BATCH MATATAG 2026

UNIVERSITY OF CEBU – COLLEGE OF MEDICAL TECHNOLOGY

ANATOMY AN D PHYSIOLOGY
WITH PATHOPHYSIOLOGY
DEXTER GIOVANNI A. ANDALES RMT, MD, MBA, FPCP, FPSGIM | AUGUST 26, 2022

1ST SEMESTER
[TRANS] UNIT 1: INTRODUCTION TO THE HUMAN BODY

OUTLINE
I. Overview of Anatomy and Physiology
II. Structural Organization of the Human Body
A. The Levels of Organization
B. Organismal Level Part
- Integumentary
- Skeletal
- Muscular
- Nervous Example: Brains, Bones, Digestive Organs, etc.
- Endocrine  Histology
- Cardiovascular - study of the minute structure of the body that can
- Lymphatic be observed only with the use of a microscope
- Respiratory /magnification devices.
- Digestive - also known as “microscopic anatomy”.
- Urinary Cytology, the study of cells and histology, the study
- Male Reproductive System
of tissues.
- Female Reproductive System
III. Functions of Human Life
A. Organization
B. Metabolism
C. Responsiveness
D. Movement
E. Development, Growth, & Reproduction
IV. Requirements for Human Life
A. Oxygen Example: Cells & Tissues
B. Nutrients
C. Narrow Range of Temperature HOW IS ANATOMY STUDIED?
D. Narrow Range of Atmospheric Terms Definition
Pressure
V. Homeostasis Regional/ study of the interrelationships of all of the
A. Negative Feedback Topographical structures in a specific body region.
B. Positive Feedback Anatomy
VI. Anatomical Terminology Example: how muscles, nerves, blood vessels &
other structures work together to serve a particular
A. Anatomical Position body region and dissection anatomy.
B. Regional Terms
Systematic study of the structures that make up a
C. Directional Terms Anatomy discrete body system, structures that work
D. Body Planes together to perform a unique body function.
E. Body Cavities and Serous Membranes
- Subdivisions of the Posterior (Dorsal) & Example: studying the digestive system from the
Anterior (Ventral) Cavities time food is ingested until it’s executed.
- Abdominal Regions and Quadrants
- Membranes of the Anterior (Ventral)
Body Cavity Division of Human Anatomy
VII. Medical Imaging  Developmental Anatomy
A. X – Rays - study of the various changes undergone by the
B. Modern Medical Imaging body in its different stages of development.
- Computed Tomography (CT) - from one-cell stage and throughout its natural life.
- Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)  Embryology
- Positron Emission Tomography (PET) - a part of developmental anatomy limited to the
- Ultrasonography study of all body changes occurring while
developing inside the uterus, intra-uterine life.
Overview Of Anatomy and Physiology:
Anatomy
- the scientific study of the body’s structure
- from the Greek word “temnein” which means “to cut
apart”.
- first studied by observing the exterior of the body and
observing the wounds of soldiers and other injuries.
Example: Embryo, Fetus
-
Areas of Specialization: Physiology
 Gross Anatomy - study of the processes and functions on how the
- study of the larger structures of the body. body and its parts work. It is the scientific study of
- referred to as macroscopic anatomy, in which the chemistry and physics of the body’s structure.
“macro” means large.
- can be seen with our naked eye/natural vision.
Carrie Anne Bulilan RMT || 1A – Medical Technology 1|Page
BATCH MATATAG 2026
UNIVERSITY OF CEBU – COLLEGE OF MEDICAL TECHNOLOGY

ANATOMY AN D PHYSIOLOGY
WITH PATHOPHYSIOLOGY
DEXTER GIOVANNI A. ANDALES RMT, MD, MBA, FPCP, FPSGIM | AUGUST 26, 2022

1ST SEMESTER
[TRANS] UNIT 1: INTRODUCTION TO THE HUMAN BODY
- includes observation, both with the naked eye and
with microscopes, as well as manipulations and
measurements.

