ANTIGEN –

defined as any substance that satisfies two distinct immunologic properties

1. Immunogenicity: Ability of an antigen to induce immune response in the body •

B-cells + antigen → effector B-cells (plasma cell) + memory B-cells

• T-cells + antigen → effector T-cells (helper or cytotoxic T-cell) + memory T-

cells

2. Antigenicity (immunological reactivity): Ability of an antigen to combine

specifically with the final products of the above two responses

 All molecules having immunogenicity property, also show antigenicity, but

the reverse is not true e.g haptens

EPITOPE ---

 antigenic determinant

 defined as a small area present on the antigen that is capable of sensitizing T-

and B-cells

 specific site of an antibody that reacts with the corresponding epitope of an

antigen is called as paratope.

Epitopes may be grouped into two types:

 Sequential or linear epitope: Present as a single linear sequence of few amino

acid

 Conformational or nonsequential epitopes are found on the flexible region of

complex antigens having tertiary structures.

 T-cells recognize sequential epitopes, while B-cells bind to the conformational.

HAPTENS –
 low molecular weight molecules

 Lack immunogenicity

 Retain antigenicity or immunological reactivity

 Haptens can become immunogenic when combined with a larger protein

molecule called ‘carrier’.

 Haptens may be classified as complex or simple

  Complex haptens contain two or more epitopes

 hapten-antibody complex can be visualized by various methods such as

precipitation

 Simple haptens usually contain only one epitope (univalent)

 he hapten antibody complex cannot be not visualized as it is believed that

precipitation to happen, it requires the antigen to have at least two or more
epitopes.

FACTORS INFLUENCING IMMUNOGENICITY –

1. Size of the antigen: Larger is the size (e.g. hemoglobin), more is the
immunogenicity.

2. Chemical nature: Proteins are stronger immunogens than carbohydrates

followed by lipid and nucleic acids.

3. Susceptibility of antigen to tissue enzymes—It increases immunogenicity by

exposing more epitopes of the Ag.

4. Structural complexity of the antigen increases immunogenicity.

5. Foreignness to the host: More is the foreignness of Ag, more is the

immunogenicity.

6. Genetic factor

7. Optimal dose of antigen can only induce immune response. A too little dose
fails to elicit immune response and a too large dose causes immunological
paralysis.

8. Route of antigen administration

9. Route of antigen administration

10. Multiple antigens: One antigen may diminish (due to antigenic competition)
or enhance (due to adjuvant like action) the immunogenicity of other antigen.

11. Heterophile nature of the antigens (explained below).

12. Adjuvant

ADJUVANT –
  adjuvant refers to any substance that enhances the immunogenicity of an
antigen.
 usually added to vaccines to increase the immunogenicity of the vaccine
antigen.
 Examples of adjuvant include:

 Alum (aluminum hydroxide or phosphate)

 Mineral oil (liquid paraffin)

 Freund’s incomplete adjuvant: It is a water-in-oil emulsion; with Ag in the

aqueous phase

 Freund’s complete adjuvant is the mixture of Freund’s incomplete adjuvant and

killed tubercle bacilli in the oil phase.

 LPS of Bordetella pertussis acts as an excellent adjuvant for diphtheria and

tetanus toxoids.

 Other bacteria or their products: ○ Mycobacterium bovis ○ Toxoid

 Nonbacterial products: Silica particles, beryllium sulfate, squalene, and

thimerosal.

HETEROPHILE ANTIGEN –
 Heterophile antigens share epitopes with each other.

 Antibody produced against antigen of one species can react with the other

 Weil–Felix reaction is done for diagnosis typhus fever. Antibodies against

rickettsial antigens are detected by using cross reacting Proteus antigens.

 Paul-Bunnell test is done for infectious mononucleosis (caused by EBV). Here,

sheep red blood cell (RBC) antigens are used to detect cross-reacting
antibodies in patient’s sera.

 Cold agglutination test and Streptococcus MG test are done for primary atypical
pneumonia. Here, antibodies against Mycoplasma pneumoniae are detected by
using human O blood group RBC and Streptococcus MG antigens respectively.

 Forssmann antigen is universal heterophile antigen, present in all animals,

plants and bacteria, but absent in rabbits.
BIOLOGICAL CLASSES OF ANTIGENS –
antigens are classified as T-cell dependent (TD) and T-cell independent (TI) antigens.

T DEPENDENT ANTIGENS

 Most normal antigens are T-cell dependent

 processed and presented by antigen presenting cells (APCs) to T-cells

 activated T-cells secrete cytokines that in turn stimulate the B-cells to produce
antibodies.

T INDEPENDENT ANTIGENS

 few antigens such as bacterial capsule, flagella and LPS that do not need the
help of T-cells and APCs.
 directly bind to Ig receptors present on B-cells and stimulate B-cells
polyclonally leading to hypergammaglobulinemia.

SUPRANTIGENS –

 they can activate T-cells directly without being processed by antigen

presenting cells (APCs).
 The variable β region of T-cell receptor (vβ of TCR) appears to be the receptor
for superantigens.

 directly bridge non-specifically between MHC-II of APCs and T-cells.

EXAMPLES –Bacterial superantigen:

 Staphylococcal toxin: TSST, Exfoliative toxin, Enterotoxins

 Streptococcal toxin: Streptococcal pyrogenic exotoxin (SPE)-A and C

 Mycoplasma arthritidis mitogen-I

 Yersinia enterocolitica

 Yersinia pseudotuberculosis

Viral: EBV, CMV, Rabies nucleocapsid, HIV encoded nef