II.

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF FARM ANIMALS

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY Course Learning Outcome:

AN SC 1: INTRO TO ANIMAL SC IE NC E
ANDRIAN G. SO LA
ANIMAL SC IE NC E DIVISIO N
DE PARTME NT O F AGRIC ULTURAL SC IE NC E S
BU – C O LLE GE O F AGRIC ULTURE AND FO RE STRY
1. Identify anatomical parts of the animals as well as discuss its
physiology
2. Explain the principles governing the study of animal science
Specific Learning Outcomes:
 Familiarize anatomical parts and physiological terminologies
concerning farm animals
 Identify the parts and know the functions of major organ systems
involved in the different physiological processes in animal’s body
 Discuss the physiology on the external anatomy of farm animals

II. ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF FARM ANIMALS II. ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF FARM ANIMALS

Learning Content: Learning Content:

2. Anatomy and Physiology of Farm Animals: External anatomy 3. Internal Anatomy of Farm Animals: Skeletal and Musculatory
 2.1. Directional terms Systems
 2.2. Main body divisions  3.4. Joint and articulations
 2.3. Integumentary systems  3.5. Fracture of the bones
3. Internal Anatomy of Farm Animals: Skeletal and Musculatory Systems  3.6. Musculatory System
 3.1. General composition of bones
 3.7. Types of muscle tissues
 3.2. Main skeletal divisions
 3.8. Functional grouping of muscles
 3.3. Main classification of bones
 3.9. Microscopic anatomy of muscles

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II. ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF FARM ANIMALS II. ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF FARM ANIMALS

Anatomy - refer to science which deals with the form and structure of
all organisms; means to cut apart
Physiology – is the study of the integrated functions of the body, and
the functions of all its parts (system, organs, tissues, cells and
cell components), including the biophysical and niochemical
processes involved
Anatomy
Gross Anatomy – is based primarily on dissection of animals
(basic observation – shape, texture, location and relations of those
structures); can be ocular or microscopic
Comparative Anatomy – is a study of the structures of various
species of animals with particular emphasis on those characteristics
that aid in classification
Embryology – study of developmental anatomy, covering the
period from conception (fertilization of the egg within the female and
birth)

System Name of Study Chief Structures

II. ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF FARM ANIMALS II. ANATOMY AND
Skeletal
PHYSIOLOGY Bones
Osteology
OF FARM ANIMALS
Articular Arthrology Joints
Anatomy Muscular Myology Muscles
Microscopic Anatomy / Histology – consists of the study of those Digestive Splanchnology Stomach and intestines
tissues and cells that can be seen only with the aid of a microscope
Respiratory Splanchnology Lungs and air passages
Ultrastructural cytology – another study of anatomy which deals
Urinary Splanchnology Kidneys and bladder
with portions of cells and tissues as they are visulaized with the aid of
the electron microscope (―fine structue’) Reproductive Splanchnology Ovaries and testes
Systematic Anatomy – focused on the different organ systems Endocrine Endocrinology Ductless glands
make up an organism Nervous Neurology Brain, spinal cord and nerves
Circulatory Angiology Heart, vessels
Integumentary Dermatology Skin
Sensory Esthesiology Eye, ear