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 UNIT 1: INTRODUCTION TO THE HUMAN BODY | YEAR 1

INTRODUCTION TO THE SYSTEMIC ANATOMY

LOCOMOTOR SYSTEM LYMPH VASCULAR SYSTEM
A. Skeletal System - includes lymph vessels and lymph glands
- provides framework and support, protects vital A. Lymphatic System – return fluid that has leaked
organs like the brain, serves as levers for muscular from the blood vessels to the main circulation
movement. - filtration of body fluids, like blood and lymph,
- houses the hematopoietic tissue and reservoir for immune defense of the body.
minerals like calcium. DERMATOLOGY
 Osteology – bones and associated cartilages - skin and its appendages – hairs, nails, and
and membranes cutaneous glands.
B. Articulatory System A. Integumentary System – forms the external
 Arthrology – joints or articulations and covering of the body (skin)
associated ligaments.  Protection – for mechanical protection;
C. Muscular System prevents dehydration
 Myology – all skeletal ms and assofasciae,  Sensory Perception – due to receptors present
synovial sheaths, tendons, and synovial  Thermoregulatory – through sweating
bursae.  Excretion – of salts through sweat
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM  Vitamin D Synthesis
- includes the main and accessory organs that
make up the alimentary tract. Layers of the Skin
 mechanical and chemical breakdown of food  Epidermis – keratinized, epithelium, avascular
 absorption of nutrients and delivery to blood for  Dermis – dense layer of interlacing collagen and
distribution to the different body parts elastic fibers
 elimination of the undigested waste products
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
 Supply of 02 and removal of CO2
 Regulation of blood pH or Acid-Base Balance
UROGENITAL SYSTEM
- includes all organs associated in the urinary and
genital functions of the body.
A. Urinary System – clean the blood of nitrogenous
waste products
- water; electrolyte balance, acid-base balance
of the blood
B. Reproductive System – propagation and survival
of the species.
- production of male and female germ cells
- allow transfer of sex cells for fertilization and
implantation.
- permits development and birth of the offspring
- provides nourishment of the offspring
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM Tension/Langer Lines – Cleavage Lines
- ductless glands, includes all glands of internal  Spiral longitudinally in the limbs
secretion  Run transversely in the neck and trunk
 Creases that appear when the limbs are flexed
 serves as the body’s slow-acting control system
 The elastic fibers of the dermis deteriorate with age
 produce chemical substances (hormones) that
and are not replaced; subsequently, in older people,
influence numerous body functions.
the skin wrinkles and sags as it loses its elasticity
NERVOUS SYSTEM
- serves as the body’s fast acting control system
 receives impulses from the external
environment PART ANATOMICAL POSITION
 transmit these impulses to the central nervous Body Erect in the standing
system position
 assessment of these impulses (integration & Upper Extremities At the sides of the body
analysis) Palm of the Hand Facing towards or
 responses necessary for life and function anteriorly
A. Central Nervous System – brain and spinal cord Thumb Directed away from the
B. Peripheral Nervous System – cranial and spinal
median plane
nerves
C. Autonomic Nervous System – sympathetic and Forearms and Hands Supine position
parasympathetic systems Feet Together
D. Special Senses – sight, hearing, smell and taste Face Forward
BLOOD VASCULAR SYSTEM Mouth Closed
- heart and blood vessels-arteries, veins and Facial Expression Neutral
capillaries.
A. Cardiovascular System - transport of gases,
nutrients, hormones, & other substances to different
parts of the body.
- immune defense of the body due to the white
blood cells in the blood

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 UNIT 1: INTRODUCTION TO THE HUMAN BODY | YEAR 1

 Homeostasis - the state of steady internal conditions Terms Definitions

maintained by living things. Atoms Made up of subatomic particles (proton,
- does not require an unchanging state, but that the electron, and neuron)
changes in the internal organs is constantly Cell Smallest independently functioning unit
of a living organism. All functions of
changing.
human physiology are performed and
initiated by in cells
Structural Organization of the Human Body Organelles A water-based cellular fluid with tiny
 the body organization is composed of six distinct levels functioning units.
of increasing complexity based on it’s functionality. Tissue Group of similar cells
Chemical Level Four Basic Types of Tissues:
(Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen atoms-essential 1. Epithelial – covers body
atoms in maintaining life) surfaces, lines, hollow
- they bond to form molecules with three dimensional organs.
2. Connective Tissue –
structures.
connects, supports, and
- simplest level of organization, involves interactions protects body organs.
among atoms & their combination to form molecule 3. Muscular Tissue – contracts
Example: H2O – Water Molecule to make body movement and
generates heat.
4. Nervous Tissue – carriers of
information. transfers
information from one part of
the body to another through
Cellular Level
nerve impulses.
- variety of combined molecules to form the fluid and Organ Anatomically distinct structure of the
organelles of a body cell. body composed of two or more tissue
Example: smooth muscle cells – organelles such as types.
mitochandria, golgi bodies; cell fluids Organ System Group of organs that work together

