Every day, the ground beneath our feet shifts and evolves.

It can be a soft, sand-like

texture at times, or a tough, bumpy one at others. Other places have moss and grass
covering the ground. As roads and rails were built, the landscape began to change
gradually.
SOIL
Soil is the loose surface material that covers most land. It consists of inorganic particles
and organic matter. Soil provides the structural support to plants used in agriculture and
is also their source of water and nutrients.

Soils vary greatly in their chemical and physical properties. Processes such as leaching,
weathering and microbial activity combine to make a whole range of different soil types.
Each type has particular strengths and weaknesses for agricultural production.

Choosing the right soil for a venture is essential to ensuring the health of plant life.

TYPES OF SOIL:
Sandy soil
This type of soil is very light, warm, dry, and acidic, and it is also low in nutrients.
Because of their high sand content and low clay content, sandy soils are frequently
referred to as "light soils." (clay weighs more than sand).

It is made up of weathered rock fragments in a fine powder form. The roots of plants
have a difficult time absorbing water in sandy soils because it has little nutritional
content and a low water holding capacity. Drainage is greatly improved by using this sort
of soil. The disintegration or fragmentation of rocks like granite, limestone, and quartz is
the most common cause of sandy soil.

These soils have quick water drainage and are easy to work with. They are quicker to
warm up in spring than clay soils but tend to dry out in summer and suffer from low
nutrients that are washed away by rain.

By increasing the soil's nutrient and water holding capacity, organic matter can provide
plants with an additional boost of nutrients.

TYPES OF SOIL:
Clay Soil
Clay is one of the smallest natural soil particles, and because of this, it tends to pack
tightly with minimal air space. As a result of its great density and lack of open space,
clay is the heaviest and densest soil type known. However, its denseness makes it
difficult for air and moisture to enter the soil, allowing water and nutrients to accumulate
in the soil.

High levels of nutrients in Clay Soil make it an ideal soil type for growing crops. In the
winter, clay soils are damp and chilly, and in the summer, they dry off. Over 25 percent of
these soils are made up of hydrated clay, which helps them retain a lot of water.These
soils may be a challenge for gardeners since they drain slowly, take longer to warm up in
the summer, and crack and dry out during that time.

Silt Soil
Compared to sandy soil, silt has significantly smaller particles and is made up of rock
and other mineral particles that are smaller than clay. In comparison to sand, the soil in
this area keeps water better due to its smooth and fine texture. Because it is readily
carried by flowing water, silt may be found mostly around rivers, lakes, and other bodies
of water. Compared to the other kinds of soil, silt soil is the most fertile one. Because of
this, agricultural methods use it to boost soil fertility.

Silt Soil has a high fertility rating while being light and moisture-retentive. Soils
composed of medium-sized particles, such as sand and clay, have excellent water
absorption and drainage properties. Because the particles are so small, they compress
readily and are simply washed away by rain. The silt particles may be stabilized by the
addition of organic materials.

TYPES OF SOIL:
Peat Soil
Peat soil has a high content of organic matter and may hold a lot of water.

This sort of soil is seldom found in a garden and is often brought into a garden to
create an ideal soil basis for planting.

Chalk Soil
Chalk soil can be either light or heavy but always highly alkaline due to the
calcium carbonate (lime) within its structure.

As these soils are alkaline they will not support the growth of ericaceous plants
that require acidic soils to grow.

If a chalky soil shows signs of visible white lumps then they can’t be acidified and
gardeners should be resigned to only choose plants that prefer an alkaline soil.

TYPES OF SOIL:
Loam Soil
Loam soil is a mixture of sand, silt and clay that are combined to avoid the
negative effects of each type.

These soils are rich in nutrients, simple to deal with, and allow for adequate
drainage. They may be either sandy or clay loam depending on their primary
makeup. As the soils are a perfect balance of soil particles, they are considered
to be a gardener’s best friend, but still benefit from topping up with additional
organic matter.

Soil physical properties:

Soil physical properties include texture, structure, density, porosity, consistence,
temperature, and color.

Soil texture
Soil texture (such as loam, sandy loam or clay) refers to the proportion of sand,
silt and clay sized particles that make up the mineral fraction of the soil.

 Soil texture is determined with one of the following methods.