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 II. ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF FARM ANIMALS
Descriptive Terms Useful in the Study of Anatomy
cranial/ superior – toward the head
ventral/ anterior – away from the backbone or toward mid-
abdominal wall
dorsal/ posterior – toward or beyond the backbone
caudal/ inferior - toward the tail
median plane – plane passing through the body craniocaudally
(head to tail); divides the body into equal right and left halves
transverse plane – right angles to the median plane and divides
the body into cranial and caudal segments
II. ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF FARM ANIMALS
Descriptive Terms Useful in the Study of Anatomy
Proximal – close to a given part, usually the vertebral column,
body, or center of gravity
Distal – farther from the vertebral column
Palmar –volar; flexion or caudal surface of the forelimb distal to
(below) the elbow
Plantar – caudal surface of the hindlimb below the hock
Prone – position in which the dorsal aspect or dorsum of the
body or any extremity is uppermost
Supine – position in which the ventral aspect of the body or volar
or plantar aspect of an extremity is uppermost
II. ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF FARM ANIMALS
Descriptive Terms Useful in the Study of Anatomy
frontal plane – right angles to both the median plane and
transverse planes; divides the body into dorsal (upper) and ventral
(lower) segments
Medial – adjective; close to or toward the median plane
Lateral – antonym of medial; away from the median plane
Deep and Internal – closeness to the center of gravity or the
center of an extremity
Superficial and external –proximity to the skin or surface of the
body or surface of an extremity
Chapter One
THE ANIMAL SKIN
The skin is the outer layer of the protective covering that forms the animal
body into shape. Aside from holding the animal body into proper form and
shape, it has several other important functions which includes:
1. Its assists in the regulation of the body temperature and modifies the
external environmental heat as it strikes the body with the help of such
extructures like the feather, wool, and hair which partly or wholly cover
the animal body. The blood vessels found in the skin help modify the
body temperature by contracting when cooled to increase resistance to
generate heat and expanding to reduce reduce resistance when the
temperature is warm.
2. To a certain extent the pores of some animals act as a respiratory organ.
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 Chapter One
THE ANIMAL SKIN
The skin is the outer layer of the protective covering that forms the animal
body into shape. Aside from holding the animal body into proper form and
shape, it has several other important functions which includes:
3. It acts as a protective layer for the muscles and other structures of the
body framework from damage and injury. With the use of fat found
immediately underneath the skin, the animal is able to provide cushion
against external elements, nevertheless to a limited extent. There are
animals which have almost impernetrable hide like the elephants and
rhinoceros.
4. It acts as a seal against infection through the protective layers of oily
secretions from both the sweat and oil glands which render the skin
waterproof, preventing the outside infection and disease germs from
penetrating into the bloodstream.
 Structure of the Skin
Keratinization and Cornification – cell death; drying and hardening of
the superficial cells (usually tough and resistant); related to the decreased
nutrition of the cells (active mitotic division pushes the more superficial
layers farther from the blood vessels in the corium; as the distance from
nutrient increases, the cells flatten and die)
Dandruff – formed from flaking off of the surface of the skin since
dead or keratinized cells are flat and plate-like
Callus – formed from increased rate of cellular production as to
varying rates of irritation or pressure
 Structure of the Skin
The skin is made up two basic layers with the outer layer (stratified
aquamous epithelium) called the epiderm/-is and the inner layer called
corium or dermis .
This general arrangement of two layers of the skin is found
throughout the body, including areas of modified epidermal structures such
as hair, horns, hooves, chestnuts, footpads and ergots (keratinized or
cornified structures).
1. Two (2) layers of the epidermis are the deep growing and moist
layers called stratum basale or germinativum (active mitotic division
occurs) and a superficial hornlike layer, the stratum corneum (or scurf
which made up of dead cells).
 Structure of the Skin
The inner layer of the epiderm provides the natural color of the skin.
Color of skin is due to the presence of pigment granules,
melanosomes, within the cytoplasm of the pigment cells (melanocytes)
The pigment is melanin; the dark color result from the dispersion of
melanin into the cell cytoplasmic processes or surrounding tissues
(controlled by the melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH) or
melanophore);
In contrary, light colors are result of concentration of granules near
the nucleus. Absence of pigment (both skin and hair) is called albinism
which is more susceptible to the effects of sunlight or extreme sensitivity
to light
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 Structure of the Skin
In entire epidermal layers there are no blood vessel, only the
network of the sensory nerve endings are found to exist.
2. Dermis or Corium – where arteries, veins, capillaries and lymphatics of
the skin are concentrated; also sensory nerves to hair follicles and tactile
hairs/ pili tactiles (attached with arrector pili/pilorum muscles;
contraction of these muscles causes “goose bumps”/ “aggression stance”/
“thermoregulatory functios”); where sebaceous and sweat glands can be
found
(3.) Hypodermis/ superficial fascia/ subcutis – connective tissue primarily
collagen which separates dermis from underlying structures such as bone
and deep fascia; having layer of fat called panniculus adiposus; permits
movement of the skin without tearing
 Secretory Glands
Sebaceous glands
- associated with the hair and usually their opening ducts are found
on the hair follicles.
- secrete oily and waxy matter called sebum which maintain the hair
glossy, soft and pliable when the animal is healthy. The apperance of the hair
also denotes the animal's health. When the animal is sick or improperly
nourished, the hair coat becomes rugged, dull and dry.
- distributed in the body except for palms and soles of the feet
- used for waterproofing and lubrication
- example locations: ear canal, eyelid tarsal, around anus, penis and
prepuce, labia vulvae, in sheep (infraorbital pouches, interdigital pouches
and inguinal pouches)
 Secretory Glands
Glands
Both the sweat gland and sebaceous or oil gland are found in the skin.
Sweat Glands or Sudoriferous Glands
- The sweat gland located in the corium of the skin opens to a duct found
on the outer epidermis
- tubular skin gland
- found over the entire bodies of farm animals
- Animals vary in the number of sweat glands founds in their skin. Pigs
for example do not have enough sweat glands which make them poor
adjusters to environmental temperature.
- The secretion of the sweat glands is composed of salt solution, waste
materials, and water.
Animal hair
- consist of medulla (inner), cortex (outer) and cuticle (thin
covering)
- color may vary from the amount of melanin in cortical cells; can be
black, brown or red
- having white, roan and gray hair indicates a partial albino