Organism Living being that has a cellular

Tissue Level
- group or community of similar cells form a body tissue,
that performs a common function.
Example: smooth muscle tissue, cardiac muscle tissue,
skeletal muscle tissues
Organ Level
- Composed of two or more different tissues combined
to form an organ, that performs specific functions in the
body.
Example: Bladder – smooth muscle, skeletal muscle
Organ System Level
- Composed of two or more organs that work together to
perform the bodily functions, at this level, complex
functions become possible.
Example: Urinary Tract System – kidneys, ureter,
bladder, urethra
Organismal Level
- Many organ system that work harmoniously together to
perform the functions of an independent organism.
- at this level, complex functions become possible.
structure and that can independently
perform all physiologic functions
necessary for life.
FUNCTIONS OF HUMAN LIFE
Organization
- trillions of cells organized inside of a human body in a way
that maintains distinct internal compartments.
 Cell Membrane – also referred as ‘plasma
membrane’, keeps the intracellular environment—the
fluids and organelles—separate from the extracellular
environment.
 Intestinal Tract – home to even more bacteria cells
than the total of all human cells in the body, yet not
allowed to circulate inside the body.
 Blood Vessels - keep blood inside a closed
circulatory system, and nerves and muscles are
wrapped in connective tissue sheaths that separate
them from surrounding structures.
Metabolism
- basic function as an organism is to consume (ingest)
energy and molecules in the foods you eat, convert some of
it into fuel
for movement, sustain your body functions, and build and
maintain your body structures.
 Anabolism – process whereby smaller, simpler
molecules are combined into larger, more complex
substances.
 Catabolism - process by which larger more
complex substances are broken down into smaller
simpler molecules.
- it releases energy
 Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) – to store and release energy.

Levels of Organization
 simplest building blocks of matter: subatomic particles,
atoms and molecules.

