Antigens, Epitopes, Haptens,

Adjuvants
• Antigens -Substances that are capable of
inducing specific immune response
• They can be recognized by the surface
antibody(B cells) or by the T cell receptors
when associated with MHC molecule.
• They can bind specifically with the
antibody or T- cell receptor.
• Antigens are molecules that trigger the production of antibodies by
inducing an immune response
• The epitopes or antigenic determinants are the components of
antigen. Every antigen has several epitopes. An antibody has at least
two binding sites that can bind to specific epitopes on antigens.
• The antigens combine with the antibody according to the lock and key
mechanism.
• The ability of the body to act against the disease-causing agents and
antigens by the immune system is termed as the immunity. This
immunity may be either inborn or acquired from vaccinations.
• An antigen is a molecule that initiates the production of an antibody
and causes an immune response.”

• Antigens are large molecules of proteins, present on the surface of

the pathogen- such as bacteria, fungi viruses, and other foreign
particles. When these harmful agents enter the body, it induces an
immune response in the body for the production of antibodies.
• For example: When a common cold virus enters the body, it causes
the body to produce antibodies to prevent from getting sick
Properties of Antigens
• Foreignness
• Size
• Chemical nature (protein, polysacc, N.A, lipid)
• specificity
 Properties of Antigens
• The properties of antigens are as follows:
• The antigen should be a foreign substance to induce an immune response.
• The antigens have a molecular mass of 14,000 to 6,00,000 Da.
• They are mainly proteins and polysaccharides.
• The more chemically complex they are, the more immunogenic they will be. Lipids
and Nucleic acids are usually non-antigenic but they become antigenic when
combined with Proteins and Polysaccharides. Presence of an Aromatic radical is
essential for rigidity and antigenicity of a substance.
• Antigens are species-specific. Depends on the position of the antigenic determinant
group in antigen molecule. It is determined by single chemical groupings & even by a
single acid redical. Antigens bearing the stereochemical similarities may cross react.
Sometimes cross reaction occurs due to sharing of identical epitopes by different Ags.
• The age influences the immunogenicity. Very young and very old people exhibit very
low immunogenicity.
• On the Basis of Immune Response
antigens can be classified as:
• Immunogen
• These may be proteins or polysaccharides and can generate an immune
response on their own.
• Hapten
• These are non-protein, foreign substances that require a carrier molecule
to induce an immune response.
 Types of Antigens On the basis of Origin
• There are different types of antigens on the basis of origin:
• Exogenous Antigens
• Exogenous antigens are the external antigens that enter the body from outside, e.g. inhalation,
injection, etc. These include food allergen, pollen, aerosols, etc. and are the most common type of
antigens.
• Endogenous Antigens
• Endogenous antigens are generated inside the body due to viral or bacterial infections or cellular
metabolism.
• Autoantigens
• Autoantigens are the ‘self’ proteins or nucleic acids that due to some genetic or environmental
alterations get attacked by their own immune system causing autoimmune diseases.
• Tumour Antigens
• It is an antigenic substance present on the surface of tumour cells that induces an immune response in
the host, e.g. MHC-I and MHC-II. Many tumours develop a mechanism to evade the immune system of
the body.
• Native Antigens
• An antigen that is not yet processed by an antigen-presenting cell is known as native antigens.
Antigens can be in different forms based on
origin and properties
• Auto antigens- own self antigen –autoimmune disease
• Allo antigens – A genetically determined antigen present in some but not all
individuals of a species. e.g. Human erythrocyte antigens based on which individuals
are classified into different blood groups
•  Heterophile antigen : The same or closely related antigens may sometimes occur in
different biological species . Found in diff tissues in diff species
• Eg: Forssman antigen – A lipid carbohydrate complex widely distributed among
bacteria, animals, birds, plants. Anti- Forssman antibody can be prepared in rabbits
as they have no such antigen.
• Heterophile antigens having diagnostic application : Antibody against one antigen
can be detected in patient’s serum by employing a different antigen which is
heterophile (cross reactive) to 1st antigen.
Other types of antigens
• TD , TI antigens
• Super antigens
• Superantigens (SAgs) are a class of antigens that result in excessive
activation of the immune system. Specifically it causes non-specific
activation of T-cells resulting in polyclonal T cell activation and
massive cytokine release.
APC

