vital body
lymphatic stream
functions are parceled out among different organ
 Houses white blood cells
systems
involved in immunity
 The immune response
mounts the attack against
foreign substances within
the body
h. Respiratory
Characteristics of Life/ Maintaining Life
 Keeps blood constantly
supplied with oxygen and Necessary Life functions
removed carbon dioxide - Human beings maintain their boundaries, move,
 These exchanges occur respond to environmental changes, take in and digest
through the walls of the air nutrients, carry out metabolism, dispose of wastes,
sacs of the lungs reproduce themselves, and grow
i. Digestive - Organ systems
 o Do not work in isolation but work together
to promote the well being of the entire body
Maintaining Boundaries
- Living organisms
o Must be able to maintain its boundaries so
that its “inside” remains distinct from its
“outside”
- Cell in the human body
o It is surrounded by an external membrane
that separates its contents from the outside
interstitial fluid (fluid between cells)
o Allows entry of needed substances while
generally preventing entry of potentially
damaging or unnecessary substances
- Body
o Enclosed by the integumentary system or
skin
o Protects internal organs from drying out
(which is fatal) from pathogens and from the
damaging effects of heat, sunlight, and an
unbelievable number of chemical substances
in the external environment
Movement
- Includes all activities promoted by the muscular
system, such as propelling ourselves from one place
to another
- Ex.: walking, swimming, running…
- Manipulating the external environment with our
fingers
- Skeletal system
o Provides the bones that the muscles pull on
as they work
- It also occurs when substance such as blood,
foodstuffs, and urine are propelled (push) through the
internal organs of the cardiovascular, digestive, and
urinary systems, respectively
Responsiveness/ Irritability
- Ability to sense changes (stimuli) in the environment
and then react to them
- The nerve cell is highly irritable and can
communicate rapidly with each other via electrical
impulse. The nervous system bears the major
responsibility for responsiveness
- All body cells are responsive to some extent
Digestion
- The process of breaking down ingested food into
simple molecules that can then be absorbed into the
blood
- The nutrient-rich blood is then distributed to all body
cells by the cardiovascular system, where body cells
use these simple molecules for energy and raw
materials
Metabolism
- A broad term that refers to all chemical reaction that
occur within the body and all of its cells
- Includes breaking down complex substances into
simpler building blocks (as in digestion)
- To produce molecules of ATP, metabolism makes the
larger structures to small ones, and use nutrients and
oxygen
- It depends on the digestive and respiratory systems to
make nutrients and oxygen available to the blood and
for the cardiovascular system to distribute these
needed substances throughout the body
- It is regulated chiefly by hormones secreted by the
glands
Excretion
- The process of removing excreta or wastes from the
body
- Several organ systems participate in excretion
- Ex.: digestive system, urinary system…
Reproduction
- The production of offspring
- Can occur in the cellular or organismal level
- The original cell divides, producing two identical
daughter cells that may then be used for body growth
or repair
- The task of the organs of the reproductive system,
which is to produce sperm and eggs
when a sperm and egg unite, it produces a
fertilized egg, which the develops into a
baby within the mother’s body
- The function of the reproductive system is regulated
precisely by hormones of the endocrine system
Growth
- Can be an increase in cell size or an increase in body
size that is usually accomplished by an increase in the
number of cells.
- For it to occur, cell-constructing activities must occur
at a faster rate than cell-destroying ones
- Hormones released by the endocrine system play a
major role in directing growth
Survival Needs
- The goal of nearly all body systems is to maintain
life.
- Include nutrients, oxygen, water and appropriate
temperature and atmospheric pressure
Nutrients
- It takes the body in through food, contain the
chemicals used for energy and cell building
- Carbohydrates
the major energy providing fuel for body cell
- Proteins and to a lesser extent, fats
essential for building cell structures
it cushions body organs and provide reserve fuel
- Minerals and vitamins
required for the chemical reactions that go on in
cells and for oxygen transport in the blood
  Peritonitis
Oxygen peritoneum
- Chemical reactions that release energy from foods
require oxygen
- Human cells can survive for only a few minutes
without it.