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Responsiveness
– the ability organism to adjust to changes in its internal and
external environments.
- example of responsiveness to external stimuli could
include moving toward sources of food and water and away
from perceived dangers.
Movement
- Human movement includes not only actions at the joints of
the body, but also the motion of individual organs and even
individual cells.
Development
- all of the changes that the body goes through in life,
includes the processes of growth and repair, both of which
involve cell differentiation.
 Differentiation - unspecialized cells become
specialized in structure and function to perform certain
tasks in the body
Growth
- the increase in body size. Humans, like all multicellular
organisms, grow by increasing the number of existing cells,
increasing the amount of non-cellular material around cells
(such as mineral deposits in bone), and, within very narrow
limits, increasing the size of existing cells
Reproduction
- formation of a new organism from parent organisms. In
humans, reproduction is carried out by the male and female
reproductive systems.
REQUIREMENTS FOR HUMAN LIFE
Oxygen a key component of the chemical reactions that
keep the body alive, including the reactions
that produce ATP.
Brain cells are especially sensitive to lack of
oxygen because of their requirement for a
high-and-steady production of ATP.
Nutrient substance in foods and beverages that is
essential to human survival.
The three basic classes:
 Water - largest component of cells,
blood, and the fluid between cells,
and water makes up about 70
percent of an adult’s body mass
 Energy-yielding - primarily
carbohydrates and lipids, while
proteins mainly supply the amino
acids that are the building blocks of
the body itself.
 Micronutrients - are vitamins and
minerals. These elements and
compounds participate in many
essential chemical reactions and
processes, such as nerve impulses,
and some, such as calcium, also
contribute to the body’s structure.
Narrow When body temperature rises well above or
Range of drops well below normal, certain proteins
Temperature (enzymes) that facilitate chemical reactions
lose their normal structure and their ability to
function and the chemical reactions of
metabolism cannot proceed.
 Sweating – one the body’s response
to heat.
 Shivering – response to cold, which
is random muscle movement that
generates heat.
Narrow is pressure exerted by the mixture of gases
Range of (primarily nitrogen and oxygen) in the Earth’s
Atmospheric atmosphere. Although you may not perceive it,
Pressure atmospheric pressure is constantly pressing
down on your body.
 Pressure - force exerted by a
substance that is in contact
with another substance.
Carrie Anne Bulilan RMT || 1A – Medical Technology
UNIT 1: INTRODUCTION TO THE HUMAN BODY | YEAR 1
HOMEOSTASIS
- maintaining homeostasis requires that the body
continuously monitor its internal conditions. From body
temperature to blood pressure to levels of certain nutrients,
each physiological condition has a particular set point.
 Set Point - physiological value around which the
normal range fluctuates.
 Normal Range - restricted set of values that is
optimally healthful and stable.
 Control Centers – monitor and react to deviations
from homeostasis using negative feedback.
Negative Feedback
- a mechanism that reverses a deviation from the set-point,
negative feedback maintains body parameters within their
normal range.
- the effect of the response to the stimulus is to shut off the
original stimulus or reduce its intensity.
- represents most of the homeostatic control of the
mechanisms of the body.
- examples are body temperature, blood pressure, heart and
respiratory rate.
 Sensor - also referred to a receptor, is a
component of a feedback system that monitors a
physiological value.
 Control Center - e component in a feedback
system that compares the value to the normal
range. If the value deviates too much from the set
point, then the control center activates an effector.
 Effector - the component in a feedback system that
causes a change to reverse the situation and return
the value to the normal range.
 Heat-Loss Center - cluster of brain cells that
stimulates a When the brain’s temperature
regulation center receives data from the sensors
indicating that the body’s temperature exceeds its
normal range.
 Blood vessels in the skin begin to dilate allowing
more blood from the body core to flow to the
surface of the skin allowing the heat to radiate into
the environment.
 As blood flow to the skin increases, sweat glands
are activated to increase their output. As the sweat
evaporates from the skin surface into the
surrounding air, it takes heat with it.
 The depth of respiration increases, and a person
may breathe through an open mouth instead of
through the nasal passageways. These further
increases heat loss from the lungs.
Positive Feedback
- intensifies a change in the body’s physiological condition
rather than reversing it. Response to the stimulus to make
the deviation even greater.
- less common control mechanisms in the body.
- examples are childbirth, blood clotting and reversing
extreme damage to the body.
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Normal childbirth is driven by a positive feedback loop. Positive feedback
loop results in a change in the body’s status, rather than a return to homeostasis.
ANATOMICAL TERMINOLOGY
- the purpose is this is language/terms is not to confuse, but
rather to increase precision and reduce medical errors.
Anatomical Position
- the standard body “map”, normally oriented with north at
the top to further increase precision.
The human body is shown in anatomical position in an (a) anterior view
and a (b) posterior view. The regions of the body are labeled in boldface .
 Prone – a body lying down in a face-down
orientation
 Supine – a body lying down in a face-up
orientation\
Regional Terms
- The human body’s numerous regions have specific terms
to help increase precision.
Directional Terms
- are essential for describing the relative locations of
different body structures. For instance, an anatomist might
describe one band of tissue as “inferior to” another or a
physician might describe a tumor as “superficial to” a deeper
body structure.
 Anterior (Ventral) – describes the front or direction
toward the body.
The toes are anterior to the foot
 Posterior (Dorsal) - Describes the back or direction
toward the back of the body.
The popliteus is posterior to the patella
 Superior (Cranial) - describes a position above or
higher than another part of the body proper.
The orbits are superior to the oris
 Inferior (Caudal) - describes a position below or lower
than another part of the body proper; near or toward
the tail (in humans, the coccyx, or lowest part of the
spinal column).
The pelvis is inferior to the abdomen.
 Lateral - describes the side or direction toward the
side of the body.
Carrie Anne Bulilan RMT || 1A – Medical Technology
UNIT 1: INTRODUCTION TO THE HUMAN BODY | YEAR 1
The thumb (pollex) is lateral to the digits.
 Medial - describes the middle or direction toward the
middle of the body.
The hallux is the medial toe.
 Proximal - describes a position in a limb that is nearer
to the point of attachment or the trunk of the body.
The brachium is proximal to the antebrachium.
 Distal - describes a position in a limb that is farther
from the point of attachment or the trunk of the body.
The crus is distal to the femur.
 Superficial - describes a position closer to the surface
of the body.
The skin is superficial to the bones.
 Deep - describes a position farther from the surface of
the body.
The brain is deep to the skull.
Body Planes
- A section is a two-dimensional surface of a three-
dimensional structure that has been cut. Modern medical
imaging devices enable clinicians to obtain “virtual sections”
of living bodies.
- A plane is an imaginary two-dimensional surface that
passes through the body. There are three planes commonly
referred to in anatomy and medicine.
 Sagittal Plane - plane that divides the body or an
organ vertically into right and left unequal parts.
 Midsagittal or Median Plane – imaginary vertical
plane dividing into equal right and left halves.
 Parasagittal or Longitudinal Section - If it divides
the body into unequal right and left sides
 Frontal Plane - plane that divides the body or an
organ into an anterior (front) portion and a posterior
(rear) portion.
- referred to as “Coronal Plane” (corona – Latin
for crown)
 Transverse Plane - plane that divides the body or
organ horizontally into superior (upper) and (inferior)
lower portions.
- produce images referred to as “cross sections”.
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 UNIT 1: INTRODUCTION TO THE HUMAN BODY | YEAR 1

