Soil

- is a natural resource that can be categorised into different soil types, each with
distinct characteristics that provide growing benefits and limitations.
Soil Types

 Sandy soil
Sandy Soil is light, warm, dry and tend to be acidic and low in nutrients. It is known as light
soils due to their high proportion of sand and little clay (clay weighs more than sand). Sand is
the largest particle in soil and does not hold nutrients well These soils have quick water
drainage and are easy to work with.
They are quicker to warm up in spring than clay soils but tend to dry out in summer and suffer
from low nutrients that are washed away by rain.
The addition of organic matter can help give plants an additional boost of nutrients by
improving the nutrient and water holding capacity of the soil. The following plants are well-
adapted to sandy soil.
Blanket Flower
Adam’s Needle
Wormwood
Aster
Echinacea
Carrot
Clay Soil
Clay Soil is a heavy soil type that benefits from high nutrients. Clay soils remain wet and cold in
winter and dry out in summer. Soil with a large amount of clay are heavy and do not drain well.
These soils are made of over 25 percent clay, and because of the spaces found between clay
particles, clay soils hold a high amount of water. Because these soils drain slowly and take
longer to warm up in summer, combined with drying out and cracking in summer, they can
often test gardeners.
The following plants are well-adapted to clay soil.
Aster
Bee Balm
Butterfly weed
Black-eyed Susan
Goldenrod
Hollyhock
Geranium

 Silt Soil
Silt Soil is a light and moisture retentive soil type with a high fertility rating. Silty soil is
powdery with high fertility. Unfortunately, soils that are high in silt can become waterlogged
very easily.
As silt soils compromise of medium sized particles they are well drained and hold moisture well.
As the particles are fine, they can be easily compacted and are prone to washing away with
rain. By adding organic matter, the silt particles can be bound into more stable clumps.
The following plants are well-adapted to silty soil.
Swamp milkweed
Yellow iris
Japanese iris
Peat Soil
Peat soil is high in organic matter and retains a large amount of moisture. This type of soil is
very rarely found in a garden and often imported into a garden to provide an optimum soil base
for planting.
Chalk Soil
Chalk soil can be either light or heavy but always highly alkaline due to the calcium
carbonate or lime within its structure. As these soils are alkaline they will not support the
growth of ericaceous plants that require acidic soils to grow.
If a chalky soil shows signs of visible white lumps then they can’t be acidified and gardeners
should be resigned to only choose plants that prefer an alkaline soil.
  Loam Soil
Loam soil is a mixture of sand, silt and clay that are combined to avoid the negative effects
of each type. These soils are fertile, easy to work with and provide good drainage. Depending
on their predominant composition they can be either sandy or clay loam. As the soils are a
perfect balance of soil particles, they are considered to be a gardeners best friend, but still
benefit from topping up with additional organic matter
Soils evolve under the action of biological, climatic, geologic, and topographic influences. The
evolution of soils and their properties is called soil formation, and pedologists have identified
five fundamental soil formation processes that influence soil properties.
Soils are formed through the interaction of five major factors: time, climate, parent material,
topography and relief, and organisms. The relative influence of each factor varies from place to
place, but the combination of all five factors normally determines the kind of soil developing in
any given place.
Time:
The formation of soils is a continuing process and generally takes several thousand years for
significant changes to take place. . The soils are considered to be relatively young soils with
slight alteration of parent material and weak soil horizon development. Most of the soil orders
mapped in Plymouth County are Inceptisols, Entisols, and Spodosols.
Soils can take many years to form. Younger soils have some characteristics from their parent
material, but as they age, the addition of organic matter, exposure to moisture and other
environmental factors may change its features. With time, they settle and are buried deeper
below the surface, taking time to transform. Eventually, they may change from one soil type to
another.

