THE IMMUNE SYSTEM

OVERVIEW
The immune system is designed to
defend the body against foregn or
dangerous invaders. Such invaders
include

● Microorganisms (commonly called germs,

such as bacteria, viruses, and fungi)

● Parasites (such as worms)

● Cancer cells
● Transplanted organs and tissues
 ANTIGENS
are any substances that the immune
system can recognize and that can
thus stimulate an immune response.
If antigens are perceived as
dangerous (for example, if they can
cause disease), they can stimulate an
immune response in the body.
Antigens may be contained within or
on bacteria, viruses, other
microorganisms, parasites, or cancer
cells. Antigens may also exist on their
own—for example, as food molecules
or pollen.
 ● Recognizing a potentially harmful
foreign antigen
A normal
● Activating and mobilizing forces
immune to defend against it.
response 
● Attacking it
consists of the
following: ● Controlling and ending the attack
If the immune system malfunctions and mistakes self for
nonself, it may attack the body’s own tissues, causing
an autoimmune disorder, such as rheumatoid
arthritis, Hashimoto thyroiditis, or systemic lupus
erythematosus (lupus).
Disorders of the immune
system occur when
● The body generates an immune response
against itself (an autoimmune disorder).

● The body cannot generate appropriate immune

responses against invading microorganisms
(an immunodeficiency disorder).

● The body generates an excessive immune

response to often harmless foreign antigens
and damages normal tissues.(an allergic
reaction)
 Some Vocabulary
❏ Antibodies (immunoglobulins)  helps the
body to fight microbes or poison in the
body.
❏ -Antibodies as receptors- antibodies
can attach to B cells, and serve to
recognize foreign antigens.
❏ Antigens are any substance that the immune system can recognize
and that can thus stimulate an immune response.
-Antigen recognition- cells of the immune system to recognize "self"
protein vs. "not self" proteins.
>If an antigen (not self) protein is encountered by a
macrophage, it will bring the protein to a helper T-cell for identification.
If the helper T-cell recognizes the protein as "not self", it will launch an
immune response.
 Antibiotic- various chemicals produced by certain soil microbes
thatvare toxic to many bacteria. Some we use as medicines.
Lines of the Immune System
The immune system has 3 lines of Defense
Against Foreign Pathogens:
1. Physical and Chemical Barriers (Innate
Immunity)
2. Nonspecific resistance (innate immunity)
3. Specific resistance (Acquired immunity)
● Physical and Chemical Barriers (Innate immunity) -form the first line of defense when the body is
invaded.
Physical Barriers:
• Skin - thick layer of dead cells in the epidermis
• Mucous membranes
• Hair
• Cilia
• Urine
• Defecation and vomiting
Chemical Barriers
• Lysozyme
• Gastric juice
• Acidity
• Sebum
Non-specific Resistance (Innate Immunity)
The second line of defense is nonspecific resistance that destroys invaders in a
generalized way without targeting specific individuals.
• Phagocytic cells are several types of white blood cells (including macrophages
and neutrophils) that destroy invaders. Some also destroy damaged cells.
• Inflammation- is a tissue response that occurs when your tissues are damaged and
in response to other stimuli. Inflammation brings more WBC to the site where the
microbes have invaded.
• Fever- inhibits bacterial growth and increases the rate of tissue repair during an
infection.
Specific Resistance (Acquired immunity)

● The third line of defense is specific resistance . This system

relies on antigen, which are specific substances found in
foreign microbes.
● Most antigens are proteins that serve as the stimulus to
produce an immune system. Therefore, antigen is the
immune system initiator.
PROPERTIES OF
ANTIGENS
“An antigen is
a molecule that
initiates the
production of
an antibody
and causes an
immune
response.”
Antigens have different properties
which determine the
immunogenicity of the antigens
and thus are essential in order to
understand the immune reaction
against them. Since these
properties determine the
immunogenicity, these are
considered properties required to
form a good antigen. The
following are some of the
properties of antigens;
1. Foreign Nature
All antigens that induce an immune response in the host are foreign to the body of the
recipient.
The host body recognizes the antigen to be different from the normal body components.
The immunogenicity of the antigen increases with the increase in the degree of
foreignness. In the case of biological antigens, the foreignness increases with the increase
in the phylogenetic gap between the two species.
However, there are some exceptions in that some proteins occurring within the host
might also induce an immune response, as in the case of autoantigens.
Similarly, proteins and other molecules from other species might also not induce an
immune response if they lack antigenic determinants or epitopes.
2. Chemical Nature
The most potent and commonly encountered antigens are proteins followed by
polysaccharides.
However, other molecules like lipids and nucleic acids can also act as antigens when
complex with proteins and polysaccharides.
In the case of proteins, the antigen should contain immunogenic regions with at least 30%
of amino acids like lysine, glutamine, arginine, glutamic acids, asparagine, and aspartic
acid, along with a high number of hydrophilic or charged groups.
The level of immunogenicity also increases with the heterogeneity of the molecules.
Homopolymers are usually less immunogenic than heteropolymers.
3. Molecular Size
The molecular size of the antigens is also crucial in the immunogenicity of the molecules.
It has been established that antigens should have a minimum size of greater than 5000 Da
before they can be considered immunogenic.
However, low molecular weight substances can demonstrate immunogenicity when
coupled with large-sized carriers.
The low molecular weight substances are termed haptens that are considered ‘partial
antigens’ with at least one antigenic determinant.
4. Molecular Rigidity and Complexity
The rigidity and complexity of molecules are essential factors that
determine immunogenicity.
In general, rigid molecules are good antigens as they can raise
antibodies to certain structures when compared to the less rigid
ones.
The complexity of the structure is also an essential factor as a
peptide antigen with a repeating unit of a single amino acid is less
immunogenic than a molecule with two or more repeating amino
acids units.
5. Antigenic Determinants and Cross-reactivity
Antigenic determinants are regions in an antigen molecule that is
involved in the reaction with antibodies.
Usually, antigens with two or more antigenic determinants can
induce antibody production. Thus, a smaller antigen usually
doesn’t induce antibody production as it is not possible for a small
molecule to have more than one antigenic determinant.
Cross-reactivity of antigens is also an essential factor where
antibodies induced by a different antigen can interact with another
antigen.
 TYPES OF ANTIGEN
1. Types of antigen-based on their 2. Types of antigens on the basis of
origin immune response
★ Exogenous Antigens ★ Complete antigens/
Immunogens
★ Endogenous Antigens ★ Incomplete antigens/ Haptens
➢ Autoantigens