Exogenous antigen – immune response

Non-specific T cell activation
Epitopes
• Are the immunologically active regions of an immunogen that bind to
antigen-specific membrane receptors on lymphocytes or to secrete
antibodies
 EPITOPE
1. Smallest unit of antigenicity, called antigenic determinant.
2. Consisting of 4 or 5 amino acids or monosaccharide residues.
3. Having specific chemical structure, electric charge & steric configuration.
4. Capable of sensitizing T & B cells and reacting with the specific site of TCRs
or an antibody.
5. Combining area on antibody corresponding to epitope is known as paratope.
6. Epitopes & paratopes determine the specificity of immune reactions.
7. Antigenic mosaic – Antigens such as bacteria or viruses carry many different
types of epitopes.
8. Presence of similar epitopes on different antigens are responsible for
antigenic cross-reaction.
EPITOPES BINDING WITH PARATOPES
HAPTEN
• They are low molecular weight substances, incapable of inducing
antibody formation by themselves but can react specifically with
antibodies.
• So they are :-
1. Non-immunogenic
2. Antigenic
They can become immunogenic when combined with a larger protein
molecule as a carrier.
Hapten – Derived from Greek word “Haptein” which means “To fasten”.
Many low molecular weight organic molecules that are not antigenic by
themselves but become antigenic if they bond to a larger carrier molecule
such as a protein. These low molecular weight antigens are called Haptens.
Example of a Hapten is Penicillin, a small molecule and is not antigenic.
However, when it is combined with certain serum proteins of sensitive
individuals, the resulting molecule becomes immunogenic, activates
lymphocytes, and initiates a severe and sometimes fatal Allergic reaction
(a type of immune response).
The term Hapten was first coined by Karl Landsteiner. 
• Examples of Haptens 1) Aniline (an Organic compound) and its
derivatives (o-, m, p-benzoic acid) (First researched Hapten). 2)
Urushiol present in Toxicodendron radicans, Poison ivy plant. 3)
Hydralzine, a blood pressure lowering drug. 4) Fluorescein, a
fluorescent dye. 5) Biotin, aVitamin – B7 (Formerly known asVitamin –
H or Coenzyme – R). 6) Penicillin, anAntibiotic. 7) Digoxigenis,
a steroid found in the flowers & leaves of the plants Digitalis
purpurea, Digitalis orientalis & Digitalis lanata. 8) 2,4 – Dinitrophenol,
an Organic compound
HAPTEN-CARRIER COMPLEX
TYPES OF HAPTEN
Complex Hapten :-
1. Polyvalent
Hapten – antibody complex can be visualized as precipitate.
Simple Hapten :-
1. Univalent
Hapten – antibody complex can’t be visualized, as it is believed that
polyvalency (more than one epitope) is required for precipitation
reaction.
Hapten for diagnostic tool
 ADJUVANTS
• Adjuvants are substances that, when mixed with an antigen and injected with
it, enhance the immunogenicity of that antigen.
• The word Adjuvants was derived from the Latin word “Adjuvare” which
means “To help”).
• Adjuvants are often used to boost the immune response when an antigen has
low immunogenicity or when only small amounts of an antigen are available.
• Adjuvants may be added to a Vaccine to modify the Immune response.
• The antibody response of Mice to immunization with Bovine serum albumin
(BSA) can be increased fivefold or more if the BSA is administered with an
adjuvant.
Mechanism of action of adjuvants
• Decrease the amount of antigen
• Reduce the number of doses required to induce protective immunity
• Induce protective responses more rapidly
• Increase in rate of seroconversion in special populations (elderly,
neonates, infants, immunocompromised individuals, individuals with
chronic disease)
• Commonly used Adjuvants 1) Aluminium potassium sulfate (Alum)
(First Aluminium salt used as Adjuvant and now completely replaced
by aluminium hydroxide and aluminium phosphate for commercial
vaccines). 2) Freund’s Incomplete Adjuvant (Oil in water emulsions).
3) Freund’s complete Adjuvant (Inactivated and dried Mycobacterium
tuberculosis). 4) Plant Saponins. 5) Cytokines 6) Quil A (Deteregent) 7)
Mineral oil and Food based oil (Peanut oil) 8) Squalene (Carbon
organic compound obtained from Shark liver oil) 9) Bacterial Products
– Toxoids, Lipopolysaccharides and Killed Bordetella pertussis. 10)
Synthetic Polynucleotide.
• Mechanism of Immune stimulation by Adjuvants Extend the presence
of antigen in the blood. Helps the Antigen presenting cells absorb
antigen. Activate Macrophages and Lymphocytes. Support the
production of Cytokines.