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2: Introduction to the Immune System - Biology LibreTexts

20.2: INTRODUCTION TO THE IMMUNE SYSTEM

WORM ATTACK!
Does this  benefits from the relationship and the host is always harmed.
organism look like a space alien? A scary creature from a
nightmare? In fact, it’s a 1-cm long worm in
the genus Schistosoma. It may invade and take up
residence in the human body, causing a very serious
illness known as schistosomiasis. The worm gains access
to the human body while it is in a microscopic life stage.
It enters through a hair follicle when the skin comes into
contact with contaminated water. The worm then grows
and matures inside the human organism,
causing disease.
organism, called the parasite, lives on or in
another organism, called the host. The parasite always
The human host of the Schistosoma worm is clearly harmed
by the parasite when it invades the host’s tissues. The
urinary tract or intestines may be infected, and signs and
symptoms may include abdominal pain, diarrhea, bloody
stool, or blood in the urine. Those who have been infected a
long time may experience liver damage, kidney
failure, infertility, or bladder cancer. In
children, Schistosoma infection may cause poor growth and
difficulty learning. Table 20.2.1 20.2.1 lists some of the
microscopic pathogens, their images, description, and the
diseases that they cause.

Like the Schistosoma worm, many other organisms can

make us sick if they manage to enter our body. Any such
agent that can cause 
disease is called a pathogen. Most pathogens are
microorganisms, although some, such as the Schistosoma
worm, are much larger. In addition to worms, common types
of pathogens of human hosts include bacteria, viruses, fungi,
and single-celled organisms called protists. You can see
examples of each of these types of pathogens in Table 
Figure 20.2.1 20.2.1: Schistosome Parasite 20.2.1 20.2.1. Fortunately for us, our immune system is able
to keep most potential pathogens out of the body or to
HOST VS. PATHOGEN quickly destroy them if they do manage to get in. When you
The  Schistosoma  worm has a parasitic relationship with read this chapter, you’ll learn how your immune
system usually keeps you safe from harm — including from
humans. In this type of relationship, one 
scary creatures like the Schistosoma worm!
Table 20.2.1 20.2.1: Types of Pathogens
Type of Example and their
Description Human Disease caused by pathogens of that type
Pathogen Image

Bacteria Strep throat, staph infections, tuberculosis, food poisoning, tetanus,

Single-celled organisms without a nucleus
pneumonia, syphilis

such as  Escherichia

coli

Common cold, flu, genital herpes, cold sores, measles, AIDS, genital
Viruses Particles that reproduce by taking over living cells.
warts, chickenpox, smallpox

such as Herpes
simplex

Organisms with a nucleus that grow as single cells

Fungi Ringworm, athlete's foot, tineas, candidiasis, histoplasmosis
or tread-like filaments
such
as  Trichophyton
rubrum

Malaria, Traveler's diarrhea, giardiasis, trypanosomiasis (sleeping

Protozoa A single-celled organism with a nucleus
sickness)

Such as  Giarida

lamblia

WHAT IS THE IMMUNE SYSTEM?

The 

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immune system is a host defense system. It comprises many biological structures —ranging from individual
white blood cells to entire organs — as well as many complex biological processes. The function of the immune system is to
protect the host from pathogens and other causes of disease such as tumor cells. To function properly, the immune
system must be able to detect a wide variety of pathogens. It also must be able to distinguish the cells of pathogens from
the host’s own cells and also to distinguish cancerous or damaged host cells from healthy cells. In humans and most other
vertebrates, the immune system consists of layered defenses that have increased specificity for particular pathogens
or tumor cells. The layered defenses of the human immune system are usually classified into two subsystems called
the innate immune system and the adaptive immune system.

INNATE IMMUNE SYSTEM

Any discussion of the innate immune response usually begins with the physical barriers that prevent pathogens from
entering the body, destroy them after they enter, or flush them out before they can establish themselves in the hospitable
environment of the body’s soft tissues. Barrier defenses are part of the body’s most basic defense mechanisms. The barrier
defenses are not a response to infections, but they are continuously working to protect against a broad range of pathogens.
The phagocytes are the body’s fast acting first line of immunological defense against organisms that have breached barrier
defenses and have entered the vulnerable tissues of the body. For example, certain leukocytes (white 
blood cells) engulf and destroy pathogens they encounter in the process called phagocytosis. The body's response again
a pathogen's breach is also called Inflammation. Phagocytosis and Inflammation will be discussed in detail in concept Innate
Immune System.

ADAPTIVE IMMUNE SYSTEM

The 
adaptive immune system is activated if pathogens successfully enter the body and manage to evade the general defenses of
the innate immune system. An adaptive response is specific to the particular type of pathogen that has invaded the body or
to cancerous cells. It takes longer to launch a specific attack, but once it is underway, its specificity makes it very effective.
An adaptive response also usually leads to immunity. This is a state of resistance to a specific pathogen due to the ability of
the adaptive immune system to “remember” the pathogen and immediately mount a strong attack tailored to that
particular pathogen if it invades again in the future.