 Mechanical sieving, if particle size > 0.05 mm

 Sedimentation if size < 0.05 mm.
 Hydrometer method
 Pipette method

Texture affects many soil processes, including infiltration, drainage (water and air
distribution), erosion, chemical processes, and biologic processes. These are
discussed generally below.
  Sand: limited structural development, rapid infiltration, rapid drainage, low water
holding capacity, leaching of minerals and organic material, reduced chemical and
biological processing compared to soils with high clay content
 Silt: poor structural development, moderate infiltration rates, well drained,
moderate rates of chemical and biological processing, easily eroded and
compacted
 Clay: slow infiltration rates, poorly drained, high water holding capacity, high
rates of chemical processing when not compacted or saturated, easily compacted
 Loam: since these are a mixture of sand, silt, and clay, these soils are generally
well drained, have good water holding capacity, are chemically and biologically
diverse and active

Soil structure
Soil structure describes the arrangement and organization of soil particles in the
soil, and the tendency of individual soil particles to bind together in
aggregates. Aggregation affects water and air transport, which affects the
movement of solutes and pollutants and affects biologic activity, including plant
growth.

Soil structure affects water and air movement in soil and is therefore important to
soil biota. Platy and massive soils have restricted air and water movement, while
granular and aggregated soils have enhanced air and water transport.

Structure is defined in terms of grade, class and type of aggregates.

Grade: Grade of structure is the degree of aggregation and expresses the

differential between cohesion within aggregates and adhesion between
aggregates. These properties vary with the moisture content of the soil and it
should be determined when the moisture content is normal - not when unusually
dry or unusually wet.
The four major grades of structure rated from 0 to 3 are listed below.

0 - Structure No observable aggregation or no definite orderly arrangement of natural

less: lines of weakness. Massive if coherent; single grain if no coherent.

1 - Weak: That degree of aggregation characterised by poorly formed indistinct

aggregates that are barely observable in place. When disturbed, soil material
that has this grade of structure breaks into a mixture of few entire
aggregates many broken aggregates and much unaggregated material.

2- Well-formed distinct aggregates that are moderately durable and evident but
Moderate: not distinct in undisturbed soil. When disturbed, they break down into a
mixture of many distinct entire aggregates, some broken aggregates and
little unaggregated material.

3 - Strong: Durable aggregates that is quite evident in undisturbed soil that adhere
weakly to one another. When removed from the profile the soil material
consists very largely of entire aggreates and includes few broken ones and
little or no non-aggregated material.

Class: The Class of structure describes the average size of individual aggregates

and Type describes their form or shape. The various class divisions are: very fine
or very thin, fine or thin, medium, coarse or thick and very coarse or very thick.

Soil structure is typically divided into one of the following groups, as illustrated in the
adjacent image.

 Granular – roughly spherical, like grape nuts. Usually 1-10 mm in diameter. Most common in A
horizons, where plant roots, microorganisms, and sticky products of organic matter
decomposition bind soil grains into granular aggregates
 Aggregated - this structural type is often not included in classifications, but represents a soil
where some granular components have aggregated, but not to the extent found in prismatic
or columnar structures.
 Platy – flat peds that lie horizontally in the soil. Platy structure can be found in A, B and C
horizons. It commonly occurs in an A horizon as the result of compaction.
 Blocky – roughly cube-shaped, with more or less flat surfaces. If edges and corners remain
sharp, we call it angular blocky. If they are rounded, we call it subangular blocky. Sizes
commonly range from 5-50 mm across. Blocky structures are typical of B horizons, especially
those with a high clay content. They form by repeated expansion and contraction of clay
minerals.
 Prismatic – larger, vertically elongated blocks, often with five sides. Sizes are commonly 10-
100mm across. Prismatic structures commonly occur in fragipans.
  Columnar – the units are similar to prisms and are bounded by flat or slightly rounded vertical
faces. The tops of columns, in contrast to those of prisms, are very distinct and normally
rounded.

Soil density
Soil density is related to the mineral and organic composition of a soil and to soil
structure. The standard measure of soil density is bulk density, defined as the proportion
of the weight of a soil relative to its volume. It is expressed as a unit of weight per
volume, and is commonly measured in units of grams per cubic centimetres (g/cm3). Bulk
density is an indicator of the amount of pore space available within individual soil
horizons, as it is inversely proportional to pore space:

Pore space = 1 – bulk density/particle density

Bulk density affects water and air transport in soils. Soils with high densities resist water
and air transport. Soils with high density may also impede root growth.

