CHAPTER 1: TWO GENERAL WAYS TO EXAMINE THE

THE HUMAN ORGANISM INTERNAL STRUCTURES OF A LIVING

PERSON
HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY  provides important information for diagnosing
diseases
- the study of the structure and function of the
 SURFACE ANATOMY and ANATOMICAL
human body.
IMAGING
- human body has MANY INTRICATE PARTS
with COORDINATED FUNCTIONS
maintained by a COMPLEX SYSTEM of
1. SURFACE ANATOMY
checks and balances.
- study of external features
- e.g. bony projections – serves as
STIMULI
landmarks for locating deeper features
2. ANATOMICAL IMAGING
- adjusting how the body responds to changes in
environmental information. (that comes from - involves the use of X-RAYS, ultrasound,
MRI
inside and outside the body)
- this is to create pictures of internal
BENEFITS OF STUDYING HUMAN ANATOMY structures
AND PHYSIOLOGY - e.g. determining whether a bone is broken
or a ligament is torn
- provides BASIS FOR UNDEESTANDING
DISEASE 1.2 PHYSIOLOGY
- gives you knowledge about THE
STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION IN ORDER  THE SCIENTIFIC DISCIPLINE THAT DEALS
TO PERFORM THEIR DUTIES WITH THE PROCESSES OR FUNCTIONS OF
- help us to be well prepared to make a decision LIVING THINGS
about our OWN HEALTH CARE OR THAT - recognizing the structures as dynamic
OF A LOVED ONE rather than fixed and unchanging.
- allows us to DISTINGUISH BETWEEN - physio – nature
USEFUL MEDICAL TREATMENTS AND - logy – study
THOSE THAT MAY BE HARMFUL.
MAJOR GOALS FOR STUDYING PHYSIOLOGY
1.1 ANATOMY
1. to understand and predict the body responses to
 THE SCIENTIFIC DISCIPLINE THAT stimuli
INVESTIGATES THE STRUCTURE OF THE 2. to understand how the body maintains internal
BODY conditions within a narrow range of values in the
- anatomy – to dissect, cut apart, separate presence of continually changing internal and
parts of the body external environment
- ana – apart
- tomy – to cut TYPES OF PHYSIOLOGY FIELDS
 covers a wide range of studies:
- STRUCTURE OF BODY PART  HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY
- MICROSCOPIC ORGANIZATION - study of a specific organism
- PROCESSES BY WHICH THEY - e.g. the human
DEVELOP subdivisions that emphasize specific organization levels:
 Examines the relationship BETWEEN the  CELLULAR PHYSIOLOGY
STRUCTURE of the body part and its FUNCTION  SYSTEMATIC PHYSIOLOGY