- It is made available to the blood and body cells by the
cooperative efforts of the respiratory and
cardiovascular system
Water
- 60%-80% of the body weight depending on the age
of the individual
- Single most abundant chemical substance in the body
and provides the fluid base for body secretions and
excretions.
Receptor
- Obtained chiefly from ingested foods or liquids, we
- Responds to changes in the environment (stimuli)
lose it by evaporation from the lungs and skin and in
- Sends information (input) to control center
body excretions
- Information flows from the receptor to the control
Normal Body Temperature
center through the afferent pathway
- Must be maintained
Control Center
- Below 37° C= metabolic reactions become slower - Determine set point
and slower and finally stop - Analyzes information
- Too high= chemical recations proceed too rapidly, - Determines appropriate response
and body proteins begin to break down. Effector
- Most body is generated by the activity of the skeletal - Provides a means for response (output) to the
muscles and dissipated via blood circulating close to stimulus
the skin surface or by the evaporation of sweat - Information flows from the control center to the
Atmospheric pressure effector through efferent pathway
- Force exerted on the surface of the body by the
weight Feedback Mechanism
- Breathing and the exchange of O2 and CO2 in the Negative feedback
lungs depend on appropriate atmospheric pressure - Includes most homeostatic control mechanism
- Shuts off the original stimulus, or reduces its
intensity
Homeostasis - Works like a household thermostat
- Homeo= the same - Most common regulation mechanism
- Stasis= standing still - A variable trigger a counteracting response to
- “unchanging” comeback to a set point
- All structural levels are working toward homeostasis - Variable
- State of balance throws body out of balance in which the body
- Process of maintaining stable internal environment counteracts in response
- Indicates a dynamic state of equilibrium Positive Feedback
Maintaining Homeostasis - Increases the original stimulus to push the variable
- The body communicates through neural and farther
hormonal control systems - in the body this only occurs in blood clotting and
during the birth of a baby
Homeostatic imbalance Cells and Tissues
- Disturbance in homeostasis results in disease
- Serositis Discovery of Cells
inflammation of the serous membrane  Matthias Schleiden
o German Botanist
3 types:
o 1838
 Pericarditis
o All plants are composed of cells
inflammation of pericardium (heart)
 Theodor Schwann
 Pleuritis
o 1838
also, pleurisy
inflammation of pleura (lungs)
 o Discovered that animals were made of o Ribosomes migrate into the cytoplasm
cells through nuclear pores to serve as the site of
 Rudolf Virchow protein synthesis
o 1855, German Pathologist c. Chromatin
o Discovered that humans are made up of o Composed of DNA wound around histones
cells (proteins)
Cell theory o Scattered throughout the nucleus and present
- All living things are composed of a cell or cells when the cell is not dividing
- Cells are the basic unit of life o Condenses to form dense, rodlike bodies
- All cells come from preexisting cells called chromosomes when the cell divides
- Cell 2.) Cytoplasm
o Basic structural and functional unit of living - The cellular material outside the nucleus and inside
organisms the plasma membrane
- The activity of an organism depends on the collective - Site of most cellular activities
activities of its cells - Includes:
- According to the principle of complementarity, o Cytosol
- The biochemical activities of cells are dictated by the  Fluid that suspends other elements
relative number of their specific subcellular structure and contains nutrients and
- Continuity of life has a cellular basis electrolytes
Cell Size o Inclusions
- Limits in cellular and multicellularity  Chemical substances, such as
o Cells will only grow so big; after that they stored nutrients or cell products,
either remain the same size, or they divide that float in the cytosol
into two smaller cells o Organelles
Cells  Metabolic machinery of the cell
- Structural units of all living things that perform functions for the cell
