[IMMUNOBIOLOGY] June 29, 2020

ANTIGEN
FINAL ASSIGNMENT

Name: Hareem Shahid

Class :BS-III

Section:B

Department : Microbiology

Course title: Immunobiology

Course code:

Submitted To: Miss Iqra naz

Enrollment no: 2018/Mic/BS/22776

DATED : 29 june,2020
th
 [IMMUNOBIOLOGY] June 29, 2020

Abstract :
An Antigen is any foreign substance to immune system which usually protein
in nature or sometimes made of polysaccharides which evokes the immune
response, such as antibody production. the natural safe framework, the example
acknowledgment receptors perceive the pathogen‐associated explicit atomic
examples. In the versatile safe framework, immunoglobulin and T cell‐receptor
perceive either explicit adaptation on the antigen or the amino corrosive grouping
in the peptide, separately. In spite of the fact that antigens can be perceived by
these receptors, all antigens don't really evoke antigen‐specific resistant reactions;
antigens that inspire an insusceptible reaction are named imunogens .

Antigen :
“ An antigen is a foreign substance chemically composed of protein or sometimes
polysaccharides that creates a specific immune response and induces the
formation of specific antibody or sensitized T cells or both. It recognizes by the
surface antibody (B cells) or by the TCR when associated with MHC molecules “
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Introduction :
An antigen is simply any substance foreign to the immune system that causes an
immune response, such as specific antibody production, when it has been brought
into close contact with the tissues of any animal that is sensitive to it, and can
combine with the specific antibodies that is formed.

Most antigens have a large molecular weight and are

chemically composed of proteins or polysaccharides, but may also be lipids,
polypeptides, or nuclear acids, among others.

There are low-molecular weight substances which are

capable of producing an immune response, called haptens. These can be
conjugated by chemical reaction to a larger protein which acts as a carrier, some
examples being bovine serum albumin (BSA) or keyhole limpet hemocyanin
(KLH), as well as some synthetic substrate molecules.

Many molecules have hapten capability, such as drugs,

small peptides, triglycerides, simple sugars, or amino acids, which means that if
the period of exposure is sufficient, almost any substance foreign to the body will
be recognized as such by the immune system and stimulate the production of
specific antibodies.(1)

Antigenicity :
The ability of antigen to react specifically with a free Ab or membrane
coupled antibody (BCR)

Although all antigens are recognized by specific lymphocytes or

by antibodies, only some antigens are capable of activating lymphocytes. (2)

Immunogen:
Molecules that stimulate immune responses are called Immunogens.
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Adjuvants:
Adjuvants are substances that are non-immunogenic alone but enhance
the immunogenicity of any added immunogen.

Antigenic determinants or epitopes

Epitope is immunologically active regions of an immunogen (or antigen) that binds
to antigen-specific membrane receptors on lymphocytes or to secreted antibodies.
It is also called antigenic determinants.

There are two types of epitopes :

1. Linear epitope
2. Conformational epitopes(1)
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Chemical nature of antigens :

 Proteins:
The vast majority of immunogens are proteins. These may be pure proteins
or they may be glycoproteins or lipoproteins. In general, proteins are usually
very good immunogens.
 Polysaccharides :
Pure polysaccharides and lipopolysaccharides are good immunogens.
 Nucleic Acids:
Nucleic acids are usually poorly immunogenic. However, they may become
immunogenic when single stranded or when complexed with proteins.
 Lipids:
In general lipids are non-immunogenic, although they may be haptens .(3)

Types of antigen:
There are different types of antigen namely :

Heterophile antigen
Alloantigen
Auto antigen
Super antigen
Sequestered antigen
Xenogenic antigen

Heterophile antigen:
Heterophile antigens are the identical antigens of similar nature that
are present in cells of different biological species, classes, kingdoms . Usually
different species have different antigen sets but the hetereophile antigen is
shared by different species.

Examples: Forrssman antigen, Cross-reacting microbial antigens, etc.

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Alloantigen:
Alloantigen are the antigens that are found in different members of the
same species (the red blood cell antigens A and B are examples).

Auto antigen:
Auto antigen is usually a normal protein or complex of proteins
(sometimes DNA or RNA)that is recognized by the immune system of patients
suffering from a specific autoimmune disease. It is the person’s own self
antigen which harm the body’s own parts.

Examples: Thyroglobulin, DNA, Corneal tissue, etc.

Super antigen:
Super antigens are secreted proteins (exotoxin) that exhibit highly
potent lymphocytes transforming activity directed towards T lymphocytes.
These antigens are associated with viruses and other microorganisms.