TWO BASIC APPROACHES TO THE STUDY OF 1.3 STRUCTURAL AND FUNCTIONAL

ANATOMY ORGANIZATION OF THE HUMAN BODY
1. SYSTEMATIC ANATOMY  6 LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION OF THE BODY
- study of the body systems  11 ORGAN SYSTEMS
- e.g. cardiovascular sys., nervous sys.,
skeletal sys. SIX LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION OF THE
- taken in most introductory books BODY
2. REGIONAL ANATOMY
- Study of the organization of the body by 1. CHEMICAL LEVEL
areas - structural and functional characteristics of
- e.g. the head, abdomen, arm, all systems all organisms are determined by their
are studied simultaneously chemical makeup
- taken in most medical and dental schools - involves how atoms interact and combine
molecules
2. CELL LEVEL
 - cells: basic structural and functional unit ORGAN SYSTEMS OF THE BODY
of organisms
- molecules can combine to form  INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
organelles (little organs) - provides protection
3. TISSUE LEVEL - regulates body temperature
- tissue: a group of similar cells and their - prevents water loss
materials surrounding them - helps produce vitamin D
- characteristics of cells and surrounding skin, hair, nails, sebaceous glands, sweat glands
materials determine the functions of the  SKELETAL SYSTEM
tissue - provides protection, support
- e.g. epithelial, connective, muscle, - allows body movements
nervous - produces blood cells
4. ORGAN LEVEL - stores minerals and adipose tissue
- composed of 2 or more tissue types that bones, cartilages, ligaments, joints
perform one or more function  MUSCULAR SYSTEM
- e.g. heart, liver, kidney - produces body movements
5. ORGAN SYSTEM LEVEL - maintains posture
- group of organs classified as a unit - produces body heat
because of a common function and/or set muscles are attached to the skeleton by TENDONS
of functions  NERVOUS SYSTEM
- there are 11 organ systems - a major regulatory system
6. ORGANISM LEVEL - detects sensations and controls
- any living thing considered as a whole movements
- e.g. composed of one cell (bacterium), - controls physiological processes and
composed of trillions of cells (human) intellectual functions
- human organism is a complex system brain, spinal cord, nerves, sensory receptors
which are mutually dependent upon one  ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
another - a major regulatory system
- influences metabolism, growth,
MAJOR ORGANS OF THE BODY reproduction, etc.
endocrine glands: pituitary (secrets hormones)
 brain  CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM
 spinal cord - transports nutrients, waste products,
 lungs gases, hormones
 heart - plays a role in the immune response and
 liver body temperature regulation
 pancreas heart, blood vessels, blood
 spleen  LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
 stomach - removes foreign substances from the
 gallbladder blood and lymph
 kidneys - combats diseases
 large intestines - maintains tissue fluids
 small intestines - absorbs dietary fats from digestive tracts
 urinary bladder lymphatic vessels, organs, nodes
 urethra  RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
- exchanges oxygen and carbon dioxide
between blood and air
- regulates blood pH
lungs, respiratory passages
 DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
- performs mechanical and chemical
processes of digestion
- absorption of nutrients
- elimination of wastes
mouth, esophagus, stomach, intestine, accessory organs
 URINARY SYSTEM
- removes waste products from the blood
- regulates blood pH, ion balance and water
balance
kidney, urinary bladder, ureters
 RERODUCTIVE SYSTEM
- FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
 produces oocytes
 site of fertilization
 produces milk for newborn
ovaries, uterine tubes, uterus, vagina, mammary glands
 - MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
 produces and transfers sperm 1.5 HOMEOSTASIS
cells
 produces hormones that
influences sexual functions and  HOMEOSTASIS
behaviors - homeo – the same
testes, accessory structures, ducts, penis - stasis – to stop
- the existence and maintenance of a
relatively constant environment within
1.4 CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE the body despite fluctuations in either
external or internal environment
 humans are organisms sharing characteristics with  VARIABLES
other organisms - conditions that their values can change
 LIFE – most important feature of all organisms  temperature
 volume
SIX CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE
 chemical content
1. ORGANIZATION
HOMEOSTATIC MECHANISMS
- refers to the specific relationship of the
many individual parts of an organism
 sweating, shivering – normally maintain body
 from cell organelles to organs
temperature near ana average normal value (SET
(interacting + working)
POINT)
- living things are HIGHLY ORGANIZED
2. METABOLISM  homeostatic mechanisms are mostly governed by
- the ability to use energy to perform vital - NERVOUS SYSTEM
functions - ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
 growth  HM are not able to maintain body temperature
PRECISELY at set point
 movement
- body temperature increases and decreases
 reproduction
slightly around the set point
- plants – photosynthesis
 PRODUCES NORMAL
- humans – energy from food
RANGE OF VALUES
3. RESPONSIVENESS
- the ability pf an organism to sense  as long as body temperature is in the normal range,
changes in the environment homeostasis is maintained
- make adjustments that help maintain its  NORMAL BODY TEMPERATURE RANGE
life. - not more than 1°F above or below normal
 movements towards food/water  AVERAGE BODY TEMPERATURE
 away from danger - 98.6°F OR 37°C
- make adjustments that maintain their  organ systems help control the internal environment
internal environment to remain relatively constant
 production of sweat to lower  disease disrupts homeostasis and mat sometimes
body temperature down to the leads to death
normal level
4. GROWTH NEGATIVE FEEDBACK MECHANISMS
- refers to increase in size of all/or part of
the organism  most body systems are regulated by NEGATIVE-
 from increase in cell number to FEEDBACK MECHANISMS
the amount of substance  in this context: negative – to decrease
surrounding cells  NEGATIVE FEEDBACK
 growth of bones as bone cells - any deviation from the set point is made
increases smaller or is resisted
5. DEVELOPMENT - it does not prevent variation but maintains
- includes the changes and organism variation within normal range
undergoes through time  MAINTENANCE OF NORMAL BODY
- involves birth, also involves TEMPERATURE
DIFFERENTATION. - example of NFM
 change in cell structure and - normal body temperature is important
function from generalized to  allows molecules and enzymes
specialized to keep their normal shape to
e.g. cell > specialize > different cell types function
- optimal body temperature prevents
6. REPRODUCTION molecules being destroyed
- formation of new cells or new organisms
 no reproduction = tissue repair THREE COMPONENTS OF NEGATIVE-
is impossible FEEDBACK MECHANISMS
 no reproduction of organism =
extinction 1. RECEPTOR
 - monitors the value of a variable (such as  many diseases results from the failure of NFM to
body temp.) by detecting stimuli maintain homeostasis
2. CONTROL CENTER  medical therapy overcomes illness by adding NFM
- (part of the brain) determines the set point
for the variable
- receives input from the receptor about the
variable
3. EFFECTOR
- (sweat glands) changes the value of the
variable when directed by the control
center
 STIMULUS
- changed variable
- initiates a homeostatic mechanism