- The human body has 50-100 trillion cells  Many are membrane-
- Most cells are composed of four elements bound, allowing for
o Carbon compartmentalization of
o Hydrogen their function
o Oxygen
o Nitrogen
- Cells are about 60-80% water

Anatomy of a generalized cell

Three main Regions or parts:
1.) Nucleus
- Control center of the cell
- Contains genetic material known
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
o DNA is needed for building proteins
o DNA is necessary for cell reproduction
- Three regions:
a. Nuclear envelope (membrane)
o Consists of a double membrane that bounds
the nucleus
o Contains nuclear pores that allow for
exchange of material with rest of the cells
o Encloses the jellylike fluid called
nucleoplasm
b. Nucleolus
o Nucleus contains one or more dark-staining
nucleoli
o Sites of ribosome assembly
as
- Mitochondria
o Powerhouse of the cell
o Mitochondria wall consists of a double
membrane with cristae on the inner
membrane
o Carry out reactions in which oxygen is used
to break down food into ATP molecules
- Ribosomes
o Made of protein and ribosomal RNA
o Sites of protein synthesis in the cell
o Found at two locations:
 Free in the cytoplasm
 As part of the rough endoplasmic
reticulum
- Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
o Fluid-filled tunnels (or canals) that carry
substances within the cell
o Continuous with the nuclear membrane
o Two types:
 Rough ER
 Studded with ribosomes
 Synthesizes proteins
 Transport vesicles move
proteins within cells
 Abundant in cells that
make and export proteins
 Smooth ER
 Lacks ribosomes
 Functions in lipid
metabolism
 Detoxification of drugs
and pesticides
- Golgi Apparatus
o Appears as a stack of flattened membranes
associated with tiny vesicles
o Modifies and packages proteins arriving
from the rough ER via transport vesicles
o Produces different types of packages
 Secretory vesicles (pathway 1)
 In-house proteins and lipids
(pathway 2)
 Lysosomes (pathway 3)
- Lysosomes
o Membranous “bags” that contain digestive
enzymes
o Enzymes can digest worn-out or no usable
cell structures
o House phagocytes that dispose of bacteria
and cell debris
- Peroxisomes
o Membranous sacs of oxidase enzymes
 Detoxify harmful substances such
as alcohol and formaldehyde
 Breakdown free radicals (highly
reactive chemicals)
 Free radicals are converted to
hydrogen peroxide and then to
water
o Replicate by pinching in half or budding
from the ER
- Cytoskeleton
o Network of protein structures that extend
throughout the cytoplasm
o Provides the cell with an internal framework
that determines cell shape, supports
organelles, and provides the machinery for
intracellular transport
o Three different types of elements form the
cytoskeleton
a. Microfilaments (largest)
b. Intermediate filaments
c. Microtubules (smallest
- Centrioles
o Rod-shaped bodies made of nine triplets of
microtubules
o Generate microtubules
o Direct the formation of mitotic spindle
during cell division

3.) Plasma membrane
- Fluid mosaic model is constructed of
o Two layers of phospholipids arranged “tail
to tail”
o Cholesterol and proteins scattered among the
phospholipids
o Sugar groups may be attached to the
phospholipids, forming glycolipids
- Phospholipid arrangement in the plasma membrane
o Hydrophilic (“water loving” polar heads are
oriented on the inner and outer surfaces of
the membrane
 o Hydrophobic (“water fearing”) nonpolar  Molecules can travel directly from
“tails” form the center (interior) of the one cell to the next through these
membrane channels
 This interior makes the plasma
membrane relatively impermeable
to most water-soluble molecules
- Role of proteins
o Responsible for specialized membrane
functions:
 Ion channels (Na+, K+, Ca+2, Cl-_
 Enzymes
 Receptors for hormone or other
chemical messengers
 Transport as channel or carriers
 Recognition site
- Role of sugars
o Glycoproteins Cell Extensions
 are branched sugars attached to - Surface extensions found in some cells
proteins that abut the extracellular o Cilia move materials across the cell surface
space  Located in the respiratory system to
o Glycocalyx move mucus
 Fuzzy, sticky, sugar-rich area on o Flagella propel the cell