Climate
Climate, particularly temperature, precipitation and frost action have a profound influence on
the soil forming processes which occur within a region. The kind of climate largely determines
the nature of the weathering processes that will occur and the rates of these chemical and
physical processes. It directly affects the type of vegetation in an area which in turn will affect
those soil forming processes related to vegetation. 
Temperature and precipitation (approximately 40 in/yr.) govern the rate of chemical and
physical weathering of the soils and allows for the accumulation of organic matter in the
surface layer of the soils. Moisture is sufficient enough to promote leaching of water-soluble
material down through the soil. Cold winter temperatures allow for frost action which
physically break apart rock fragments.
This is probably the most important factor that can shape the formation of soils. Two important
climatic components, temperature and precipitation are key. They determine how quickly
weathering will be, and what kind of organic materials may be available on and inside of the
soils. Moisture determines the chemical and biological reactions that will occur as the soils are
formed. A warmer climate with more rainfall means more vegetative cover and more animal
action. It also means more runoff, more percolation and more water erosion. They all help to
determine the kind of soils in an area
Parent Material: 
Parent material is the unconsolidated mineral and organic deposits in which soils are
developing. It determines the mineralogical composition and contributes largely to the physical
and chemical characteristics of the soil. The kind of parent material also influences the rate at
which soil forming processes take place.
This refers to the mineral material or organic material from which the soil is formed. Soils will
carry the characteristics of its parent material such as color, texture, structure, mineral
composition and so on. For example, if soils are formed from an area with large rocks (parent
rocks) of red sandstone, the soils will also be red in color and have the same feel as its parent
material.

Topography and Relief

The shape of the land surface, its slope and position on the landscape, greatly influence
the kinds of soils formed. In Plymouth County soils that formed in similar parent materials with
the same climatic conditions exhibit differences as a result of their position on the landscape.
These differences are largely a result of varying drainage conditions due to surface runoff or
depth to water table.
Soils that developed on higher elevations and sloping areas are generally excessively drained or
well drained. Depth to groundwater is generally greater than 6 feet and surface runoff is
moderate or rapid. Soil profiles within these areas commonly have a bright colored strong
brown to yellowish brown upper solum grading to a lighter, grayer, unweathered substratum.
Soils that occur at lower elevations such as in swales, adjacent to drainage-ways and water
bodies, and within depressions generally receive surface runoff from higher elevations and
often have a seasonal high water table at a shallow depth. Soil profiles within moderately well
drained and poorly drained areas are mottled with irregular spots of brown, yellow and grey
colors. In very poorly drained areas, where the water table is at or near the surface for
prolonged periods, soil profiles characteristically have a dark-colored organic or organic rich
surface layer underlain by a strongly mottled or gleyed (gray color indicating a reduced
condition) subsoil and substratum.
Permeability of the soil material; as well as the length, steepness, and configuration of the
slopes, influence the kind of soil that is formed in an area. The local differences in the soils
mapped in Plymouth County are largely the results of differences in parent material and
topography.
This refers to the landscape position and the slopes it has. Steep, long slopes mean water will
run down faster and potentially erode the surfaces of slopes. The effect will be poor soils on the
slopes, and richer deposits at the foot of the slopes. Also, slopes may be exposed to more direct
sunlight, which may dry out soil moisture and render it less fertile.

