MICROORGANISMS

WHAT IS A DISEASE?
 a condition with a specific cause in which part or all of the body functions abnormally and less
efficiently

A disease may be caused by unhealthy activities such as smoking or drinking alcohol; it can be
genetic such as the mutations responsible for haemophilia or cystic fibrosis; or most commonly, the
cause is a microorganism.

Microorganisms are responsible for causing infectious diseases – those that can be transmitted
from one person to another. Microorganisms that cause diseases are known as pathogens or
pathogenic organisms.

Four types of microorganisms – bacteria, viruses, fungi and protozoa

The main types of pathogenic microorganism and some diseases they cause
Type of microorganism How the microorganism cause Examples of diseases caused
disease
bacteria Bacteria release poisons called Typhoid, tuberculosis (TB),
toxins as they multiply. The gonorrhoea, cholera,
toxins affect cells in the region pneumonia
of the infection and sometimes
in other parts of the body as
well.
viruses Viruses enter a living cell and Influenza (‘flu), poliomyelitis
disrupt the metabolic systems (polio), human
of that cell. The genetic material immunodeficiency virus (HIV),
of the virus takes over the cell measles, rubella, common cold,
and instructs it to produce more Ebola
viruses.
fungi When fungi grow in or on the Athlete’s foot, thrush, ringworm
body, their fine threads (a skin disease)
(hyphae) secrete digestive
enzymes onto the tissues,
breaking them down. Growth of
hyphae also physically damages
the tissues. Some fungi secrete
toxins. Others cause an allergic
reaction.
protozoa There is no set pattern as to Malaria, trypanosomiasis
how protozoa cause disease. (sleeping sickness)

A hypha (plural hyphae) is a long, branching filamentous structure of a fungus.

BACTERIA
 small single-celled organisms
Their cells are much smaller than those of animals or plants and they have a much simpler
structure.

Three basic shapes of bacteria – spheres, rods and spirals – but they all have a similar internal
structure.
spheres: singles, pairs, chains or groups
rods: singles, chains, with or without flagella

All bacteria are surrounded by a cell wall which protects the bacterium and keeps the shape of the
cell. Some species have another layer outside this wall, called a capsule or slime layer. Both give the
bacterium extra protection. Underneath the cell wall is the cell membrane. The middle of the cell is
made of cytoplasm. One major difference between a bacterial cell and the more complex cells of
animals and plants is that the bacterium has no nucleus. Instead its genetic material (DNA) is in a
single chromosome loose in the cytoplasm, in the shape of a circular loop.

Some bacteria can swim using flagella (singular flagellum). Flagella are corkscrew-like movements
of structures. Most bacteria do not have flagella and cannot move by themselves.

Plasmids are small, circular rings of DNA, carrying some of the bacterium’s genes. About three-
quarters of all known species of bacteria contain plasmids. Plasmids are used as a tool in genetic
engineering, to transfer genes into bacteria. Genetically modified (GM) bacteria are used to make
useful products such as human insulin for treating diabetes.

Most species of bacteria are harmless to humans. Some free-living species contain chlorophyll in
their cytoplasm and can make their own food by photosynthesis, like plants.

Most bacteria, along with fungi are important decomposers. They feed on dead organisms and
waste products in the soil and recycle them. They are also important in sewage treatment.

Some bacteria are used by humans to make foods such as cheese and yogurt. Relatively few species
are pathogens.

Bacteria reproduce by a process called binary fission which means “splitting into two.” Cell grows
and the chromosome is copied. Cell divides and new cell walls form. Daughter cells then separate.

To carry out research on bacteria, we can grow or culture them in Petri dishes containing agar. We
may grow them in a liquid called a “broth”.

Agar is a jelly made from seaweed. Nutrients are added to the agar to supply food for the bacteria.
Agar is useful for growing bacteria because they cannot feed on the agar itself.
 Bacteria can reproduce very quickly. Some species can divide every 15-20 minutes when they are
supplied with nutrients and favorable conditions of temperature and pH which means thousands of
bacteria can be produced from one cell within a few hours.

The growth phase is also called the exponential phase because the cell numbers double in unit time
intervals.

The curve starts with a lag phase, where the bacteria adjust to their new environment. They may
need to switch on genes needed to make enzymes to digest the nutrients in the broth. Growth then
accelerates into the growth phase where the cells divide in equal time intervals. Towards the end
of the growth phase, growth slows down and cells start to die. The bacteria enter the stationary
phase when the rate of formation of new cells equals the rate of cell death. This is followed by the
death phase, when the number of cells that die overtakes the number of new cells.

What causes the stationary and death phases?