POSITIVE FEEDBACK MECHANISMS

 occur when the initial stimulus further stimulates

the response
 the deviation from the set point becomes greater
 positive – indicates an increase
 re-achieve homeostasis
- blood loss
- birth giving
 a positive-feedback mechanism can be detrimental
- inadequate delivery of blood to heart
muscle may lead to death
1.6 TERMINOLOGY AND THE BODY
PLAN
 severe blood loss – NFM may not be able to
maintain homeostasis BODY POSITIONS
 NFM makes the heart rate increase that restores
blood pressure  ANATOMICAL POSITION
- a person standing UPRIGHT with the
fave directed FORWARD
- upper limbs hanging to the SIDE
- palms of the hands facing FORWARD
 PRONE
- person lying face downward
 SUPINE
- person lying face upward
 the position of the body can affect the description of
body parts relative to each other
 always base on anatomical position for relational
descriptions

DIRECTIONAL TERMS
 describe parts of the body relative to each other

1. RIGHT
- towards the body’s right side
2. LEFT
- towards the body’s left side
3. INFERIOR
- below
- down
4. SUPERIOR
- above
- up
5. ANTERIOR
- toward the front of the body
6. POSTERIOR
- toward the back of the body
7. DORSAL
- toward the back
8. VENTRAL
- toward the belly
9. PROXIMAL
- closer to the point of attachment
- nearest
BODY PARTS AND REGIONS

 CENTRAL REGION
10. DISTAL - head
- farther from a point of attachment - neck
- distant - trunk
11. LATERAL
- away from the midline  TRUNK
12. MEDIAL - thoracic
- toward the middle/midline - abdomen
13. SUPERFICIAL - pelvis
- toward the surface  UPPER LIMB
14. DEEP - arm
- away, internal - forearm
- wrist
- hand
 LOWER LIMB
- thigh
- leg
- ankle
 - foot  FRONTAL/CORONAL PLANE
 ABDOMEN - runs vertically from right to left
- subdivided superficially into four - divides the body into anterior and
quadrants posterior parts
 one horizontal line  TRANSVERSE/HORIZONTAL PLANE
 one vertical line - runs parallel to the surface of the ground
 they intersect at the navel - divides the body into superior and inferior
- quadrants are subdivided into regions parts
 two horizontal lines
PLANES OF SECTION THROUGH AN ORGAN
 two vertical lines
 imaginary tic-tac-toe
 LONGITUDINAL SECTION
 QUADRANTS OF THE ABDOMEN - cut along the length of an organ
- right-upper
 TRANSVERSE/CROSS SECTION
- left-upper
- cuts completely through an organ
- right-lower
 OBLIQUE SECTION
- left-lower
- cut made diagonally across the long axis
 REGIONS OF THE ABDOMEN
- epigastric
- right hypochondriac
- left hypochondriac
- umbilical
- right lumbar
- left lumbar
- hypogastric
- right iliac
- left iliac

PLANES

- imaginary flat surfaces

- way to look inside and observe body
structures
 SAGITTAL PLANE
- runs vertically through the body and
separates it into right and left parts
 - in contact with an organ
 PARIETAL SEROUS MEMBRANE
BODY CAVITIES - outer wall
 cavity between the visceral and parietal SM
 NASAL CAVITY
normally filled with a thin, lubricating film of
- open to the outside of the body serous fluid produced by the membranes
 TRUNK
- not open to the outside of the body SEROUS MEMBRANE-LINED CAVITIES OF THE
- thoracic, abdominal, pelvic THORACIC CAVITY
 THORACIC CAV ITY
- surrounded by the rib cage - pericardial cavity (1)
- separated from abdominal cavity by the - pleural cavity (2)
diaphragm  PERICARDIAL CAVITY
- divided into right and left parts by a - surrounds the heart
center structure – MEDIASTINUM - fluid-filled pericardial cavity
- MEDIASTINUM  the space between visceral and
 houses the heart, thymus, parietal pericardium
trachea, esophagus  PERICARDIAL FLUID
 between the two lungs  VISCERAL PERICARDIUM
 ABDOMINAL CAVITY - covers the heart
- bounded primarily by the abdominal  PARIETAL PERICARDIUM
muscles - forms the outer layer of the sac around
- contains the stomach, intestines, liver, the heart
spleen, pancreas, kidneys  PLEURAL CAVITY
 PELVIC CAVITY - surrounds each lung
- a small space enclosed by the bones of - each lung is surrounded by the
the pelvis VISCERAL PLEURA
- contains the urinary bladder, large - PARIETAL PLEURA
intestine, internal reproductive organs  lines the inner surface of the
- not physically separated – thoracic wall;
ABDOMINOPELVIC CAVITY  lateral surfaces of mediastinum
- located between the visceral pleura and
parietal pleural (contains pleural fluid)

SEROUS MEMBRANE-LINED CAVITIES OF THE

ABDOMINAL CAVITY

SEROUS MEMBRANES

 line the trunk cavities

 cover the organs of these cavities

 VISCERAL SEROUS MEMBRANE

- inner wall