Organisms
All living organisms actively influence the soil forming process. These organisms include
bacteria, fungi, vegetation and animals. Their major influence is the effect on the chemical and
physical environment of the soils.
The source and richness of organic matter are down to the living things (plants and animals)
that live on and in the soils. Plants, in particular, provide lots of vegetative residues that are
added to soils. Their roots also hold the soils and protect them from wind and water erosion.
They shelter the soils from the sun and other environmental conditions, helping the soils to
retain the needed moisture for chemical and biological reactions. Fungi, bacteria, insects,
earthworms, and burrowing animals help with soil aeration. Worms help break down organic
matter and aid decomposition. Animal droppings, dead insects and animals result in additional
decaying organic matter. Microorganisms also help with mineral and nutrient cycling and
chemical reactions.
Pollutant
Ozone. A gas that can be found
in two places. Near the ground
(the troposphere), it is a major
part of smog. The harmful ozone
in the lower atmosphere should
not be confused with the
protective layer of ozone in the
upper atmosphere
(stratosphere), which screens
out harmful ultraviolet rays.
Carbon monoxide. A gas that
comes from the burning of fossil
fuels, mostly in cars. It cannot be
seen or smelled.
Nitrogen dioxide. A reddish-
brown gas that comes from the
burning of fossil fuels. It has a
strong smell at high levels.
Sources
Ozone is not created
directly, but is formed when
nitrogen oxides and volatile
organic compounds mix in
sunlight. That is why ozone
is mostly found in the
summer. Nitrogen oxides
come from burning gasoline,
coal, or other fossil fuels.
There are many types of
volatile organic compounds,
and they come from sources
ranging from factories to
trees.
Carbon monoxide is released
when engines burn fossil
fuels. Emissions are higher
when engines are not tuned
properly, and when fuel is
not completely burned. Cars
emit a lot of the carbon
monoxide found outdoors.
Furnaces and heaters in the
home can emit high
concentrations of carbon
monoxide, too, if they are
not properly maintained.
Nitrogen dioxide mostly
comes from power plants
and cars. Nitrogen dioxide is
formed in two ways-when
nitrogen in the fuel is
burned, or when nitrogen in
the air reacts with oxygen at
very high temperatures.
Effects
Ozone near the ground can
cause a number of health
problems. Ozone can lead to
more frequent asthma
attacks in people who have
asthma and can cause sore
throats, coughs, and
breathing difficulty. It may
even lead to premature
death. Ozone can also hurt
plants and crops.
Carbon monoxide makes it
hard for body parts to get
the oxygen they need to run
correctly. Exposure to
carbon monoxide makes
people feel dizzy and tired
and gives them headaches.
In high concentrations it is
fatal. Elderly people with
heart disease are
hospitalized more often
when they are exposed to
higher amounts of carbon
monoxide.
High levels of nitrogen
dioxide exposure can give
people coughs and can make
them feel short of breath.
People who are exposed to
nitrogen dioxide for a long
time have a higher chance of
getting respiratory

Particulate matter. Solid or liquid
matter that is suspended in the
air. To remain in the air, particles
usually must be less than 0.1-
mm wide and can be as small as
0.00005 mm.
Sulfur dioxide. A corrosive gas
that cannot be seen or smelled
at low levels but can have a
“rotten egg“ smell at high levels.
Lead. A blue-gray metal that is
very toxic and is found in a
number of forms and locations.
Nitrogen dioxide can also
react in the atmosphere to
form ozone, acid rain, and
particles.
Particulate matter can be
divided into two types-
coarse particles and fine
particles. Coarse particles
are formed from sources like
road dust, sea spray, and
construction. Fine particles
are formed when fuel is
burned in automobiles and
power plants.
Sulfur dioxide mostly comes
from the burning of coal or
oil in power plants. It also
comes from factories that
make chemicals, paper, or
fuel. Like nitrogen dioxide,
sulfur dioxide reacts in the
atmosphere to form acid
rain and particles.
Outside, lead comes from
cars in areas where
unleaded gasoline is not
used. Lead can also come
from power plants and other
industrial sources. Inside,
lead paint is an important
source of lead, especially in