Sequestered antigen:
Sequestered antigens are those that can’t interact with the immune
system during development as they are anatomically sequestered and hence the
lymphocytes specific for such sequestered antigens are not deleted.

Xenogenic antigen:
The antigens comes from different genus and generic. An antigen
common to members of one species but not to members of other species. It is also
called heterogenic antigen. For example pathogenic antigen.(1)
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Classification of antigen
CLASSIFICATION BASED ON ORIGIN:
EXOGENOUS ANTIGEN :
These antigens enters the body or system by inhalation,ingestion or injection and
start circulating in the body fluids and trapped by the APCs (Antigen processing
cells such as macrophages, dendritic cells, etc.).The uptakes of these exogenous
antigens by APCs are mainly mediated by the phagocytosis

Examples: bacteria, viruses, fungi etc (2)

https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&url=https%3A%2F%2Fopentextbc.ca%2Fbiology%2Fchapter%2F23-2-
adaptive-immune-
response%2F&psig=AOvVaw2gbPKfvtjID1O6e1cBJ_MT&ust=1593444532433000&source=images&cd=vf
e&ved=0CAIQjRxqFwoTCJCtmtLppOoCFQAAAAAdAAAAABAe
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ENDOGENOUS ANTIGEN :
These are body’s own cells or sub fragments or compounds or the
antigenic products that are produced within previously normal cells as a result of
normal cell metabolism or because of viral or intracellular bacterial infection.
These antigens are processed by the macrophages which are later accepted by the
cytotoxic T – cells.

CLASSIFICATION BASED ON IMMUNOGENECITY :

Complete Antigen or Immunogen :

 Posses antigenic properties denovo, i.e. ther are able to generate an

immune response by themselves.
 High molecular weight (more than 10,000)
 May be proteins or polysaccharides
Incomplete antigen or hapten:
 These are the foreign substance, usually non-protein substances
 Unable to induce an immune response by itself, they require carrier
molecule to act as a complete antigen.
 The carrier molecule is a non-antigenic component and helps in
provoking the immune response. Example: Serum Protein such as
Albumin or Globulin.
T-Dependent antigen :
 Low Molecular Weight (Less than 10,000)
 Haptens can react specifically with its corresponding antibody.
 Examples: Capsular polysaccharide of pneumococcus, polysaccharide “C”
of beta haemolytic streptococci, cardiolipin antigens, etc.

Factors influencing antigenecity

1. Foreigness:

The suppression of cells that react with normal body components (self-
antigens) occur because these cells are exposed to self-antigen when
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immature (usually early in fetal life) and consequently eliminated

(selectively killed or otherwise suppressed).
2. Molecular Size
The most active immunogens tend to have a molecular mass of 14,000 to
6,00,000 Da.

Examples: tetanus toxoid, egg albumin, thyroglobulin are highly antigenic.

Insulin (5700 ) are either non-antigenic or weakly antigenic.

3. Chemical Nature and Composition

 In general, the more complex the substance is chemically the more
immunogenic it will be.
 Antigens are mainly proteins and some are polysaccharides.
 It is presumed that presence of an aromatic radical is essential for rigidity
and antigenicity of a substance.
4. Physical Form
 In general particulate antigens are more immunogenic than soluble ones.
 Denatured antigens are more immunogenic than the native form.
5. Antigen Specificity

 Antigen Specificity depends on the specific actives sites on the antigenic

molecules (Antigenic determinants).
 Antigenic determinants or epitopes are the regions of antigen which
specifically binds with the antibody molecule.
6. Species Specificity
 Tissues of all individuals in a particular species possess, species specific
antigen.
 Human Blood proteins can be differentiated from animal protein by specific
antigen-antibody reaction.
7. Organ Specificity
 Organ specific antigens are confined to particular organ or tissue.
 Certain proteins of brain, kidney, thyroglobulin and lens protein of one
species share specificity with that of another species.
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8. Auto-specificity
 The autologous or self antigens are ordinarily not immunogenic, but under
certain circumstances lens protein, thyroglobulin and others may act
as autoantigens.
9. Age
 Age can also influence immunogenicity.
 Usually the very young and the very old have a diminished ability to elicit
and immune response in response to an immunogen.
11. Degradability
 Antigens that are easily phagocytosed are generally more immunogenic.
 This is because for most antigens (T-dependant antigens) the development of
an immune response requires that the antigen be phagocytosed, processed
and presented to helper T cells by an antigen presenting cell (APC).
12. Dose of the antigen
 The dose of administration of an immunogen can influence its
immunogenicity.
 There is a dose of antigen above or below which the immune response will
not be optimal.
13. Route of Administration
 Generally the subcutaneous route is better than the intravenous or
intragastric routes.
 The route of antigen administration can also alter the nature of the response.
 Antigen administered intravenously is carried first to the spleen, whereas
antigen administered subcutaneously moves first to local lymph nodes .(4)