The simpler quadrants approach, which is more commonly used in medicine, subdivides the cavity with one
horizontal and one vertical line that intersect at the patient’s umbilicus (navel).

Membranes of the Anterior (Ventral) Body Cavity

Serous Membrane – also referred to as ‘serosa’, one of the
thin membranes that cover the walls and organs in the
The three planes most commonly used in anatomical and medical imaging are the sagittal,
frontal (or coronal), and transverse plane.
thoracic
and abdominopelvic cavities.
 Parietal Layers of the Membrane - line the walls
Body Cavities and Serous Membranes of the body cavity (pariet- refers to a cavity wall).
- The body maintains its internal organization by means of  Visceral Layer of the Membrane - covers the
membranes, sheaths, and other structures that separate organs (the viscera).
compartments.
 Dorsal (Posterior) & Ventral (Anterior) Cavity
- largest body compartments. These cavities
contain and protect delicate internal organs.
- examples are lungs, heart, stomach and
intestines.

Serous membrane lines the pericardial cavity and reflects back to cover the heart—much the same way that
an underinflated balloon would form two layers surrounding a fist.

Three Serous Membranes and their Membranes

 Pleura - the serous membrane that surrounds the
lungs in the pleural cavity.
- pleural cavity reduces friction between the lungs
and the body wall.
 Pericardium - the serous membrane that surrounds
the heart in the pericardial cavity.
- pericardial cavity reduces friction between the
The ventral cavity includes the thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities and their subdivisions. heart and the wall of the pericardium.
The dorsal cavity includes the cranial and spinal cavities.
 Peritoneum - the serous membrane that surrounds
Subdivisions of the Posterior (Dorsal) & Anterior several organs in the abdominopelvic cavity.
(Ventral) Cavities - peritoneal cavity reduces friction between the
Posterior (Dorsal) Cavity abdominal and pelvic organs and the body wall.
 Cranial Cavity - houses the brain, protected by the
bones of the skull. Terms of Movement
 Spinal Cavity (Vertebral Cavity) - encloses the spinal Flexion bending or decreasing the angle
between the bones or parts of the
cord, protected by the vertebral column and by
body
cerebrospinal fluid (colorless fluid produced by the Extension indicates straightening or
brain). increasing the angle between the
Anterior (Ventral) Cavity bones or parts of the
 Thoracic Cavity – the more superior subdivision of body
the anterior cavity, which is enclosed by a rib cage. Dorsiflexion flexion at the ankle joint, walking
 Abdominopelvic Cavity - the largest cavity in the uphill or lifting the front of the foot
body, although no membrane physically divides the and toes off the ground
abdominopelvic cavity. Plantarflexion bends the foot and toes toward the
ground, as when standing on your
toes
Four Major Divisions of the Body
Hyperextension Extension of a limb or part beyond
1. Head (cranium, face) the normal limit
2. Neck - “whiplash”
3. Trunk (thorax, abdomen, pelvis) Abduction moving away from the median
4. Extremities (upper extremity, lower extremity) plane
• Digits: spreading them apart
Abdominal Regions and Quadrants Adduction moving toward the median plane
- to promote clear communication, for instance about the • Digits: bringing the spread fingers
location of a patient’s abdominal pain or a suspicious mass, or toes together
Circumduction a circular movement that involves
health care providers typically divide up the cavity into either
sequential flexion, abduction,
nine regions or four quadrants. extension, and adduction in such a
way that the distal end of the part