the cell’s surface  The only flagellated cell in the
- Cell membrane Junctions human body is sperm
o Cells are bound together in three ways: o Microvilli are tiny, fingerlike extensions of
 Glycoproteins in the glycocalyx act the plasma membrane
as an adhesive or cellular glue  Increase surface area for absorption
 Wavy contours of the membranes
of adjacent cells fit together in a
tongue-and-groove fashion
 Special cell membrane junctions
are formed, which vary structurally
depending on their roles
Cell diversity
- Main types of cell junctions
- The human body houses over 200 different cell types
o Tight junctions
- Cell varies in size, shape and function
 Impermeable junctions o Length= 1/12,000 of an inch to over 1 yard
 Bind cells together into leakproof
(nerve cells)
sheets
o Cell shape reflects its specialized function
 Plasma membranes fuse like a
- Cells that connect body parts
zipper to prevent substances from
o Fibroblast
passing through extracellular space
 Secreted cable-like fibers
between cells
o Erythrocyte (RBC)
o Desmosome
 Carries oxygen in the blood stream
 Anchoring junctions, like rivets,
that prevent cells from being pulled
apart as a result of mechanical
stress
 Created by buttonlike thickenings
of adjacent plasma membranes
o Gap Junctions (communicating junctions)
 Allow communication between - Cells that cover and line body organs
cells o Epithelial cell
 Hollow cylinders of proteins  Packs together in sheets
(connexons) span the width of the  Intermediate fibers resist tearing
abutting membranes during rubbing or pulling
 - Dispose wastes
- Reproduce
- Grow
- Move
- Responds to stimulus
- Cells that move organs and body parts
o Skeletal muscles and smooth muscle cells Plasma Membrane
 Contractile filaments allow cells to - Barrier for cell contents and separates them from the
shorten forcefully surrounding environment
- Double phospholipid layer
o Hydrophilic heads
o Hydrophobic tails
- A phospholipid has a backbone derived in carbon
molecule called Glycerol, with long carbon called
Fatty acid
- Cell that stores nutrient
o Fat cells
Membrane transport
 Lipid droplets stored in cytoplasm
- The means by which substances get through plasma
membranes
- The plasma membrane is a selectively permeable
barrier
o Some materials can pass through, while
others are excluded
o Ex.: nutrients can enter the cell, undesirable
substances are kept out
- Cells that fight disease Functions:
o White blood cells, such as the macrophage - Protein synthesis
(a phagocytic cell) - Cell reproduction
 Digests infectious microorganisms
Solutions and Transport

Solution
- Homogeneous mixture of two or more components
- Ex: air that we breath, fluid of plasma membrane,
seawater, rubbing alcohol
Solvent
- Largest amount in the solution dissolving medium
- Cells that gather information and controls body typically water in the body
functions Solutes
o Nerve cell (neuron) - Components in smaller quantities within a solution
 Receives and transmits messages to Intracellular Fluid
other body structures - Nucleoplasm and cytosol
- Solution containing small amounts of gases (O2 and
- Cells of reproduction CO2). Nutrients in salts dissolved in water
o Oocyte (female) Interstitial Fluid
 Largest cell in the body - Fluid on the exterior of the cell
 Divides to become an embryo upon - Continuously bathes the exterior of our cell
fertilization - Contains thousands of nutrients (amino acids, sugars,
o Sperm (male) fatty acids, vitamins), regulatory subs. (hormones,
 Built for swimming to the egg for neurotransmitters, salt and waste products)
fertilization
 Flagellum acts as a motile whip Cell Physiology: Membrane Transport
- Two basic methods of transport
Function of the cell o Passive processes
- Ability to metabolize (use nutrients to build new cell  No energy is required
material, break down substances and make ATP) o Active processes
- Digest foods
  Cell must provide metabolic energy
(ATP)
- Two types of passive processes
o Diffusion
 Simple diffusion
 Osmosis
 Facilitated diffusion
o Filtration
Passive Processes
Diffusion
- Molecule movement is from High concentration to
low concentration, down a concentration gradient