Characteristics of a Good Antigen

A good antigen shows the following features:

 Intramolecular areas of stable structure and complex chemical bonding

 Large stretches which are not composed of long repeating units
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 A molecular weight of at least 8 000 to 10 000 Da (however, it must be

noted that haptens of only 200 Da molecular weight have been conjugated
with a carrier protein)
 Can undergo processing by the immune system
 Has regions that can be presented to the antibody-forming process to
stimulate the immune system
 Has structural dissimilarity with the host
 Peptide antigens should contain immunogenic regions with at least 30% of
amino acids such as lysine, glutamine, arginine, glutamic acid, aspargine and
aspartic acid, called immunogenic amino acids, as well as sufficiently high
numbers of hydrophilic or charged functional groups. (5)

Tests for antigen detection

Antigen discovery packs dependent on catalyst immunoassays (EIAs) and latex
agglutination are the trial of decision for most clinical conditions with high
affectability and particularity (70-100%). Tests ought to be gotten during the
suggestive period. In the event that examples are not to be handled promptly, they
can be put away at 39.2°F (4°C) or solidified. A semi-settled converse translation
polymerase chain response (RT-PCR) test takes into account G and P
genotyping.53 In extraordinary circumstances, different tests can be thought of:
electron microscopy (EM), gel electrophoresis of viral RNA, hybridization of
radiolabeled nucleic corrosive tests and viral culture. Serologic tests are once in a
while utilized. Killing antibodies can be recognized by plaque decrease or
cytopathic impact hindrance.
There are different tests through which we can detect antigen :

DIRECT ELISA:
A direct ELISA (enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay) is a plate-based
immunosorbent assay intended for the detection and quantification of a specific
analyte (e.g. antigens, antibodies, proteins, hormones, peptides, etc.) from within a
complex biological sample.
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https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.creative-diagnostics.com%2FELISA-
guide.htm&psig=AOvVaw3D2pbtyS8A6BJYXXacxV77&ust=1593456325620000&source=images&cd=vfe
&ved=0CAIQjRxqFwoTCOCWksSVpeoCFQAAAAAdAAAAABAD

DIRECT IMMUNOFLOURESCENT:
Direct immunofluorescence (DIF) is a technique used in the laboratory to diagnose
diseases of the skin, kidney, and other organ systems. It is also called
the direct immune fluorescent test or primary immunofluorescence.

https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Ffigure%2FDirect-
immunofluorescenceprocedure_fig2_274679533&psig=AOvVaw3lruE5FPFYXZRKz0iv31iz&ust=15934563
96288000&source=images&cd=vfe&ved=0CAIQjRxqFwoTCOjZ8-aVpeoCFQAAAAAdAAAAABAD
 [IMMUNOBIOLOGY] June 29, 2020

Conclusion :
An antigen (Ag) is a molecule or molecular structure, such as may be present at
the outside of a pathogen, that can be bound to by an antigen-
specific antibody (Ab) or B cell antigen receptor (BCR). The presence of antigens
in the body normally triggers an immune response. Antigens are "targeted" by
antibodies. Each antibody is specifically produced by the immune system to match
an antigen after cells in the immune system come into contact with it; this allows a
precise identification or matching of the antigen and the initiation of a tailored
response Antigens are usually proteins, peptides (amino acid chains)
and polysaccharides (chains of monosaccharides/simple sugars) but lipids and
nucleic acids become antigens only when combined with proteins and
polysaccharides. antigens has many types namely exogenous, viral, bacterial,
endogenous , alloantigens (2)
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REFERENCES :
1. https://microbiologyinfo.com/antigen-properties-types-and-determinants-of-
antigenicity/
2. "Antigen". US National Library of Medicine. Retrieved 2015-07-30.
3. Lindenmann, Jean (1984). "Origin of the Terms 'Antibody' and
'Antigen'". Scand. J. Immunol.
4. "Antigens – Boundless Anatomy and
Physiology". courses.lumenlearning.com.
5. https://www.news-medical.net/whitepaper/20180627/Antigen-
Characteristics.aspx
6. Parham, Peter. (2009). The Immune System, 3rd Edition, p. G:2, Garland
Science, Taylor and Francis Group,