SELF VS. NON-SELF

Both innate and adaptive immune responses depend on the ability of the 
immune system to distinguish between self and non-self molecules. Self molecules are those components of an organism’s
body that can be distinguished from foreign substances by the immune system. Virtually all body cells have surface proteins
that are part of a complex called the major histocompatibility complex (MHC). These proteins are one way the immune
system recognizes body cells as self. Non-self proteins, in contrast, are recognized as foreign because they are different from
self-proteins.

ANTIGENS AND ANTIBODIES

Many non-self molecules comprise a class of compounds called antigens. Antigens, which are usually proteins, bind to
specific receptors on 
immune system cells and elicit an adaptive immune response. Some adaptive immune system cells (B cells) respond to
foreign antigens by producing antibodies. An antibody is a molecule that precisely matches and binds to a specific antigen.
This may target the antigen (and the pathogen displaying it) for destruction by other immune cells.

Antigens on the surface of pathogens are how the 

adaptive immune system recognizes specific pathogens. Antigen specificity allows for the generation of responses tailored
to the specific pathogen. It is also how the adaptive immune system ”remembers” the same pathogen in the future.

IMMUNE SURVEILLANCE
Another important role of the 
immune system is to identify and eliminate tumor cells. This is called immune surveillance. The transformed cells of tumors
express antigens that are not found on normal body cells. The main response of the immune system to tumor cells is to
destroy them. This is carried out primarily by aptly named killer T cells of the adaptive immune system.

LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
The 
lymphatic system is a human organ system that is a vital part of the adaptive immune system. It is also part of
the cardiovascular system and plays a major role in the digestive system (see the concept Lymphatic System).

FEATURE: HUMAN BIOLOGY IN THE NEWS

“They’ll have to rewrite the textbooks!”
That sort of response to scientific discovery is sure to attract media attention, and it did. It’s what Kevin Lee, a
neuroscientist at the University of Virginia, said in 2016 when his colleagues told him they had discovered human
anatomical structures that had never before been detected. The structures were tiny lymphatic vessels in the meningeal
layers surrounding the 

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brain.

How these lymphatic vessels could have gone unnoticed when all human body systems have been studied so
completely is amazing in its own right. The suggested implications of the discovery are equally amazing:
The presence of these lymphatic vessels means that the brain is directly connected to the peripheral immune system,
presumably allowing a close association between the human brain and human pathogens. This suggests an entirely
new avenue by which humans and their pathogens may have influenced each other’s evolution. The researchers
speculate that our pathogens may have even influenced the evolution of our social behaviors.
The researchers think there will also be many medical applications of their discovery. For example, the newly
discovered lymphatic vessels may play a major role in neurological diseases that have an immune component, such
as multiple sclerosis. The discovery might also affect how conditions such as autism spectrum disorders and
schizophrenia are treated.

REVIEW
1. What is a pathogen?
2. State the purpose of the immune system.
3. Compare and contrast the innate and adaptive immune systems.
4. Explain how the immune system distinguishes self molecules from non-self molecules.
5. What are antigens?
6. Define tumor surveillance.
7. Briefly describe the lymphatic system and its role in immune function.
8. Identify the neuroimmune system.
9. Which of the following is NOT a function of the immune system?
A. Protecting the body against fungi
B. Protecting the body against bacteria
C. Protecting the body against cancerous cells
D. None of the above
10. What does it mean that the immune system is not just composed of organs?
11. What are the general relationships between the terms lymphocytes, leukocytes, and white blood cells?
12. True or False. Phagocytosis occurs in the innate immune system.
13. True or False. Major histocompatibility complex proteins are antibodies.
14. True or False. Only the adaptive immune response requires the ability to distinguish between self and non-self.
15. Why is the immune system considered to be “layered?”

EXPLORE MORE
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ATTRIBUTIONS
1. Schistosome Parasite by Bruce Wetzel and Harry Schaefer, public domain via NCI NIH
2. Scanning electron micrograph of Escherichia coli by NIAID, public domain via Wikimedia Commons
3. Electron micrograph of Herpes virus by George W. Beran, public domain via Wikimedia Commons
4. Trichophyton rubrum by CDC/Dr. Libero Ajello, public domain via Wikimedia Commons
5. Giardia by schmidty4112, CC BY 2.0 via Flickr
6. Text adapted from Human Biology by CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC 3.0
7. Some text is adapted from 21.2 Barrier Defenses and the Innate Immune Response by OpenStax licensed CC BY 4.0.

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