- tactile hairs or sinus hairs used as probes and feelers
- the hair is the covering of animals, which protects the from various
environmental hazards as inte changing temperature. The wool for
example is an effective coat for the sheep, without it, it would be imposible
for the sheep to exist in cool climate.
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Animal hair
 The amount of hair found on the skin of most animals are affected by the
changing temperature. When the temperature rises as in summer most
animals reduce their hair covering by molting and when te warm
temperature is followed by a cool temperature a thicker growth of new
hair follows after molting
 Hairs are of different types and are made for a purpose. The long and
coarse hair of the horse tail and mane are made for a special purpose, the
tail for driving away insects and the long mane for shrugging files off the
neck are typical examples of a special purpose.
 Each hair is embedded in a follicle and associated with an oil gland to
maintain its gloss and pliable characteristics when the animal is healthy
Modified Epidermis
 Hoof – is the insensitive cornified layer of epidermis covering the distal end
of the digit (animals with hooves are called ungulates; even-toed
(artiodactyla) and odd-toed (perissodactyla); black or white hooves are
associated with the color of the hair near the upper margin of the hoof, black
hooves are muuch tougher and stronger; softer part of the hoof refers to
periople
 Horn – are formed over the horn process, a bony core that projects from the
frontal bone of the skull, soft type of horn is called epikaras
 Dew claw – essentially a miniature digit
 Chestnuts/ night eye – horn-like growths on the medial sides of horses’ leg,
size may vary depending on the intensity of work of the animal
 Ergots – small projections of cornified epithelium in the center of the caudal
part of the fetlock
Animal hair
 Most hairs are equipped with muscles which make the animals in a
characteristics apperance when angry , frightened or feeling cold. The
muscular mechanism found on the base of the hair stiff when the animal
is poised for a fight, Chicken feathers on the neck expand and raise stiff in
a cock-fight.
 Fowls especially chicken do not have the mechanism in their skin to
make the adjust to changing environmental temperature, so that it is
necessary to brood young chicken for at least 30 days to ensure their
healthy growth.
Chapter Two
SKELETAL SYSTEM: THE STRUCTURE OF THE ANIMAL BODY
 The framework of the body is called skeleton. It is generally made of
bones and cartilages. Because bones are hard materials these are
capable of protecting soft and delicate parts of the system, as well as, to
provide form to the structure or animal conformation. Some parts of
the skeleton are also used to absorb shock that the body may receive in
the process of activity.
 Generally, the cartilages are the soft parts of the skeletal system. The
function of which is to provide surfaces to which muscles are attrached
to be able to move freely and efficiently.
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 Chapter Two
SKELETAL SYSTEM: THE STRUCTURE OF THE ANIMAL BODY
 Bones are made up of :
1/3 of its weight – organic matter consists of collagen and
polysaccharide called glycosaminoglycans, these contain chondroitin sulfate
which give resilience and toughness to the bones
2/3 of its weight – inorganic component consists of calcium and
phosphorus salts which give hardness and rigidity to the bones
Chapter Two
Terminology:
Epiphysis – refers to either extremity of a long bone; closest to the
body (proximal epiphysis) and farthest to the body (distal epiphysis)
Diaphysis – is the cylindrical shaft of a long bone situated between the
two epiphyses
Epiphyseal cartilage or disk (physis) – is a layer of hyaline cartilage
that separates the diaphysis and epiphysis within the metaphysis of an
immature bone (only area where can bone increase in length)
Articular cartilage – a thin layer of hyaline cartilage that covers the
articular surface of a bone
Chapter Two
Terminology:
Compact (dense or cortical) bone –refers to the hard layer of bone
that covers most bones and forms almost the entire shaft of long bodies.
Cancellous (spongy) bone – composed of plates (spicules) arranged
to form a porous network. The spaces is usually filled with bone marrow
Cortex – demotes the compact bone that forms the shaft of a long
bone
Medullary cavity (marrow cavity) – is the space surrounded by the
cortex of a long bone. (red bone marrow in young animals and yellow
marrow in old animals
Chapter Two
Terminology:
Periosteum – a fibrous membrane that covers the surface of a bone,
except where articular cartilage is located; responsible for the diameter
increase of bones and function in the healing of bone fractures
Endosteum – fibrous membrane that lines the marrow cavity and
osteonal (Harvesian) canals of a bone
Ligaments – connective tissue connecting bones in order to form
joints
Tendons-connective tissue connecting muscles to bones
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 Chapter Two
SKELETAL SYSTEM: THE STRUCTURE OF THE ANIMAL BODY
Functions of Bones
- providing protection, giving rigidity and form to the body, acting as
levers (locomotion, defense, offense, grasping, etc.), storing minerals and
providing a site for blood formation (within the marrow cavity of long bones
and within the spongy substance of all young bones
The skeleton is subdivided into two major divisions—the axial and
appendicular.
The appendicular skeleton includes all bones of the upper and
lower limbs, plus the bones of the pectoral and pelvic girdles that attach
each limb to the axial skeleton. There are 126 bones in the appendicular
skeleton of an adult. The lower portion of the appendicular skeleton is
specialized for stability during walking or running. In contrast, the upper
portion of the appendicular skeleton has greater mobility and ranges of
motion, features that allow you to lift and carry objects; free appendages
http://library.open.oregonstate.edu/aandp/chapter/7-1-divisions-of-the-skeletal-system/
The skeleton is subdivided into two major divisions—the axial and appendicular.
The axial skeleton forms the vertical, central axis of the body and includes all
bones of the head, neck, chest, and back. It serves to protect the brain, spinal cord,
heart, and lungs. It also serves as the attachment site for muscles that move the head,
neck, and back, and for muscles that act across the shoulder and hip joints to move
their corresponding limbs.
The axial skeleton of the adult consists of 80 bones, comprising the skull,
the vertebral column, and the thoracic cage (ribs and breastbone or
sternum). The skull is formed by 22 bones. Also associated with the head are an
additional seven bones, including the hyoid bone (found in the upper neck) and
the ear ossicles (three small bones found in each middle ear). The vertebral column
consists of 24 bones, each called a vertebra, plus the fused vertebrae of
the sacrum and coccyx. The thoracic cage includes 12 pairs of ribs, and
the sternum, the flattened bone of the anterior chest.
http://library.open.oregonstate.edu/aandp/chapter/7-1-divisions-of-the-skeletal-system/
BONES
Bones are classified into groups such as:
Long bones
Flat bones
Short bones
Sesamoid bones
Pneumatic bones
Irregular bones
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 BONES BONES
Bones are divided into groups such as: Bones are divided into groups such as:
Classification Description Function Examples Classification Description Function Examples