➢ Tumor Antigens
(Neoantigens)

➢ Native Antigens
 ANTIGEN EXAMPLES
1. Blood group antigens
Blood group antigens are proteins or sugars present on the
surface of different components in the red blood cell
membrane.
The antigens in the ABO blood group are the sugar that is
produced by a series of reactions that catalyzes the transfer
of sugar units.
The type of sugar in the red blood cell is determined by the
type of enzyme involved, which in turn is determined by the
person’s DNA.
The antigens of the Rh blood group are proteins that are also
determined by the host’s DNA. The RhD gene encodes the D
antigen, which occurs as a large protein on the red blood cell.
These antigens can be distinguished by antigen-antibody
reactions that help determine different blood groups in
humans.
2. Bacterial Capsule
A bacterial capsule is a polysaccharide layer occurring outside
the cell envelope that induces an immunogenic reaction in
the host.
The capsule is a well-organized layer that cannot be removed
easily and thus is considered a possible cause of bacterial
pathogenicity.
Bacterial capsules are also used as antigens used in vaccines
where the polysaccharide component of the capsule is
conjugated with protein carriers.
Antigens are an essential component of antigen-antibody
complexes, which have forensic application in the
identification of human blood and other samples.
VACCINE
• A vaccine is a biological
preparation that improves
immunity to a particular
disease.
• A vaccine typically
contains an agent that
resembles a disease-
causing microorganism
and is often made from
weakened or killed forms of
the microbe.
• The terms vaccine and
vaccination are derived
from Variolae vaccinae
(smallpox of the cow), the
term devised by Edward
Jenner to denote cowpox.
HISTORY
• During the late 1760s whilst serving his
apprenticeship as a surgeon Edward
Jenner learned of the story, common in
rural areas, that dairy workers would
never have the often-fatal or disfiguring
disease smallpox Because they had already
had cowpox, which has a very mild effect
in humans. Edward Jenner
• In 1796, Jenner took pus from the hand
of a milkmaid with cowpox, scratched it
into the arm of an 8-year-old boy.
• Six weeks later inoculated the boy with
smallpox, afterwards observing that he did
not catch smallpox.
• Jenner extended his studies and in 1798
reported that his vaccine was safe in
children and adults.
• The second generation of vaccines was
introduced in the 1880s by Louis Pasteur
who developed vaccines for chicken
cholera and anthrax.
• From the late nineteenth century
vaccines were considered a matter of
national prestige, and compulsory
vaccination laws were passed.
TYPES OF 1. Live,Attenuated
Vaccines:
2. Inactivated
vaccines:
VACCINES • Live, attenuated
vaccines contain a
version of the living
microbe that has been
weakened in the lab so
it can’t cause disease.
• Because a live,
attenuated vaccine is
the closest thing to a
natural infection, these
vaccines are good
“teachers” of the
immune system.
• Example: Vaccines
against measles,
mumps, and chickenpox
• Scientists produce
inactivated vaccines by
killing the disease-
causing microbe with
chemicals, heat, or
radiation. Such
vaccines are more
stable and safer than
live vaccines.
•Because dead
microbes can’t mutate
back to their disease-
causing state.
TYPES OF 3. Subunits Vaccines
VACCINES • Instead of the entire
microbe, subunit vaccines
include only the antigens
that best stimulate the
immune system.
• In some cases, these
vaccines use epitopes, the
very specific parts of the
antigen that antibodies or T
cells recognize and bind to.
• Because subunit vaccines
contain only the essential
antigens and not all the
other molecules that make
up the microbe.
4. Toxoid
Vaccines
• For bacteria that secrete
toxins, or harmful chemicals, a
toxoid vaccine might be the
answer.
• These vaccines are used
when a bacterial toxin is the
main cause of illness.
• Example: Crotalus atrox
toxoid is used to vaccinate
dogs against rattlesnake bites.
TYPES OF
5. Conjugate Vaccines
• If a bacterium possesses an
VACCINES outer coating of sugar
molecules called
polysaccharides, as many
harmful bacteria do,
researchers may try making a
conjugate vaccine for it.
• Polysaccharide coatings
disguise a bacterium’s
antigens so that the immature
immune systems of infants
and younger children can’t
recognize or respond to them.
• Example : Haemophilus
influenzae type B vaccine.
6. DNA
Vaccines
• Still in the experimental
stages, these vaccines show
great promise, and several
types are being tested in
humans.
• DNA vaccines take
immunization to a new
technological level.
• These vaccines dispense
with both the whole organism
and its parts and get right
down to the essentials: the
microbe’s genetic material.
• Example: Influenza vaccine.
TYPES OF 7. Recombinant Vector Vaccines

VACCINES • Recombinant vector vaccines are experimental

vaccines similar to DNA vaccines

• But they use an attenuated virus or bacterium

to introduce microbial DNA to cells of the body.

• “Vector” refers to the virus or bacterium used

as the carrier.

• Example : DPT
Thank you and Godbless!