- Particles tend to distribute themselves evenly within a
solution
- Kinetic energy (energy of motion) causes the
molecules to move about randomly
- Sized of the molecule and temperature affect the
speed of diffusion
- Molecules will diffuse only if:
o The molecules are small enough to pass
through the membrane’s pores
o Molecules are lipid soluble
o The molecules are assisted by a membrane
carrier
- Types of diffusion
o Simple diffusion
 An unassisted process
 Solutes are lipid-soluble *fats, fat-
soluble vitamins, oxygen, carbon
dioxide) materials or small enough
to pass through membrane pores
o Osmosis
 Simple diffusion of water
 Net movement of solvent
molecules from a region of high
solvent potential to a region of
lower solvent
 Highly polar water molecules
easily cross the plasma membrane
through aquaporins (water pores)
created by proteins in the
membrane
Isotonic
- Same solute and water concentration
- No changes in cells, RBCs retain their normal size
and disc like shape
Hypertonic
- Contains more solutes or dissolved subs, than there
inside the cells
- Cell begins to shrink
- Given to patients with edema
Hypotonic
- Solution contains fewer solutes
o Facilitated Diffusion
 Transports lipid-insoluble and large
substances (glucose)
 Substances require a protein carrier
for passive transport (use a protein
membrane protein channel) to
move glucose and certain other
solutes
o Filtration
 Water and solutes are forced
through a membrane by fluid, or
hydrostatic pressure
 A pressure gradient must exist
 Solute-containing fluid is
pushed from a high-
pressure area to lower
pressure area
Active Processes
- Substances are transported that are unable to pass by
diffusion
o Substances may be too large
o Substances may not be able to dissolve in
the fat core of the membrane
 o Substances may have to move against a
concentration gradient
- ATP is used for transport
- Two common forms of active transport
o Active transport (solute pumping)
 Amoni acids, some sugar, and ions
are transported by protein carriers
call solute pumps
 ATP energizes protein carriers
 In most cases, substances are Cell Division
moved against concentration Cell Cycle
gradients - Series of changes a cell goes through from the time it
is formed until it divides
Cells have two major periods
- Interphase (longer phase of cell cycle
o Cell grows
o Cell carries on metabolic processes
- Cell division
o Cell replicates itself
o Function is to produce more cells for growth
o Vesicular transport (bulk)
and repair processes
 Exocytosis
Preparation: DNA replication
 Moves materials out of the
- Genetic material is duplicated and readies a cell for
cell
division into two cells
o Materials is
- Occurs toward the end of interphase
carried in a Process of DNA replication
membranous - DNA uncoils into two nucleotide chains, and each
vesicle side serves as a template
o Vesicle migrates - Nucleotides are complementary
to plasma o Adenine (A) always bond with thy mine (T)
membrane o Guanine (G) always bonds with cytosine ©
o Vesicle combines
- For example, TACTGC bonds with new nucleotides
with plasma in the order ATGACG
membrane
o Material is
emptied to the
outside

 Endocytosis
 Extracellular substances Events of cell division
are engulfed by being - Mitosis
enclosed in a membranous o Division of the nucleus
vesicle  Results in the formation of two
 Types of endocytosis daughter nuclei
o Phagocytes - Cytokinesis
“Cell eating” o Division of the cytoplasm
o Pinocytosis  Begins when mitosis is near
“Cell drinking” completion
  Results in the formation of two o Division of cytoplasm
daughter cells
Stages of Mitosis
- Prophase
o First part of cell division
o Centrioles migrate to the poles to direct
assembly of mitotic spindle fibers
o DNA appears as double-stranded
chromosomes
o Nuclear envelope breaks down and
disappears
Importance of Mitosis
- Increasing the number of cells in particular tissue
- Protection from harmful microorganism incase of a
cut or wound
- Replacement of dead or inefficient cells in a tissue
- Metaphase - To maintain the cytoplasm to nucleoplasm as well as
o Chromosomes are aligned in the middle of surface area to volume ratio
the cell on the metaphase plate What Happens when mitosis goes wrong?