Long bones Greater in one dimension than any Act as lever Found in the extremities Flat bones Relatively thin and expanded in two Protection of vital Scapula (shoulder),
other, consists of a relatively and aid in such as pectoral limb dimensions, consist of two plates of organs (heart, lungs, pelvic bones and in
cylindrical shaft (diaphysis) and 2 support, (humerus, radius, ulna, compact substance, lamina externa pelvic viscera); some section of the
extremities called epiphyses with a locomotion metacarpals, phalanges) and lamina interna, separated by provide large areas head
metaphysis between each epiphysis and and pelvic limb (femur, spongy material called diploe for attachment of
and the diaphysis prehension tibia, fibula, metatarsals, muscle
phalanges) Sesamoid bones Resemble a sesame seed and are Change the angle of Patella (knee cap) is the
Short bones Somewhat cuboid, or approx. equal Variety of Complex joints such as the developed along the course of pull of muscles and largest sesamoid bone
in all dimensions; no marrow cavity movement carpus (knee) and tarsus tendons to reduce friction or change thus give a greater
(interior is composed of spongy (hock) the course of tendons mechanical
substance filled with marrow advantage
spaces; exterior is formed by a thin
layer of compact bones)

BONES
Bones are divided into groups such as:
Classification Description Function Examples

Pneumatic Contain air spaces or sinuses that communicate with the Frontal bones and
bones exterior maxillary bones of the
skull

Irregular bones Unpaired bones located on the Protection, support, Skull, vertebral column
median plane and include the skull muscle attachment

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Cartilages
The cartilages are the softer and pliable structures of the skeleton. Young animals
have soft bones which are generally made of cartilages at fetal stage. However, as the
animal becomes mature these bones harder and harder. But in a section where there
is a need to maintain flexibility and free movement, the cartilages remain soft. In
general, the constituents of both bones and cartilages are similar.
The two genera types of cartilage are:
 Fibro-cartilage
 Hyaline cartilage
The fibro cartilage is usually the hard blue-grey and glistening material located at
the ends of the bones which move against the other, such as those at the lower ends
of the ribs and those discs between the vertebral bones
The hyaline cartilages are those yellowish flexible materials found in the respiratory
tract lining the trachea, bronchi, and larynx.
Composition of Bones
When a bones is dry, its composition is made up of organic or
animal material and inorganic or mineral material at a ratio of about 1:2.
The organic material is usually gelatinous, a quality which gives
toughness and elasticity to the bone. If the organic material is removed,
the bone form and shape remain the same, however its weight is reduced
by about onr third. At this stage the bone becomes very brittle. This
condition occurs in old age, and usual bone injury is fracture.
The inorganic constituency of the bone is mainly made up of
compounds of calcium and phosphorus which make it hard and rigid.
Removing these compounds does not change the shape and form of the
bone, however, its strength and toughness are reduced making it very
soft and pliable as in a diseased condition called rickets, which is usually
due to malnutrition --- for lack of calcium, phosphorus and Vitamin D.

Composition of Bones
Growth of Bones
Ordinarily , a bone composition of cow is made up of the following: As stated earlier, most bones mature out of the cartilage, At birth, Most
 Gelatin - 33.3% bones in the skeletal system are already complete, However, there are
section that remain cartilage. In younger animals the bone forming cells or
 Calcium phosphate - 57.35% osteoblasts are more active, thus in case of injury healing is fast. In order
 Calcium carbonate - 3.85% animals a fracture is longer to heal because of less active osteoblasts.
 Sodium chloride - 3.45%
 Manesium phosphate - 2.05% Bone growth occurs where there is abundant cartilage, and growth will
continue until the cartilage has ossified. In long bones, growth takes place
in two points, at the cartilage and at shaft. The growth at the cartilage
called epiphyseal, while that at the shaft is called diaphysis. Growth is
characterized by the increase in length and thickness.