As they grow and reproduce, the bacteria may use up the food or oxygen in the broth or they may
produce poisonous waste products. Lack of nutrients or build-up of waste will slow down the rate
of reproduction and cause the death of more cells.

A limiting factor is something that slows down (limits) a process.

e.g. a nutrient that is in short supply

Bacterial cell is a living cell that performs the normal processes of life, such as respiration, feeding,
excretion, growth and reproduction.

Bacteriophage is a virus which can infect bacteria cells.

VIRUSES
Viruses are parasites and can only reproduce inside living cells. Some live in the cells of animals or
plants, and there are even viruses which infect bacteria. Viruses are much smaller than bacterial cells.

A parasite is an organism that lives in or on another organism, called its host, and causes it harm.

Viruses are not made of cells. A virus particle has no nucleus or cytoplasm and is composed of a core of a
genetic material surrounded by a protein coat. The genetic material can be either DNA or RNA. The
genetic material makes up just a few genes - all that is needed for the virus to reproduce inside its host
cell.
A virus has a membrane called an envelope around it but the virus does not make this. It is stolen from
the surface membrane of the host cell.

Viruses do not feed, respire, excrete, move, grow or respond to their surroundings. They do not display
any of the normal characteristics of living things except reproduction, and they can only do this
parasitically. This is why most biologists do not consider viruses to be living organisms.

A virus reproduces by entering the host cell and taking over the host’s genetic machinery to make more
virus particles. After many virus particles have been made, the host cell dies and the particles are
released to infect more cells. Many human diseases such as influenza (‘flu’), measles, mumps, polio and
rubella are caused in this way. The reproduction process does not continue forever, the body’s immune
system destroys the virus and the person recovers. Sometimes, a virus cannot be destroyed by the
immune system quickly enough and may cause permanent damage or death. The virus may attack cells
of the immune system itself, such as HIV (the human immunodeficiency virus) which causes the
condition called AIDS (acquired immune deficiency syndrome).

THE COURSE OF A DISEASE

The general course of a disease starts with infection by the pathogenic organism, followed by an
incubation period, until a person shows the symptoms of the disease.

Infection means the transfer of a pathogen to a person.

Methods of infection by various diseases

Method of infection
Droplet infection
How transmission happens Examples of diseases
Many of the microorganisms Common cold, influenza,
transmitted in this way cause tuberculosis, pneumonia
respiratory diseases (diseases
that affect the airways of the
lungs). The organisms are
carried in tiny droplets through
the air when an infected person
coughs or sneezes. They are

Drinking contaminated water
Eating contaminated food
Direct contact
Sexual intercourse
Blood-to-blood contact
Animal vectors
inhaled by other people.
The microorganisms Cholera, typhoid, polio
transmitted in this way often
infect regions of the gut. When
a person drinks unclean water
containing the organisms, they
colonise a suitable area of the
gut and reproduce. They are
passed out with faeces and find
their way back into the water.
Most food poisoning is bacterial Typhoid, polio, salmonellosis,
but some viruses are listeriosis, botulism
transmitted this way. The
organisms initially infect a
region of the gut.
Many skin infections, such as Athlete’s foot, ringworm, Ebola
athlete’s foot, are spread by
direct contact with an infected
person or contact with a surface
carrying the organism. Some
diseases (e.g. Ebola) are
transmitted by direct contact
with a bodily fluids (e.g. blood,
faeces and vomit).
Organisms infecting the sex Chlamydia, syphilis, AIDS,
organs can be passed from one gonorrhoea
sexual partner to another
during intercourse. Some (such
as the fungus thrush, which
causes candidiasis) are
transmitted by direct body
contact. Others (such as the
AIDS virus) are transmitted in
semen or vaginal secretions.
Some (such as syphilis) can be
transmitted in saliva.
Many sexually transmitted AIDS, hepatitis B
diseases can also be transmitted
in this way. Drug users sharing
an infected needle can transmit
AIDS.
Many diseases are transmitted Malaria, sleeping sickness,
by insect bites. Mosquitoes typhoid, salmonellosis
spread malaria and tsetse flies
spread sleeping sickness. In
both cases, the pathogen is
transmitted when the insect
 bites humans in order to feed
on blood. Flies can carry
microorganisms from faeces
onto blood.

After infection there is an incubation period. This is the time between when a person is first infected
with the pathogen and when they first show signs and symptoms of the disease. During the incubation
period, the infected person may not feel sick, but could be infectious to others. Incubation periods vary
greatly between diseases, from hours to months. Some diseases, such as leprosy, can have an
incubation period lasting years. The incubation period is followed by a time when the patient shows
symptoms, when they feel unwell and go to the doctor.