houses where paint is
peeling. Lead in old pipes
can also be a source of lead
in drinking water.
infections. Nitrogen dioxide
reacts in the atmosphere to
form acid rain, which can
harm plants and animals.
Particulate matter that is
small enough can enter the
lungs and cause health
problems. Some of these
problems include more
frequent asthma attacks,
respiratory problems, and
premature death.
Sulfur dioxide exposure can
affect people who have
asthma or emphysema by
making it more difficult for
them to breathe. It can also
irritate people's eyes, noses,
and throats. Sulfur dioxide
can harm trees and crops,
damage buildings, and make
it harder for people to see
long distances.
High amounts of lead can be
dangerous for small children
and can lead to lower IQs
and kidney problems. For
adults, exposure to lead can
increase the chance of
having heart attacks or
strokes.
Toxic air pollutants. A large
number of chemicals that are
known or suspected to cause
cancer. Some important
pollutants in this category
include arsenic, asbestos,
benzene, and dioxin.
Stratospheric ozone
depleters. Chemicals that can
destroy the ozone in the
stratosphere. These chemicals
include chlorofluorocarbons
(CFCs), halons, and other
compounds that include chlorine
or bromine.
Greenhouse gases. Gases that
stay in the air for a long time and
warm up the planet by trapping
sunlight. This is called the
“greenhouse effect“ because the
gases act like the glass in a
greenhouse. Some of the
important greenhouse gases are
carbon dioxide, methane, and
nitrous oxide.
Each toxic air pollutant
comes from a slightly
different source, but many
are created in chemical
plants or are emitted when
fossil fuels are burned. Some
toxic air pollutants, like
asbestos and formaldehyde,
can be found in building
materials and can lead to
indoor air problems. Many
toxic air pollutants can also
enter the food and water
supplies.
CFCs are used in air
conditioners and
refrigerators, since they
work well as coolants. They
can also be found in aerosol
cans and fire extinguishers.
Other stratospheric ozone
depleters are used as
solvents in industry.
Carbon dioxide is the most
important greenhouse gas. It
comes from the burning of
fossil fuels in cars, power
plants, houses, and industry.
Methane is released during
the processing of fossil fuels,
and also comes from natural
sources like cows and rice
paddies. Nitrous oxide
comes from industrial
sources and decaying plants.
Toxic air pollutants can
cause cancer. Some toxic air
pollutants can also cause
birth defects. Other effects
depend on the pollutant, but
can include skin and eye
irritation and breathing
problems.
If the ozone in the
stratosphere is destroyed,
people are exposed to more
radiation from the sun
(ultraviolet radiation). This
can lead to skin cancer and
eye problems. Higher
ultraviolet radiation can also
harm plants and animals.
The greenhouse effect can
lead to changes in the
climate of the planet. Some
of these changes might
include more temperature
extremes, higher sea levels,
changes in forest
composition, and damage to
land near the coast. Human
health might be affected by
diseases that are related to
temperature or by damage
to land and water.
Enumerate laws related to air pollution (Philippines )
The Philippine Clean Air Act Salient Features of the Philippine Clean Air Act The State
shall pursue a policy of balancing development and environmental protection. To achieve this
end, the framework for sustainable development shall be pursued. As such, it shall be the policy
of the State to: Formulate a holistic national program of air pollution that shall be implemented
by the government through proper delegation and effective coordination of function and
activities; Encourage cooperation and self-regulation among citizen and industries through the
application of incentives market-based instruments; Focus primarily on pollution prevention
rather than on control and provide for a comprehensive management program on air pollution;
Promote public information and education to encourage the participation of an informed and
active public in air quality planning and monitoring; and Formulate and enforce a system of
accountability for short and long term adverse environmental impact of a project, program or
activity. This shall include setting up of a funding or guarantee mechanism for clean-up and
environmental rehabilitation and compensation for personal damages.