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 Structure of the Bones Bones of the skeleton

Bones typically the long bones are covered by the protective The skeletal bones are divided into four parts;
membrane called the periosteum. Both the periosteum and the bone itself
 The bones of the fore limb
contain the small arteries, nerves, and veins. The proper is made up of
compact material in its outer shell while the innermost portion is made up  Bones of the hind limb
of loosely arranged plates which give a spongy feature.  Vertebral column, ribs and sternum
The shaft of the long bones is hollow wherein contained the delicate  Skull
marrow. The hollow of the bone is called the medullary cavity.
The marrow of the young animal is reddish in color because of its
blood forming activity, but as the animal becomes older this becomes
yellowish because of its fatty tissue. In poorly nourished animal, the
marrow is jelly-like and gelatinous.
Other bones may have cavities, but these do not contain marrow.
They serve other purposes such as air chamber or sinuses.

The Fore Limb Bones

The fore limb of bones are made up of the uppermost bone called the
scapula, which is a flat bone, somewhat triangular in shape, on which
many powerful muscles of the shoulder are attached. Scapula joins below
with the humerus, a long upper portion of the arm. These two bones are
joined together by the shoulder-joint.
In a cow, horse, pig and sheep, these two bones are fused together. In
human, the foreman can rotate, this is because of the radius and ulna. This
united bone forms a small group of thick bones called the carpals. The
main purpose of this group of bones is to absorb shock. They are actually
eight bones arranged in two rows of four such as: scaphoid, semi-lunar,
cuneiform, and the pisiform in the upper portion; while, in the lower
portion are the trapezium, trapezoid, magnum, and unciform.
Bones of the Hind Limb
The principal the hind limb is the large bone called the innominate
bone. This is the uppermost and is considered very irregular in shape and
is fused with other innominate bone of the other side. Each innominate
bone is actually made up three irregular bones the ilium, ischium and the
os pubis. Two of the innominate bones with the backbone form large bony
tunnel called the pelvic girdile which contains the alimentary canal and the
reproductives tract. Two extremes of the innominate bones, one at the
front and the otherre at the back could be seen as the angle of the haunch
the pin bone.

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Bones of the Hind Limb
Where the three bones of the innonminate bone fused together, there is a
smooth cup-like depression to receive the head of the thigh bone or femur. This
makes the hip joint which is the ball-and -socket joint which allows the three
movement. It is surrounded by a strong mass of muscle which generally kept it from
dislocation. The femur is a strong long bone that moves forward and downward to
meet the tibia, a flat bone which is only protected by the skin. The tibia is
actually the leg bone. At its lower ends the tibia is connectede to the large pulley-like
bone called astragulus, considered one of the six tarsal bones. Like te carpal bones
of the fore limb, the main function of the tarsal bones is to absorb shock.
The tarsal bones are arranged in rows; the upper row is made up of
astragalus, os calcis and the cuboid, while the lower row is composed of the
scaphoid and two cuneiforms. The whole joint is actually the hock joint. The most
important tarsal bone is the os calcis which is located where are powerful achilles'
tendon is attached.
The cervical vetebrae are irregular bones located in the peck. Only two of these bones
are having names. The one located at the base of the skull is called the atlas and the
second bone next to it is called the axis. It is in these bones where free movement
occurs.
The dorsal vertabrae are long bony sequences where pairs of ribs are attached. The
ribs are flattened and curved.
The lumbar vertabrae are back bones with short processes on the top but with long
side or lateral processes. These bones are located behind the series of dorsal vertebrae.
The sacral veterbrae are different from the other vetebral bones in that these are all
fused together into a single bone called sacrum.
The coccygeal vertebrae are located behind the sacrum. These bones do not have
marked procesess and getting smaller and smaller as they approach to the tail.
The numbers of ribs in typical farm animals are not unitform. Horse has 8 true ribs
and 10 false ribs, cow 8 true ribs and 5 false ribs, sheep 8 true ribs and 5 false ribs, and
pig 7 true ribs and 7 false ribs.
Vertebral Bones, Ribs and Sternum
Another name for the vetebral column is backbone, which is made up of a number
of irregular bones running the entire length of the animal from the other disc with a
layer of a cartilage called intervertebral dics. Aside from keeping the body structure of
an animal, another very important function of the vertebral column is to house the
vertebral canal whre the spinal cord or the main nerve relay symtem is situated. Once
damaged, death or paralysis follows. The cord itself is protected by the three layers
membrane called dura mete, arachnoid and the piameter.
Inside the membranes which protect the cord from jaring is a fluid called the cerebro-
spinal fluid.
The bones of the vertebral column include the following:
-Cervical (neck) -Dorsal or back
-Coccygeal (tail) -Lumbar or loin
-Sacral or group
The Skull
Generally, the skull is composed of two bones; one forming the
upper jaw which leads to the main skull, which is made up of strips joined
by cartilage called sutures, the other is composed of the lower jaw which
carries te lower teeth. The entire lower jaw or inferior maxilla is
connected to the rest of the skull with a hinge-like joint which allows the
free movement as in eating and drinking.
Inside the skull is an opening called the cranium. This opening
houses the brain. The cranium is further protected by a large air space at
the frontal part of the skull called frontal sinus. This opening sinus is
connected to other cavities of the skull right through the sinuses of the
nose, the sperior and inferior maxilliary sinuses, and even reaching te
cavities of the horns in horned animals. Its is important that these horns
must also be carefully cared for. A damage to a horn can be very serious or
even fatal.
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The Skull The temporal bone of the skull contains the ear cavity and inside this
opening are the four called the incus, lenticulare, malleus, and stapes.
These small bones vibrate when the sound waves strike the air drum
Skull bones are usually in pair, while others are arranged singly. Below are which is located between the external ear and the inner ear or ear cavity.
the arranged of cranial bones. The vibration of these tiny bones is sent to the brain for translation into
souds. When these tiny bones become deformed or are joint together due
to harm deafness occurs.
ethoid single
The lower section of the skull is composed of paired bones namely:
frontal paired
 Lachrymal
interpariental paired  Malar
occipital single  Nasal bone
pariental paired  Premaxilla
sphenoid single  Superior maxilla
temporal paired