A sign is visible to other people. It can be seen, heard or measured. e.g. A doctor might listen to a
patient’s chest with a stethoscope to hear signs of a chest infection, or measure their blood pressure to
check for a heart problem.

A symptom is not usually visible to other people. It is what the patient is experiencing as a result of the
disease, such as pain, chills, dizziness or nausea. The symptoms are the first thing that a patient notices
that make them go to the doctor.

Some diseases are only found in certain parts of the world.

Endemic is a disease that is always present in the population of a particular geographical area.

Epidemic is a widespread outbreak of an infectious disease, with many people becoming infected at the
same time, spreading over a wide area.

Pandemic is the disease that spreads across the world.

HIV/AIDS
AIDS (acquired immune deficiency syndrome) is one of the world’s most significant killers. AIDS is not a
disease, but a “syndrome” which is a set of symptoms caused by a medical condition. AIDS is caused by a
virus called HIV, which stands for human immunodeficiency virus.

HIV infects a type of white blood cell, a lymphocyte called a T-helper cell. The role of these cells is to
help other lymphocytes to become active and start fighting infections.

A typical infection with HIV follows this course:

1. The genetic material of HIV is RNA. The virus makes DNA from the RNA, and this DNA becomes
incorporated into the DNA of the T-helper cell.
2. At some point in the infection, the HIV DNA is activated. It then instructs the lymphocyte to
make HIV proteins and more RNA.
3. The HIV proteins and RNA are assembled into new virus particles.
4. Some of the HIV proteins end up as antigens on the surface of the cell.
 5. These HIV proteins are recognized by the person’s immune system as being ‘foreign’ to the
body.
6. The lymphocyte is destroyed by the immune system.
7. The assembled virus particles escape to infect other lymphocytes.
8. The cycle repeats itself for as long as the body can replace the lymphocytes that have been
destroyed.
9. Eventually the body will not be able to replace the lymphocytes as quickly as they are being
destroyed.
10. The number of free viruses in the blood increases rapidly and HIV may infect other areas of the
body, including the brain.
11. The immune system is severely damaged, and other disease-causing microorganisms infect the
body.
12. Death is usually the result of ‘opportunistic’ infection by TB and pneumonia, because the
immune system can no longer destroy the organisms that cause these diseases. Death can also
be caused by rare forms of cancer, such as Kaposi’s sarcoma.

Part of this immune response to infection by HIV involves the production of antibodies to destroy the
virus. At this stage, the person is said to be HIV positive, because their blood gives a positive result when
tested for HIV antibodies.

The period during which the body replaces the lymphocytes as fast as they are destroyed is called the
latency period. It can last for up to 20 years. The person shows no symptoms of AIDS during this period,
but will be highly infectious to others.

The real significance of AIDS is that the cells being destroyed are the cells needed to help the other
lymphocytes destroy the infected cells.

The main ways that HIV is transmitted are:

 by unprotected sexual intercourse (i.e. without using a condom)

 by blood-to-blood contact, for example, when drug users share an infected needle, or if infected
blood is given to a patient during a transfusion.

The transmission of HIV can be controlled by a number of measures. These include

 use of condoms
 drug users using new, sterile needles, and not sharing needles
 limiting the number of sexual partners
 testing the blood used for transfusions

EBOLA
 a severe, often fatal disease, caused by a virus

The incubation period for Ebola is 2 to 21 days, and humans are not infectious until they develop the
symptoms. The first symptoms are fever, muscle pain, headache and a sore throat. These are followed
by vomiting, diarrhoea, a rash, and damaged liver and kidney function. In some patients, there is
internal and external bleeding (e.g. blood oozing from the gums and blood in the faeces). Laboratory
tests show low white blood cells and platelet counts.

The natural hosts of the virus are African fruit bats. Ebola was introduced to the human population
through contact with the blood or tissues of the bats of other infected animals, such as chimpanzees,
monkeys, antelope and porcupines. Ebola then spreads from person to person. This happens by diect
contact with the body fluids (e.g. blood, saliva, semen or faeces) of infected people. This contact may
occur through broken skin, or through mucus membranes such as the mouth and intestine. Ebola can
also be transmitted from infected materials such as bedding.

Treatment consists of caring for patients and treating the symptoms, which increases the chance of
survival. One method used is oral rehydration therapy; patients can also be given fluids intravenously
(the fluids are transferred directly into a vein).

The main prevention measures are:

 reducing the risk of transmission of the virus from animals

 reducing the risk of transmission from infected patients
 reducing the risk of transmission by sexual intercourse
 containing the outbreak