Soil porosity
The nonsolid volume fraction of soil volume is known as the porosity fraction. Soil
porosity is critical to the movement of water, air, and nutrients into the soil during crop
development (Indoria et al., 2017b).
Many factors contribute to the importance of soil porosity. For starters, the groundwater
that many of us rely on comes from soil pores. Soil porosity also has an impact on the
oxygen content of the soil. It's essential to have a well-aerated soil in order to produce
crops.

Soil consistence (plasticity)

Soil consistence refers to the ease with which an individual ped can be crushed by the
fingers. Soil consistence, and its description, depends on soil moisture content. Terms
commonly used to describe consistence include the following.

 loose – noncoherent when dry or moist; does not hold together in a mass
 friable – when moist, crushed easily under gentle pressure between thumb and
forefinger and can be pressed together into a lump
 firm – when moist crushed under moderate pressure between thumb and
forefinger, but resistance is distinctly noticeable Wet soil
 plastic – when wet, readily deformed by moderate pressure but can be pressed
into a lump; will form a “wire” when rolled between thumb and forefinger sticky –
when wet, adheres to other material and tends to stretch somewhat and pull apart
rather than to pull free from other material
 soft – when dry, breaks into powder or individual grains under very slight
pressure
 hard – when dry, moderately resistant to pressure; can be broken with difficulty
between thumb and forefinger

Soil consistency is useful in estimating the ability of soil to support structures, such as
buildings and roads. The measurement is not widely used for storm water applications.

Soil color
Soil color is largely determined by the organic matter content, drainage conditions,
degree of oxidation, and in some cases, presence of specific minerals. Soil color is not a
widely used factor in storm water applications.
Aggregate stability
Aggregate stability refers to the ability of soil aggregates to resist disintegration when
disruptive forces associated with tillage and water or wind erosion are applied. Stable
soil aggregates, in the presence of water, are important for water and air transport, root
growth, habitat for soil biota, minimizing soil erodibility, protecting soil organic matter,
and nutrient cycling.

References
General Data Protection Regulation(GDPR) Guidelines BYJU'S (2021). Retrieved from
https://byjus.com/biology/types-of-soil/

Soil Types (2021). Retrieved from https://www.boughton.co.uk/products/topsoils/soil-types/

Soil physical properties and processeshttps://stormwater.pca.state.mn.us/index.php?title=Soil

physical properties and processes - Minnesota Stormwater Manual (n.d.). Retrieved from
https://stormwater.pca.state.mn.us/index.php?
title=Soil_physical_properties_and_processeshttps://stormwater.pca.state.mn.us/index.php?
title=Soil_physical_properties_and_processes
ROCKS
A rock is a mass of geological components that is solid. Individual mineral
crystals, inorganic non-mineral solids such as glass, fragments of other rocks,
and even fossils are examples of geological materials. Geological materials in
rocks may be inorganic, but they can also be biological, such as partly decayed
plant stuff retained in coal. A rock may be made up of only one kind of geological
element or mineral, but many are made up of multiple.

Rocks are grouped into three main categories based on how they form.

TYPES OF ROCKS
Igneous rocks
Igneous rocks are those that solidify from magma, which is a molten combination of
rock-forming minerals and frequently vapors like gases and steam. Igneous rocks
originate at high temperatures because their component minerals crystallize from molten
material. They are formed by processes deep inside the Earth, often at depths of 50 to
200 kilometers (30 to 120 miles)—in the mid- to lower-crust or upper mantle. Igneous
rocks are classified into two types: intrusive (found in the crust) and extrusive (found on
the ground or ocean floor), in which case the cooling molten material is known as lava.

Igneous rocks form when melted rock cools and solidifies.

Sedimentary rocks

Sedimentary rocks are formed from particles of sand, shells, pebbles, and other
fragments of material. Together, all these particles are called sediment. Gradually, the
sediment accumulates in layers and over a long period of time hardens into rock.
Generally, sedimentary rock is fairly soft and may break apart or crumble easily. You can
often see sand, pebbles, or stones in the rock, and it is usually the only type that
contains fossils.