- Deletion
- Inversion
- Translocation
o Lymphomas, down syndrome, leukemias,
and some psychiatric disorders
- Changes in Chromosome number (nondisjunction)
o Aneuploidy
 New cells with either extra or
- Anaphase missing chromosomes
o Chromosomes are pulled apart and toward  Ex.: down syndrome, turner
the opposite ends of the cell syndrome, Edward’s syndrome,
o Cell begins to elongate Patau syndrome; and Kleinfelter’s
syndrome
- Mitotic error and Cancer
o Cancer is some form of uncontrolled cell
growth, a result of deletions, inversions and
translocations

Protein synthesis
- Telophase (terminate)
o Chromosomes uncoil to become chromatin
o Nuclear envelope reforms around chromatin
o Spindles break down and disappear
- Cytokinesis
o Begins during late anaphase and completes
during telophase
o A cleavage furrow form to pinch the cells
into two parts
- DNA serves as a blueprint for making proteins
- Gene: DNA segment that carries a blueprint for
building one protein or polypeptide chain
- Proteins have many functions
o Fibrous (structural) proteins are the building
materials for cells
o Globular (functional) proteins can act as
enzymes (biological catalysts)
- DNA information is coded into a sequence of bases
- A sequence of three bases (triplet) codes for an amino
acid
- For example, a DNA sequence of AAA specifies the
amino acid phenylalanine
- Role of DNA:
o Most ribosomes, the manufacturing sites of
proteins, are locate din the cytoplasm
o DNA never leaves the nucleus in interphase
cells
 o DNA requires a decoder and a messenger to
carry instructions to build proteins to
ribosomes
o Both the decoder and messenger function
are carried out by RNA
- Protein synthesis involves two major phases:
o Transcription
 Transfer of information from
DNAs base sequence to the
complementary base sequence of
mRNA
 DNA is the template for
transcription; mRNA is the product
 Each DNA triplet corresponds to an
mRNA codon
 If DNA sequence is AAT-CGT-
TCG, then the mRNA
corresponding codon are UUA-
GCA-AGC
o Translation
 Base sequence of nucleic acid is
translated to an amino acid
sequence; amino acids are the
building blocks of proteins
 Occurs in the cytoplasm and
involves three major varieties of
RNA
 mRNA leaves nucleus and attaches
to ribosome, and translation begins
 incoming tRNA recognizes a
complementary mRNA codon
calling for its amino acid by
temporarily binding its anticodon to
the codon
 As the ribosome moves along the
mRNA, a new amino acid is added
to the growing protein chain
 Released tRNA reenters the
cytoplasmic pool, ready to be
recharged with a new amino acid
RNA
- Single-stranded
- Contains ribose sugar instead of deoxyribose
- Contains uracil (U) base instead if thymine (T)
- Three varieties:
o Transfer RNA (tRNA)
 Transfers appropriate amino acids
to the ribosome for building the
protein
o Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
 Helps form the ribosomes where
 proteins are built
o Messenger RNA (mRNA)
 Carries the instructions for building
a protein from the nucleus to the
ribosome
Body Tissues
Tissues
- Group cells with similar structure and function
- Four primary types:
o Epithelial tissue (epithelium)
o Connective tissue
o Muscle tissue
o Nervous tissue
1.) Epithelial tissue
- Locations
o Body coverings
o Body linings
o Glandular tissue
- Functions
o Protection
o Absorption
o Filtration
o Secretion
- Hallmarks of epithelial tissue
o Cover and line body surface
o Often form sheets with one free surface, the
apical surface, and an anchored surface, the
basement membrane
o Avascular (no blood supply)
o Regenerate easily if well nourished
- Classification of epithelia
o Number of cell layers
  Simple—one layer
 Stratified—more than one layer
o Shape of cells
 Squamous— flattened, like fish
scales
 Cuboidal— cube-shaped, like dice
 Columnar— shaped like columns
Simple epithelia
- Functions in absorption, secretion, and filtration
- Very thin (so not suited for protection)
Simple Squamous Epithelium
- Single layer of flat cells
- Locations
o Usually forms membranes
o Lines air sacs of the lungs
o Forms walls of capillaries
o Forms serous membrane (serosae) that line
and cover organs in ventral cavity
- Functions in diffusion, filtration, or secretion in
membranes
Simple cuboidal epithelium
- Single layer of cubelike cells
- Locations