Inside the skull which can hardly be seen are small bones namely:
Teeth Cow Horse jaw Sheep
 Pterygoid
Upper jaw
 Turbinate bones
Incisors 0 6 6 0
 Vomer
Canines 0 2 2 0
Most of these bones are delicate like the turbinate bones found within the
Pre-molars 6 6 2 6
nose which is shell-like
Molars 6 6 12 6
Lower jaw
The premaxillary and superiormaxillary bones are those that provide
anchor to the teeth. On these maxillary bones the teeth sockets or alveoli Incisors 8 6 6 8
are holed in. According to their functions the teeth are grouped as the Canines 0 2 2 0
cutting teeth or incisors, the dog teeth or canines, the pre- molar and the Pre-molars 6 6 2 6
molars. Both the pre-molars and molars are used fo grinding. The canines Molars 6 6 12 6
are used for tearing food into pieces in cases of carnivorous animals. Pigs
Total 32 40 44 32
have prominent teeth

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Depending on nutrition and other factors including delay in growth due
to poor health cause by diseases and infestation most farm animals
complete their teeth at the age of three years. A considerable delay of
about three to six months may be due to poor nutrition and unhealthful
conditions.
A tooth takes about a year to develop in full size, nevertheless, its being
visible is enough to determine the approximate age of an animals.
Carabaos and cows have approximately the same pattern of teething,
except tat cows mature earlier than the carabaos. A cow reaches puberty
earlier by about six to eight months than a carabao.
Ligaments
Ligaments are band of strong fibrous tissues which are usuallly whitish
in color found at the bone joints. Their chief functions is to hold together
bones firmly to keep the skeletal framework intact in normal balance.
Ligaments are usually flexible and pliable but not elastic. They can easily be
torn when the joint is wrenched, nevertheless, the ligamentum nuchae the
largest ligament in the body structure which holds the skull in its proper
balance to the dorsal vertebrae is one among the few elastic type.
Intracapsular (intra-articular) – found within joints and are
surrounded by the joint capsule, e.g. cruciate ligaments of the stifle and
ligaments that hold adjacent carpal and tarsal bones together
Extracapsular (periarticular) – are outside the joint capsule, e.g.
collateral, dorsal, palmar and annular ligaments
It is important to study the teeth of animals, since in most cases the age
of an animal is determined by its teeth. The approximate teaching
schedule of farm animals is given thus:
 First central pair 1 yr and 9 mos to 2 yrs and 5 mos
 Second pair 2 yrs and 3 mos to 2 yrs and 8 mos
 Third pair 2 yrs and six mos to 3 yrs and 3 mos
 Corner pair 3 yrs to 3 yrs and 6 mos
Joints
Joints are existing because of the normal function of ligaments, as they
make intact into their proper place. Some these joints are movable,
immovable and others are fixed. In movable joints at the of the bones a
smooth cartilage is formed which is slippery to reduce friction in the
process of movements. Example of this joints is the one located at the
limbs. Joints with limited movements are those found at the vertebrae in
the backbone. Joints found on the skull as represented by the fissure of soft
cartilage is an example of a fixed joint.
Around each joints is a synovial membrane which seals the joint like a
capsule to protect from infections. This membrane give out a fluid which is
oil-like responsible for the three movement of movable joints. The
secretion is called synovianism can infct the joint as it becomes swollen as
in the case of arthritis.
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Classification of Joints Classification of Joints
Based on their structure and the material that unites them: Based on function of the joints (possible movement):
1. Fibrous Joints - immovable or synartroses 1. Ginglymus (hinge) joints
2. Cartilaginous Joints - slightly movable or amphiarthroses; can 2. arthrodial (plane) joints
also be immovable 3. trochoid (pivot) joints
3. Synovial (Diarthrodial) Joints – incl. freely movable or 4. Spheroid (enarthrodial or ball-and-socket) joints
diarthroses/ synovial 5. condylar (condyloid) joints
6. Ellipsoid joints
7. saddle joints