Sedimentary rocks are those that are deposited and lithified (compacted and cemented
together) at the Earth’s surface, with the assistance of running water, wind, ice, or living
organisms. Most are deposited from the land surface to the bottoms of lakes, rivers, and
oceans. Sedimentary rocks are generally stratified—i.e., they have layering. Layers may
be distinguished by differences in colour, particle size, type of cement, or internal
arrangement.

Metamorphic rocks
Metamorphic rocks are those formed by changes in pre-existing rocks under the
influence of high temperature, pressure, and chemically active solutions. The changes
can be chemical (compositional) and physical (textural) in character. Metamorphic rocks
are often formed by processes deep within the Earth that produce new minerals,
textures, and crystal structures.

The recrystallization that takes place does so essentially in the solid state, rather than by
complete remelting, and can be aided by ductile deformation and the presence of
interstitial fluids such as water. Metamorphism often produces apparent layering, or
banding, because of the segregation of minerals into separate bands. Metamorphic
processes can also occur at the Earth’s surface due to meteorite impact events and
pyrometamorphism taking place near burning coal seams ignited by lightning strikes.

Basic physical properties like color, shape, and hardness may be used to identify
many of Earth's most common minerals in the field.

PROPERTIES OF ROCKS
Color
Color is the most eye-catching feature of many minerals. Some minerals will always have
a similar color, such as Gold, whereas some minerals, such as Quartz and Calcite, come
in all colors. The presence and intensity of certain elements will determine a specific
mineral's color.

Color is the quality of an object or substance with respect to light reflected off the object.
The color of a rock when it is powdered is called the streak of the mineral. Words to use
when describing the color of a rock includes brights, dull, and light.

Luster
Luster, in mineralogy, is the appearance of a mineral surface in terms of its light-
reflective qualities. Lustre depends upon a mineral's refractive power, diaphaneity
(degree of transparency), and structure. Luster is the state or quality of shining by
reflecting light.

Texture
The texture of a rock is the size, shape, and arrangement of the grains (for sedimentary
rocks) or crystals (for igneous and metamorphic rocks). Also of importance are the
rock's extent of homogeneity (i.e., uniformity of composition throughout) and the degree
of isotropy. Texture is the visual and tactile (how it feels) quality of a surface.

Shape
Shape is the specific form of a rock. It includes round, oval, diamond, circular, square,
and rectangle shaped rocks.

Size
Size is the spatial dimensions, proportions, magnitude, or bulk of a rock. In describing a
rocks size we can use the words small, tiny, large, and etc.

Weight
Weight is the amount or quantity of heaviness or mass. We can use the words heavy,
dense, or bulk to describe the weight of a rock.

Cleavage and fracture

Most minerals contain inherent weaknesses within their atomic structures, a plane along
which the bond strength is lower than the surrounding bonds. When hit with a hammer
or otherwise broken, a mineral will tend to break along that plane of pre-existing
weakness. This type of breakage is called cleavage, and the quality of the cleavage
varies with the strength of the bonds. Other minerals cleave along planar surfaces of
varying roughness; these are considered to have good to poor cleavage.

Fracture is breakage that is not flat. The two main kinds of fracture are conchoidal (shell-
shaped, as in quartz) and uneven.

Hardness
Hardness (H) is the resistance of a mineral to scratching. It is a property by which
minerals may be described relative to a standard scale of 10 minerals known as the Mohs
scale of hardness.

References
rock | Definition, Characteristics, Formation, Cycle, Classification, Types, & Facts
(n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.britannica.com/science/rock-geology

6.1 What Is A Rock? – Physical Geology, First University of Saskatchewan Edition

(n.d) . Retrieved from https://openpress.usask.ca/physicalgeology/chapter/6-1-
what-is-a-rock/
Interactives . The The Rock Cycle . Types of Rocks (n.d) Retrieved from
https://www.learner.org/wp-content/interactive/rockcycle/types.html

Physical Properties Of Rocks (2010). Retrieved from

https://www.slideshare.net/moniquewilson/physical-properties-of-rocks

Properties of Minerals (2017). Retrieved from

https://www.visionlearning.com/en/library/Earth-Science/6/Properties-of-
Minerals/130