o Common in glands and their ducts
o Forms walls of kidney tubules
o Covers the surface of ovaries
- Functions in secretion and absorption ciliated types
propel mucus or reproductive cells
Simple Columnar epithelium
- Single layer of tall cells
o Goblet cells secrete mucus
- Locations
o Lining of the digestive tract from stomach to
anus
o Mucous membranes (mucosae) line body
cavities opening to the exterior
- Functions in secretion and absorption; ciliated types
propel mucus or reproductive cells
Pseudostratified columnar epithelium
- All cells rest on a basement membrane
- Single layer, but some cells are shorter than other
giving a false (pseudo) impression of stratification
- Location:
o Respiratory tract, where it is ciliated and
known as pseudostratified ciliated columnar
epithelium
- Functions in absorption or secretion
Stratified Epithelia
- Consist of two or more cell layers
- Functions primarily ion protection
Stratified squamous epithelium
- Most common stratified epithelium
 - Named for cells present at the free (apical) surface, o Include sweat and oil glands, liver, and
which are squamous pancreas (both internal and external)
- Functions as a protective covering where friction is
common 2.) Connective Tissue
- Locations—lining of the: - Found everywhere in the body to connect body parts
o Skin (outer portion) - Includes the most abundant and widely distributed
o Mouth tissues
o Esophagus - Functions:
o Protection
o Support
o Binding
- Characteristics of connective tissue
o Variations in blood supply
 Some tissue types are well
vascularized
 Some have a poor blood supply or
Stratified cuboidal epithelium are avascular
- Two layers of cuboidal cells; functions in protection o Extracellular matrix
Stratified columnar epithelium  Nonliving material that surrounds
- Surface cells are columnar, and cells underneath vary living cells
in size and shape, functions in protection - Two main elements of the extracellular
Stratified cuboidal and columnar a. Ground substance
- Rare in human body  Mostly water, along with adhesion
- Found in mainly in ducts of large glands proteins and polysaccharide
Transitional Epithelium molecules
- Composed of modified stratified squamous b. Fibers
epithelium  Collagen (white) fibers
- Shape of cells depends upon the amount of stretching  Elastic (yellow) fibers
- Function sin stretching and the ability to return to  Reticular fibers (a type of collagen)
normal shape - Types of connective tissue from most rigid to softest,
- Location or most fluid
o Lining of urinary system organs o Bone (osseous tissue)
 Composed of:
 Osteocytes (bone cells)
sitting in lacunae (cavities)
 Hard matrix of calcium
salts
 Large number of collagen
fibers
 Functions to protect and support the
body
Glandular Epithelia o Cartilage
- One or more cells responsible for secreting a  Less hard and more flexible than
particular product bone
- Secretions contain protein molecules in an aqueous  Found in only a few places in the
(water-based) fluid body
- Secretion is an active process  Chondrocyte (cartilage cell) is the
major cell type
Two major gland types develop from epithelial sheets  Types:
- Endocrine glands  Hyaline cartilage
o Ductless; secretions (hormones) diffuse into o Most widespread
blood vessels type of cartilage
o Ex.: thyroid, adrenals, and pituitary o Abundant
- Exocrine glands collagen fibers
o Secretions empty through ducts to the hidden by a
epithelial surface glassy, rubbery
matrix
 o Locations: to hold organs in
 Trachea place
 Attaches ribs to o Layer of areolar
the breastbone tissue called
 Covers ends of lamina propria
long bones underlies all
 Entire fetal membranes
skeleton prior to o All fiber types
birth form a loose
 Epiphyseal network
(growth) places o Can soak up
in long bones excess fluid
 Fibrocartilage (causes edema)
o Highly
compressible
o Locations:
 Forms cushion
like discs
between
vertebrae of the
spinal column
 Elastic cartilage  Adipose Connective
o Provides Tissue
elasticity o An areolar tissue
o location: in which adipose
 supports the (fat) cells
external ear dominate
o Dense connective tissue o Functions
 Main matrix element is collagen  Insulates the
fiber body
 Fibroblasts are cells that make  Protects some
fibers organs
 Locations  Serves as a site of
 Tendons—attach skeletal fuel storage
muscle to the bone o Locations