1. Fibrous Joints 2. Cartilaginous Joints

These contain no joint cavity. The bones are united by fibrous
tissues.
Examples:
Syndesmosis – refers to joints with a fibrous-tissue uniting
medium which permit slight movement, e.g. union of the shafts of the
splint bones and cannon bones
Suture – refers to the junction between bones of the skull
which are united by fibrous tissue early in life but may ossify after
maturity
Gomphosis – refers to the articulation of teeth in their
sockets in the mandible and maxillae (and premaxillae in non-
ruminants)
These contain no joint cavity. The bones are united by cartilage
Examples:
Synchondrosis (hyaline cartliage joints) – refers to the
immovable joint in which the uniting medium is cartilage, e.g. union of
the diaphysis and epiphysis of an immature bone
Symphyses (fibrocartilaginous joints/ certain median-line
joints – are united by flattened discs of fibrocartilage, e.g. between
adjacent pelvic bones, between the bodies of adjacent vertebrate
Synostosis – refers to the joint in which the uniting
medium is bone, e.g. normal ossification of the epiphyseal cartilage of
a long bone

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3. Synovial (Diarthrodial) Joints Movements of Joints
Synovial joints have articular surfaces, articular cartilages, Following movements of the synovial (true) joints:
articular cavity, joint capsule and ligaments Flexion
articular surfaces - specialized layers of compact bone on the Extension
surfaces that articulate with other bones Hyperextension
articular cartilages – layer of hyaline cartilage covering the Rotation
articular surface
Adduction and abduction
articular cavity - a potential space between adjacent bones and
is surrounded by the joint capsule Circumduction
Joint capsule – consists of 2 layer, the syn0vial membrane which pronation and supination
secretes synovial fluid (joint oil) and plicae synovales

Synovial (true) joints Chapter Three

Joint type Function/ Possible movement Example
1. Ginglymus (hinge) Move only in the sagittal plane Fetlock, interphalangeal (fingers THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM
Flexion, extension, hyperextension and toes)
Three types of muscles in the body system of animals are classified according to
2. arthrodial (plane) Slight gliding movement between relatively Carpal bones
function, composition, and location. These muscles are serving the body function of
flat opposed surfaces (facets)
animals according to specific purpose when they are found. These are the voluntary or
3. trochoid (pivot) Rotary movement occurs around one axis Atlanto-axial joint (atlas and axis
vertebrae of the neck bone)
stiated, involuntary or smooth, of the heart or cardiac muscle.
4. Spheroid(ball-and- Permit movement in nearly any direction Coxo-femoral (hip) joint, 1. The Voluntary Muscle / Skeletal muscle (voluntary striated)
socket/enarthrodial) shoulder joint This type of muscle is striated and striped. It is found attached to bones of the
5. condylar Convex articular surfaces; similar to hinge Temporomandibular joint (TMJ), skeleton where it is usually bound together to form the joints. This muscle is
(condyloid) joints but permit more movement stifle, wrist sometimes made up of animal flesh and a typical example is the muscle of the belly.
Another kind of muscle belonging to the classification is found at the two ends of the
6. Ellipsoid joints Expanded more in one direction than Between distal end of the radius tendon which makes bone connection. Tendon muscles are of two kinds, one is called
another, forming an ellipse and proximal row of carpal bones
the origin being attached to fixed tendon, and the other is called insertion which is
7. saddle joints Sufaces that resemble an English or flat Carpo-metacarpal joint of the attached to the movable tendon.
saddle; permit all types of movement except thumb, ankle
rotation