PHILIPPINE ENVIRONMENT LAWS - REPUBLIC ACT NO. 3931, AN ACT CREATING THE NATIONAL
WATER AND AIR POLLUTION CONTROL COMMISSION - CHAN ROBLES VIRTUAL LAW LIBRARY
REPUBLIC ACT NO. 3931 AN ACT CREATING THE NATIONAL WATER AND AIR POLLUTION
CONTROL COMMISSION Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the
Philippines in Congress assembled:chanroblesvirtuallawlibrary
Section 1 Statement of Policy It is hereby declared a national policy to maintain reasonable
standards of purity for the waters and of this country with their utilization for domestic,
agricultural, industrial and other legitimate purposes.
Republic Act No. 8749 June 23, 1999 AN ACT PROVIDING FOR A COMPREHENSIVE AIR
POLLUTION CONTROL POLICY AND FOR OTHER PURPOSES Be it enacted by the Senate and
House of Representatives of the Philippines in Congress assembled: Chapter 1 General
Provisions Article One Basic Air Quality Policies
Section 1. Short Title. - This Act shall be known as the "Philippine Clean Air Act of 1999." Section
2. Declaration of Principles. - The State shall protect and advance the right of the people to a
balanced and healthful ecology in accord with the rhythm and harmony of nature. The State
shall promote and protect the global environment to attain sustainable development while
recognizing the primary responsibility of local government units to deal with environmental
problems. The State recognizes that the responsibility of cleaning the habitat and environment
is primarily area-based. The State also recognizes the principle that "polluters must pay".
Finally, the State recognizes that a clean and healthy environment is for the good of all and
should, therefore, be the concern of all.
Section 3. Declaration of Policies. - The State shall pursue a policy of balancing development
and environmental protection. To achieve this end, the frame work for sustainable
development shall be pursued. It shall be the policy of the State to: (a) Formulate a holistic
national program of air pollution management that shall be implemented by the government
through proper delegation and effective coordination of functions and activities; (b) Encourage
cooperation and self-regulation among citizens and industries through the application of
market-based instruments; (c) Focus primarily on pollution prevention rather than on control
and provide for a comprehensive management program for air pollution; (d) Promote public
information and education and to encourage the participation of an informed and active public
in air quality planning and monitoring; and (e) Formulate and enforce a system of accountability
for short and long-term adverse environmental impact of a project, program or activity. This
shall include the setting up of a funding or guarantee mechanism for clean-up and
environmental rehabilitation and compensation for personal damages
REPUBLIC ACT NO. 8749 PHILIPPINE CLEAN AIR ACT OF 1999 Chapter 1 General Provisions
Article One Basic Air Quality Policies SECTION 1. Short Title. - This Act shall be known as the
“Philippine Clean Air Act of 1999.”
SEC. 2. Declaration of Principles. - The State shall protect and advance the right of the people to
a balanced and healthful ecology in accord with the rhythm and harmony of nature. The State
shall promote and protect the global environment to attain sustainable development while
recognizing the primary responsibility of local government units to deal with environmental
problems. The State recognizes that the responsibility of cleaning the habitat and environment
is primarily area-based. The State also recognizes the principle that “polluters must pay”.
Finally, the State recognizes that a clean and healthy environment is for the good of all and
should, therefore, be the concern of all.
SEC. 3. Declaration of Policies. - The State shall pursue a policy of balancing development and
environmental protection. To achieve this end, the frame work for sustainable development
shall be pursued. It shall be the policy of the State to:chanroblesvirtuallawlibrary [a] Formulate
a holistic national program of air pollution management that shall be implemented by the
government through proper delegation and effective coordination of functions and activities;
[b] Encourage cooperation and self-regulation among citizens and industries through the
application of market-based instruments; [c] Focus primarily on pollution prevention rather
than on control and provide for a comprehensive management program for air pollution; [d]
Promote public information and education and to encourage the participation of an informed
and active public in air quality planning and monitoring; and [e] Formulate and enforce a
system of accountability for short and long-term adverse environmental impact of a project,
program or activity. This shall include the setting up of a funding or guarantee mechanism for
clean-up and environmental rehabilitation and compensation for personal damages.
Recent impacts on global climate change form air pollution climate change and air
pollution are closely interlinked, so by reducing air pollution we also protect the climate. Air
pollutants include more than just greenhouse gases—principally carbon dioxide but also
methane, nitrous oxide and others—but there’s a big overlap: the two often interact with each
other. For instance, air pollution in the form of particulate matter from diesel engines is
circulated around the globe, ending up in the most remote places, including the polar regions.
When it lands on ice and snow it darkens them slightly, leading to less sunlight being reflected
back into space, and contributing to global warming. The slightly warmer temperatures
encourage plants in the sub-Artic region to grow a tiny bit bigger, and as they grow through the
snow they cast a shadow, which, when multiplied over millions of small plants, also has the
effect of darkening the Earth’s surface, leading to further warming. Future trends in global
climate change Global warming Increased concentrations of greenhouse gases produced by
human activities is the main contributor of Global warming. Burning of fossil fuels and vehicle
emissions are also adding to high levels of carbon dioxide within the atmosphere. Burning fossil
fuels release large amounts of gases into the atmosphere Human influence has been detected
in warming of the atmosphere and the ocean.