 Ligaments—attach bone to  Subcutaneous
bone at joints and are tissue beneath the
more elastic than tendons skin
 Dermis—lower layers of  Protect organs,
the skin such as the
o Loose connective tissue kidneys
 Softer, have more cells and fewer  Fat “depots”
fibers than other connective tissues include hips,
(except blood) breasts, and
 Types: belly
 Areolar connective tissue  Reticular connective tissue
o Most widely o Delicate network
distributed of interwoven
connective tissue fibers with
o Soft, pliable reticular cells
tissue like (like fibroblasts)
“cobwebs” o Forms stroma
o Functions as a (internal
universal packing framework) of
tissue and “glue” organs
o Locations
  Lymph
nodes
 Spleen
 Bone
marrow
o Blood (vascular tissue)
 Blood cells surrounded by fluid
matrix known as blood plasma
 Soluble fibers are visible only
during clotting
 Functions as the transport vehicle
for the cardiovascular system,
carrying:
 Nutrients
 Wastes
 Respiratory gases
3.) Muscle Tissue
- Function:
o Contract or shorten
o To produce movement
- Three types of muscle tissue
a. Skeletal muscle tissue
 Packaged by connective tissue
sheets into skeletal muscles, which
are attached to the skeleton and
pull-on bones or skin
 Voluntarily (consciously)
controlled
 Produces gross body movement or
facial expression
 Characteristics of skeletal muscle
cells
 Striations (stripes)
 Multinucleate (more than
one nucleus)
 Long, cylindrical shape
b. Cardiac muscle tissue
 Involuntarily controlled
 Found only in the heart
 Pumps blood through blood vessels
 Characteristics of cardiac muscle
cells:
 Striations
 One nucleus per cell
 Short, branching cells
 Intercalated discs contain
gap junctions to connect
cells together
c. Smooth (visceral) muscle tissue
 Involuntarily controlled
 Found in walls of hollow organs
such as stomach, uterus and blood
vessels
 Peristalsis, a wavelike activity, is a
typical activity
 Characteristics of smooth muscle
cells
 No visible striations
 One nucleus per cell
 Spindle-shaped cells
4.) Nervous tissue
- Function is to receive and conduct electrochemical
impulses to and from body parts
o Irritability
o Conductivity
- Composed of neurons and nerve support cells
o Support cells called neuroglia insulate,
protect, and support neurons
 o Cardiac muscle
o Nervous tissue within the brain and spinal
cord

Developmental aspects of cells and tissues

- Growth through cell division continues through
puberty
- Cell populations exposed to friction (such as
epithelium) replace lost cells throughout life
- Connective tissue remains mitotic and forms repair
(scar) tissue
- With some exceptions, muscle tissue becomes
amitotic by the end of puberty
- Nervous tissue becomes amitotic shortly after birth
- Injury can severely handicap amitotic tissues
- The cause of aging is unknown, but chemical and
physical insults, as well as genetic programming,
have been proposed as possible causes
- Neoplasms, both benign and cancerous, represent
abnormal cell masses in which normal controls on
cell division are not working
Tissue Repair (Wound healing) - Hyperplasia (increase in size) of a tissue or organ
- Occurs in two ways: may occur when tissue is strongly stimulated or
1.) Regeneration irritated
o Replacement of destroyed tissue by the same - Atrophy (decrease in size) of a tissue or organ occurs
kind of cells when the organ is no longer stimulated normally.
2.) Fibrosis
o Repair by dense (fibrous) connective tissue
(scar tissue)
- Whether regeneration or fibrosis occurs depends on:
o Type of tissue damaged
o Severity of the injury
- Clean cuts (incisions) heal more successfully than
ragged tears of the tissue
- Events of tissue repair
o Inflammation sets the stage
 Capillaries become very permeable
 Clotting proteins migrate into the
area from the bloodstream
 A clot walls off the injured area
o Granulation tissue forms
 Growth of new capillaries
 Phagocytes dispose of blood clot
and fibroblasts
 Rebuild collagen fibers
o Regeneration and fibrosis effect permanent
repair
 Scab detaches
 Whether scar is visible or invisible
depends on severity of wound
- Tissues that regenerate easily
o Epithelial tissue (skin and mucous
membranes)
o Fibrous connective tissues and bone
- Tissues that regenerate poorly
o Skeletal muscle
- Tissues that are replaced largely with scar tissue