ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY

LECTURE \ 1ST SEMESTER Year 01

CHAPTER 1: THE HUMAN ORGANISM

Anatomy
 Scientific discipline that investigates
Topic Outline:
the structure of the body
1.1. Anatomy and Physiology
 Anatomy: to dissect, cut apart, and
1.2. Structural and Functional
separate the parts of the body for
Organization of the Human Body
study
 Chemical Level
 Anatomy examines the relationship
 Cell Level
between the structure of a body
 Tissue Level
part and its function
 Organ Level
 Organ System Level
Approaches to the Study of Anatomy
 Organism Level
1. Systemic Anatomy
1.3. Characteristics of Life
- Study of the body by systems
1.4. Homeostasis
- E.g., cardiovascular, nervous,
 Negative Feedback
skeletal, and muscular systems
 Positive Feedback 2. Regional Anatomy
1.5. Terminology and the Body Plan - Study of the organization of the
 Body Positions body by areas
 Directional Terms - E.g., head, abdomen, arm
 Body Parts & Regions
 Planes General Ways of Examining Internal
 Body Cavities Structures
1. Surface Anatomy
- Study of external features,
1.1 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
serving as landmarks for locating
Importance of Learning Human Anatomy
deeper structures
and Physiology
- E.g., the sternum (breastbone) is
1. For understanding disease
used by health professionals as a
2. For students who plan a career in
landmark for listening to heart
the health sciences because health
sounds
professionals need a sound
2. Anatomical Imaging
knowledge of structure and function
- Involves the use of x-rays,
in order to perform their duties
ultrasound, magnetic resonance
3. Prepares all of us to evaluate
imaging (MRI), and other
recommended treatments, critically
technologies to create pictures
review advertisements and reports
of internal structures
in popular literature, and rationally
discuss the human body with health
professionals and nonprofessionals
Physiology

1
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 Scientific discipline that deals with
the processes or functions of living
things
 Major goals:
(1) Examining the body’s responses
to stimuli
(2) Examining the body’s
maintenance of stable internal
conditions (homeostasis)
 Human physiology: study of humans
 Cellular physiology: focuses on
processes inside cells
 Systemic physiology: functions of
organ systems
1.2 STRUCTURAL AND FUNCTIONAL
ORGANIZATION OF THE HUMAN BODY
1.2.1 CHEMICAL LEVEL
 The structural and functional
characteristics of all organisms are
determined by the chemical makeup
 This level of organization involves
how atoms interact and combine
into molecules
 A molecule’s structure determines
its function
 E.g., collagen molecules are strong
rope-like fibers that give skin
structural strength and flexibility.
With aging, the structure of collagen
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changes and the skin becomes
fragile, more easily torn during
everyday activities
1.2.2 CELL LEVEL
 Cells: the basic structural and
functional units of organisms
 Organelles: smaller structures inside
most cells that carry out particular
functions for the cell
 E.g., the nucleus contains the cell’s
hereditary information and
mitochondria manufacture
adenosine triphosphate (ATP), a
molecule cells use for a source of
energy
1.2.3 TISSUE LEVEL
 Tissue: a group of similar cells and
the materials surrounding them
 Characteristics of the cells and
surrounding materials determine the
functions of the tissue
 Types:
(1) Epithelial
(2) Connective
(3) Muscle
(4) Nervous
1.2.4 ORGAN LEVEL
 Composed of two or more tissue
types that together perform one or
more common functions
 E.g., heart, stomach, liver, and
urinary bladder
 1.2.5 ORGAN SYSTEM LEVEL
 Organ System: a group of organs
that together perform a common
function or set of functions
 E.g., the urinary system consists of
the kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder,
and urethra. The kidneys produce
urine, which is transported by the
ureters to the urinary bladder, where
it is stored until being eliminated
from the body through the urethra
 Types:
(1) Integumentary
(2) Skeletal
(3) Muscular
(4) Nervous
(5) Endocrine
(6) Cardiovascular
(7) Lymphatic
(8) Respiratory
(9) Digestive
(10) Urinary
(11) Reproductive

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 1.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE
1. Organization
- Specific interrelationships among
the individual parts of an
organism and how those parts
interact to perform a specific
function
- Living things are highly
organized; cellular function
depends on the precise
organization of large molecules
- Disruption of this organized state
can result in loss of functions
2. Metabolism
- Ability to use energy to perform
other vital functions
- Human cells possess specialized
proteins that can breakdown
food molecules to use as a
source of energy
- E.g., growth, movement, and
reproduction
3. Responsiveness
- An organism’s ability to sense
changes in the external or
internal environment and adjust
to those changes
- E.g., moving toward food or
water, moving away from danger
or poor environmental
conditions like extreme cold or
heat
- Organisms can also make
adjustments that maintain their
internal
4. Growth
- Refers to an increase in the size
1.2.6 ORGANISM LEVEL or number of cells, which
 Any living thing considered as a produces an overall enlargement
whole in all or part of an organism, cell
 The human organism is a network of size, or the amount of substance
organ systems that are mutually surrounding cells
dependent upon one another