Reflection Paper

The positive impact of humans on the environment. First, simple recycling, many people
understand that recycling has a positive contribution to our environment by revising or
remaking old products into new ones without having to take resources from nature. Second,
wildlife preserves, by protecting our animals and plant life thrive under laws that keep them
from harm. Last, Environmental Protection Laws, these laws are in place to keep companies
from destroying the ecosystem by preventing them from dumping industrial contaminants on
the ground into rivers or streams. The negative impact of humanity on the environment, first is
the pollutants from industrial plants, cutting trees, burning plastic that can be resulting in global
climate change are just a few examples. There are times when humans have good intentions,
but our attempt to help the environment hurt it.
Small actions may not change the world on their own, they all add uo and help to make it a
better place. To make our community clean with the help of these tips which is by using 4Rs.
Refuse unnecessary single-use items, like plastic straws or cutlery when possible: Reduce the
amount of waste you procedure by choosing products with less packaging: Reuse items when
you can and choose reusable items over disposable ones; and Recycle as much as possible like
plastic bottle, ink cartridges, and many other items can be recycled. These are easy and
effective ways to become our community or place one of a good place to stay with. It has a big
impact on our daily lives. Bring a bag or eco bag when you go to the grocery store and market
because it can reduce the consumption of disposable bags. Make sure your waste goes to the
right place especially the garbage. We need to be responsible for our garbage and become a
discipline in our environment. Composting at home reduces the volume of garbage sent to
landfills and reduces the chance of some products becoming marine debris. Planting trees or
gardening is a good habit also attending community activity to solve pollution and save our
environment to become our community better and safe. As a responsible citizen, we have to
take a responsibility to have a good and positive impact on our environment and to our life
because if we are disciplined and responsible our community become a better place.

Causes for a loss in biodiversity The main cause of the loss of biodiversity can be
attributed to the influence of human beings on the world’s ecosystem, In fact human beings
have deeply altered the environment, and have modified the territory, exploiting the species
directly, for example by fishing and hunting, changing the biogeochemical cycles and
transferring species from one area to another of the Planet. Honestly speaking,human beings
are the most dangerous cause of destruction of the earth’s biodiversity. There are many causes
of biodiversity : Draughts Draughts are one natural source for a loss in biodiversity. Since water
is an essential prerequisite for all life on earth, a lack of water has serious consequences for all
species. Plants which have not enough water will die off or will provide smaller crop yields.
Animals will die since there organism is not able to work without water. If the draughts
continue over a long period of time, there could be a severe loss in biodiversity. Floods Floods
are also harmful to the biodiversity of our planet. Animals and plants do need water to survive,
however, too much of it may become deadly for them as well. Many organisms can simply
drown in floods and the variety of animals and plants in the affected areas is therefore
diminished. Wildfires Wildfires are a severe problem to biodiversity since they can kill big areas
of land. Thus, they destroy the natural food sources for animals, which have to move to other
areas or they will die. Earthquakes Earthquakes are another serious natural cause for a loss in
biodiversity. They could kill large portions of the local wildlife. Position in the food chain The
position in the food chain is crucial for animals to determine their likelihood of extinction. If
there are too many predators, the prey animals may almost have no chance to protect their
species from extinction and thus biodiversity will be reduced. Degree of specialization The more
specialized as species is, the more likely it is to go extinct if environmental circumstances
change since they will not be able to adapt to the new circumstances appropriately. Destruction
of habitats For many reasons, the habitats for animals and plants get destroyed by human
intervention. We need more space for building houses. Moreover, we need more space for
farming since we have to feed an increasing number of people. This leads to a destruction of
the living environment of many species. They have to move or they will die. This problem is
especially severe when it comes to the deforestation of the rainforests. Since 90% of all species
on our planet live there, a destruction of this area will be extremely harmful to the variety in
biodiversity. Excessive pollution Pollution is another great man-made example causing a loss in
biodiversity. There are several forms of pollution, including air and water pollution. Air pollution
can lead to health issues for animals and even for humans, resulting in health diseases which in
turn could diminish the variety of species. Moreover, water animals can be contaminated by
toxic industrial by-products and thus go extinct. This problem is especially severe for water
animals which react quite sensitive to changes in the natural environment and which are not
able to adjust properly and fast enough. Over-consumption Another problem causing a loss in
biodiversity is human over-consumption. Our consumption levels increase steadily. However,
this leads to a higher level of pollution and to a destruction of natural environments, since for a
higher level of production, more resources have to be extracted out of the ground. Thus,
natural habitats are destroyed and the variety of animals and plants is diminished. Climate
change Through the emission of CO2 and other greenhouse gases in industrial processes and
also in our daily lifes (like driving cars), we contribute to global warming. Global warming leads
to a loss in biodiversity since animals and plants are usually quite sensitive to changes in their
natural living conditions and thus many will go extinct when these conditions change. For
example, if the ocean becomes warmer, the oxygen levels are likely do decrease. However,
many fishes need a high oxygen concentration to survive. Thus, dropping oxygen levels can lead
to the extinction of many fishes and other sea animals. Hunting Hunting, especially the hunting
of endangered species, can also lead to a loss in biodiversity. Often, animals are just hunted
because of precious by-products of their existence. For example, elephants are often killed
solely because of their ivory. Human greed can thus lead to an extinction of many species if we
do not protect them properly. Over-exploitation Another cause for a loss in biodiversity is the
over-exploitation of our planet regarding all kinds of natural resources. Since there are many
precious materials in the ground, firms want to extract them in order to make a lot of money.
However, this extraction process harms the surrounding environment, leading to a
decrease in the variety of animals and plants in the affected areas. Conflicts and wars Wars and
other conflicts also lead to a decrease in the variety of species. In wars, many weapons are used
which destroy large areas or land. Moreover, sometimes, even quite harmful chemicals are
used. These chemicals have a serious adverse impact on the ecological system, which can lead
to a decline in biodiversity. Invasive species The introduction of invasive species can cause
serious problems to the natural local ecosystems since they can carry diseases which may harm
local species. Moreover, if the invasive species are able to adapt to the new conditions
properly, they may also displace local species. Thus, the introduction of invasive species may
lead to the extinction of part of the local species and therefore to a loss in biodiversity.