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 UNIT 1: INTRODUCTION TO THE HUMAN BODY | YEAR 1

moves in a circle increasingly being used to study the activity in parts

Rotation turning or revolving a part of the
body around its longitudinal axis
Medial Rotation (Internal brings the anterior surface of a limb
Rotation) closer to the median plane
Lateral Rotation takes the anterior surface away
(External Rotation) from the median plane.
Pronation rotates the radius medially
• the palm of the hand faces
posteriorly and its dorsum
faces anteriorly
Supination Rotating the radius laterally and
uncrossing it from the ulna
• Returning the pronated forearm to
the anatomical position
Eversion moves the sole of the foot away
from the median plane, turning the
sole laterally
Inversion moves the sole of the foot toward
the median plane (facing the sole
medially).
Opposition the pad of the 1st digit (thumb) is
brought to another digit pad
Reposition the 1st digit from the position of
opposition back to its anatomical
position
Protrusion / Protraction is a movement anteriorly (forward)
Retrusion / Retraction is a movement posteriorly
(backward)
Elevation raises or moves a part superiorly
Depression lowers or moves a part inferiorly
of the brain during various body activities.
Positron Emission Tomography (PET)
- introduced in 1961, a medical imaging technique involving
the use of so-called radiopharmaceuticals, substances that
emit radiation that is short-lived and therefore relatively safe
to administer to the body.
- can illustrate physiologic activity—including nutrient
metabolism and blood flow—of the organ or organs being
targeted.
Ultrasonography
- imaging technique that uses the transmission of high-
frequency sound waves into the body to generate an echo
signal that is converted by a computer into a real-time image
of anatomy and physiology.
- was first developed in the 1940’s and 1950’s
 the least invasive of all techniques, therefore used
in sensitive situations such as pregnancy.
 also used to study heart function, blood flow in the
neck or extremities, certain conditions such as
gallbladder disease, and fetal growth and
development.

MODERN MEDICAL IMAGING

Leonardo da Vinci & Andreas Vesalius
- the Italian and Flemish anatomist, published the detailed
anatomical drawings during 14th and 15th century.
X- Rays
- a form of high energy electromagnetic radiation with a a.) The results of a CT scan of the head are shown as successive transverse
sections.
short wavelength capable of penetrating solids and ionizing b.) An MRI machine generates a magnetic field around a patient.
gases.
- x-rays can depict a two-dimensional image of a body
region, and only from a single angle.
 Wilhelm Röntgen (1845–1923) – a german
physicist discovered/invented x-ray.

c.) PET scans use radiopharmaceuticals to create images of active blood flow and
physiologic activity of the organ or organs being targeted.
d.) Ultrasound technology is used to monitor pregnancies because it is the least
invasive of imaging techniques and uses no electromagnetic radiation.

ADDITIONAL INFORMATION:

High energy electromagnetic radiation allows the internal structures of the body,
such as bones, to be seen in X-rays like these.
Computed Tomography (CT)
- a noninvasive imaging technique that uses computers to
analyze several cross-sectional X-rays in order to reveal
minute details about structures in the body.
- invented in the 1970s and is based on the principle that, as
X-rays pass through the body, they are absorbed or reflected
at different levels.
Magnetic Resonance (MRI)
- a noninvasive medical imaging technique based on a
phenomenon of nuclear physics discovered in the 1930s, in
which matter exposed to magnetic fields and radio waves
was found to emit radio signals.
 Raymond Damadian – a physician and researcher,
noticed that malignant (cancerous) tissue gave off
different signals than normal body tissue in 1970.
 Functional MRI (fMRI) - detect the concentration of
blood flow in certain parts of the body, are

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