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 - E.g., bones grow when the
number of bone cells increases
and the bone cells become
surrounded by mineralized
materials
5. Development
- Includes the changes an
organism undergoes through
time, beginning with fertilization
and ending at death
- Development usually involves
growth, but it also involves
differentiation
- Differentiation: involves changes
in a cell’s structure and function
from an immature, generalized
state to a mature, specialized
state
- E.g., following fertilization,
immature cells differentiate to
become specific types of cells,
such as skin, bone, muscle or
nerve cells
6. Reproduction
- Formation of new cells or new
organisms
- Reproduction of cells allows for
growth and development
- Formation of new organisms
prevents extinction of species
 For cells to function normally, the
volume, temperature, and chemical
content of the cells’ environment
must be maintained within a narrow
range.
 Homeostatic mechanisms: in
maintaining the normal body
temperature, the body sweats or
shivers to maintain the body
temperature near an ideal normal
value or set point
 Most homeostatic mechanisms are
regulated by the nervous system or
the endocrine system
 Homeostatic mechanisms do not
maintain the body temperature
precisely at a set point, but it
increases and decreases slightly
around the set point, producing a
normal range of values
 Average body temperature: 98.6F

1.4 HOMEOSTASIS
 Fluctuations in the external and
internal environment of an
individual are constant
 Homeostasis: the maintenance of a
relatively constant environment
within the body
 Homeostasis can be achieved by
actively regulating body conditions
that are constantly changing
 Variables: changes in body
conditions wherein their values are
not constant

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 1.4.1 NEGATIVE FEEDBACK
 Most systems of the body are
regulated by negative-feedback
mechanisms
 Negative: to decrease
 Negative feedback is when any
deprivation from the set point is
made smaller or is resisted
 Negative feedback does not prevent
variation but maintains variation
within normal range
 E.g., maintenance of normal body
temperature
 Components of most negative-
feedback mechanisms:
(1) Receptor: monitors the value of
a variable by detecting stimuli
(2) Control center: determines the
set point for the variable and
receives input from the receptor
about the variable
(3) Effector: adjust the value of the
variable when directed by the
control center, usually back 1.4.2 POSITIVE FEEDBACK
toward the setpoint  Occur when a response to the
original stimulus results I the
1. Receptors in the skin monitor body deviation from the set point
temperature. If body temperature becoming even greater
rises, the receptors send a message  Positive: to increase
to the control center.  E.g., during blood loss, a chemical
2. The control center compares the responsible for blood clot formation,
value of the variable against the set called thrombin, stimulates
point production of even more thrombin.
3. If a response is necessary, the
control center will stimulate the 1. Near the end of pregnancy, the
effectors, the sweat glands, to baby’s large size stretches the uterus
produce their response, which is 2. This stretching, especially around
secretion of sweat the opening of the uterus, stimulates
4. Once the value of the variable has contractions of the uterine muscles
returned to the set point, the 3. The uterine contractions push the
effectors do not receive any more baby against the opening of the
information from the control center. uterus, which results in additional
For body temperature, this means stretching
that secretion of sweat stops.

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4. This positive-feedback sequence
ends when the baby is delivered
from the uterus and the stretching
stimulus is eliminated

 Two basic principles about

homeostatic mechanisms:
(1) Many disease states result from
the failure of negative-feedback
mechanisms to maintain
homeostasis
(2) Some positive-feedback
mechanisms can be detrimental
instead of helpful

1.5 TERMINOLOGY & THE BODY PLAN

 Foramen: hole
 Magnum: large
 -itis: inflammation
 Prone: lying face downward
 Supine: lying face upward

1.5.1 BODY POSITIONS

 Anatomical Position: refers to a
person standing upright with the
face directed forward, upper limbs
hanging to the sides, and the palms 1.5.2 DIRECTIONAL TERMS
of the hands facing forward

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Term Etymology Definition Example Right Right ear
Left Left ear
Inferior Lower Below Nose is inferior
to the
forehead
Superio Higher Above Mouth is
superior to the
chin
Anterio To go To the front Teeth are
before of the body anterior to the
throat
Posteri Posterus, To the back Brain is
or following of the body posterior to
the eyes
Dorsal Dorsum, Toward the Spine is dorsal
back back to the
breastbone
Ventral Venter, Toward the Navel is ventral
belly belly to the spine
Proxim Proximus, Closer to a Shoulder is
al nearest point of proximal to
attachment the elbow
Distal Di+sto, to Farther Ankle is distal
be distant from a to the hip
point of
attachment
Lateral Latus, side Away from Nipple is
the midline lateral to the
of the body breastbone
Medial Medialis, Toward the Bridge of the
middle midline of nose is medial
the body to the eye
Superfi Superficial Toward or Skin is
cial is, surface on the superficial to
surface muscle
Deep Deop, Away from Lungs are deep
deep the surface, to the ribs
internal

1.5.3 BODY PARTS AND REGIONS

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 1.5.4 PLANES
 A plane divides or sections the body
making it possible to look inside and
observe the body’s structures

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 1.5.5 BODY CAVITIES

 There are two types of internal

cavities:
(1) Dorsal cavity
o Encloses the organs of the
nervous system: brain and
spinal cord
o Cranial cavity: houses the
brain
o Vertebral canal: houses the
1. Sagittal Plane: separates the body spinal cord
into right and left halves o Both the brain and spinal
2. Median Plane: a sagittal plane that cord are covered in meninges
passes through the midline of the
(2) Ventral cavity
body, dividing it into two equal right o Houses the vast majority of
and left halves
the internal organs,
3. Transverse (horizontal) Plane: runs
collectively referred to as the
parallel to the ground, dividing into
viscera
superior and inferior portions
o Divided into the thoracic
4. Frontal (coronal) Plane: divides the
cavity and abdominopelvic
body into front and back halves
cavity
5. Longitudinal Section: cut along the
length of an organ
1. Thoracic Cavity
6. Transverse Section (Cross Section):
2. Abdominopelvic Cavity
cuts completely through an organ
7. Oblique Section: cut is made
diagonally across the long axis

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