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2. Smooth Muscle (involuntary, visceral, unstriated)
The involuntary muscles are under the control of the automatic
nervous system, are capable of the spontenous rhythmic contraction and
relaxation. The heart muscle, the muscles of the stomach and intestines
are examples of the involuntary muscles. The spontenous rhythmic
contraction and relaxation of these muscles make the blood circulating
and moving along the blood stream. The movement of food in the
intestinal tract is accomplished as the involuntary muscle functions.
3. The Cardiac Muscle (Involuntary striated)
The cardiac muscle found in the heart. It is made up of the combination of
striated and non-striated muscles. This specialized tissue is found only in
the heart. The cardiac muscle is bound together by a complex network of
fibers which provide strength to support the continous contraction
movement of the heart. without this muscular vitality the heart will not be
able to function normally.
 The heart muscle although it is made up of voluntary muscular fibers is
not under the direct control of the animals concious action. Being made up
of striated and non-striated muscular fibes it is able to function
involuntary. This quality of the heart's muscular composition makes the
heart function with true endurance and reliability.
The muscle of the heart are very specialized cells which are capable of
continous regular rythmic movement for a life time. Proper nourishment
and healthful living condition make the heart function longer.
2. Smooth Muscle (involuntary, visceral, unstriated)
The fibers of the involuntary muscles are shorter and fatter than
that of the voluntary muscles. They are usually smooth and do not show
striation or striping and are bound together by cementing tissues and not
by tendon bundles as in voluntary muscles. Its central nerve is composed
of plexus located in the middle mass of involuntary muscle. This plexus
acts as a tiny brain which gives the involuntary muscle a certain degree of
independent action. The action is slow and sluggish as compared to that
of the voluntary muscle, but it is powerful and can last to cosiderable
extent with endurance. Example is the eduring and reliable power of the
muscles of the uterus which can expand up to twenty times its original
size and can contract so powerfully at birth to cause the delivery of the
fetus and to return to its normal size.
The Organization of Muscular Fibers
The involuntary or smooth muscular fibers are found incorporated
in the walls of the tubular structures of the intestine, bladder, ducts of
glands, blood vessel, and uterus. In these organs the tubular sheet are
formed, usually two sheets, one within the other. The outer sheet has its
fibers arranged along the length of the tub, while the inner sheet, its fibers
are arranged circularly around the orientation of the tube. Inside the sheet
the muscle fibers are united to one another by an intensive network of
connective tissue.
Heart muscles composed of very specialized cardiac fibers are found
only in the heart. They are formed by a very intensively women network of
tissues that make up the thickness of the heartwall.
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The Organization of Muscular Fibers
 On the surface of the skin smooth muscles are also found. They are arranged
obliquely from the skin to the layer where the hairs are attached. They cause
erection of the hair in the animals and feathers in birds when excited as in a
cock-fight and coserve body heat by trapping a thicker layer of air. In blood
vessels specialized smooth muscles are found even in small arteries which
regulate the blood presure by controlling the opening of the lumen or bore of the
arterial tube. Relaxation of these smooth muscles in blood vessels will cause
fainting due to reduction in the blood presure.
 Striated or voluntary muscle fibers are enclosed in a delicate but strong casing
of fibrous tissue which is extended and attached to the bone. And where the
muscle fibers are attached to the bone at both ends it follows that a joint mus
intervene so that shortening can occur, and if the strands of fibers at the ends
are long, these are bound together ta form a compact bundle called a tendon.
The Organization of Muscular Fibers
 The shortening muscle is called the prime mover or agonist while the
lengthening muscle is called the antagonist. When the prime mover
passes over more thanone joint, certain muscles are required to steady
the intervening joints, such muscles are called synergists or cooperating
muscle. Movement of all parts of the body are executed by such
cooperating teams of muscles. Without this proper muscular
organization, there is no cooperation in the muscular movement.
 The primary function of muscle is to produce movements. The simplest
movement such as in bending the ankle as in walking is produced by
shortening the muscles crossing in front of the joint. In a man when the
arm is straightened, the triceps do the shortening and the biceps
cooperate to control the movement of the arm.
The Organization of Muscular Fibers
 The muscle fibers are held intact by a connective tissue to form a
compact mass called muscle belly. Most muscles are fleshy from end to end
but others have tendon at none or both ends. An attachement which is
attached to a movable joint is called insertion, but in some cases either the
origin or the insertion may serve as a fixed joint, however the origin in
considered the head of the muscle, which is sometimes divided into two,
three, or four parts.
 The strength of the muscle whose fibers extend all the way to another
from bone to bone is propotional to the number of the fibers that muscle
cointains. The shortening of the muscle is proportional to the length of its
fibers and a muscle is capable of shortening from one half to one third of
its resting length.
How the Muscle Works
In general a voluntary muscle works with an impulse which is sent
down to the main nerve and into the small nerve fibers. When this
impulse or stimulus reach a certain intensity this particular muscle fibers
obey what is called the all or none principle, which means they either
contract, completely or do not contractat all. It is not necessesary
however, for all the muscles to get stimulated in order to function, a
muscle can function with a quarter, half , as well as full stimulus.
When the muscle receives only one stimulus this will contract and
then relax. The slight pause between the stimulus and the subsequent
contraction is only for about a hundreadth of a second which is due to the
release of a chemical called myosin located at muscle's nerve and plate.
Myosin is responsible for contraction.
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How the Muscle Works
 If the muscle is not allowed to relax due to continous stimulation, it
becomes tired due to the accumulation of the lactid acid as waste
products. In order to make the muscle recuperate this waste material
must be removed and in place oxygen must be readily supplied. Under
light exertion the balance of lactic acid and oxygen can go on without the
muscle's getting tired. But under strenuous activity the condition is
different, the protein substance myosin found in the muscle fibers absorbs
oxygen and store this as reserve, with this the muscle is enabled to work
for a long time as in the case of a hard working athlete. But under this
condition the muscle builds up an oxygen dept, which has to be repaid ,
and to repay this, the animal has to stop working and breath very hard. In
a well-trained working animal the oxygen dept can be very large, but in
abnormal or unfit condition, the extent of oxygen dept is limited.
References:
 FRANDSON, R.D. 1982. Anatomy and Physiology of Farm Animals. 2 nd
Edition (Reprinting).
 DAGOON, J. D. 1989. Husbandry of Farm Animals and Poultry in the
Tropics.
How the Muscle Works
 When the animal is intended for meat, it is important that before the
slaughter, the animal should be rested. The preserving quality of meat is slow
when the waste materials are not removed at the time of slaughter. Resting the
animal with proper nutrition improves the quality of meat.
In the case of games hunted to death and domestic animals rough handled in a
long journey from the ranch to the slaughter house the preserving quality of
their meat is very poor. Long exhausting travel from the farm to the market
should be avoided in the case of meat animals.
 Muscle are not responsive to stimulus after death. They are no longer flexible.
This condition is called rigor mortis. However, this condition varies with time,
condition and type of muscles. The involuntary muscle for example does not
instantly stop moving immediately after death. There is that continous wave-
like action or peristalsis in the case of the gut and other intestinal organs until
the actual muscle fibers are killed through the loss of blood.
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