Advantages
It will help make clear the importance of biodiversity in human life: Biodiversity and
food: 80% of human food supply comes from 20 kinds of plants. But humans use 40,000 species
for food, clothing and shelter. Biodiversity provides for variety of foods for the planet.
Biodiversity and human health: The shortage of drinking water is expected to create a major
global crisis. Biodiversity also plays an important role in drug discovery and medicinal resources.
Medicines from nature account for usage by 80% of the world’s population. Biodiversity and
industry: Biological sources provide many industrial materials. These include fiber, oil, dyes,
rubber, water, timber, paper and food. Biodiversity and culture: Biodiversity enhances
recreational activities like bird watching, fishing, trekking etc. It inspires musicians and artists. A
healthy biodiversity provides a number of natural services for everyone: Ecosystem services,
such as Protection of water resources Soils formation and protection Nutrient storage and
recycling Pollution breakdown and absorption Contribution to climate stability Maintenance of
ecosystems Recovery from unpredictable events Biological resources, such as Food Medicinal
resources and pharmaceutical drugs Wood products Ornamental plants Breeding stocks,
population reservoirs Future resources Diversity in genes, species and ecosystems Social
benefits, such as Research, education and monitoring Recreation and tourism Cultural values

Disadvantages
 Ecological effects The loss of biodiversity has severe ecological effects. Since our planet has a
natural system and species depend on each other, losing a small number of species can lead to big
effects. Predator species which lose their prey will also be in danger of extinction now if they are not
able to substitute their prey species through another one. Moreover, the extinct prey which may have
consumed plants is now no longer be able to do so. Thus, these plants will grow excessively and may
dominate other plants and eventually displace them. Spread of diseases Due to a loss in biodiversity,
diseases are likely to occur more frequently. Since our environmental system is quite sensible and
structured, removing species from the food chain can create serious trouble. For example, if a lion kills
an antelope, he will eat part of it. The remaining part will be eaten by other animals. However, if these
other animals go extinct and are no longer able to consume the rest of the antelope, it may waste and in
this wasting process, several kinds of diseases can be developed. If other animals are contaminated with
these diseases, it can also spill over to humans due to our consumption of meat. Loss of livelihood for
locals The loss of biodiversity also causes a decline in the livelihood of many locals. This can be due to
reduced crop yields or other effects. Locals may also raise cattle in order to survive. However, if a loss in
biodiversity leads to decrease in biomass of feed, farmers will no longer be able to raise enough cattle
due to the feed shortage. Loss of our recreational space We can also lose our recreational space as an
effect of the loss of biodiversity. Many people are stressed from their work and sometimes need a space
to relax. A forest or a lake surrounded by plants may be an optimal area for this. However, if we further
destroy our forests in order to get more settlement space, we will lose many of these recreational
environments.

Society effects There are also adverse effects on our society from a loss in biodiversity.
In nowadays society, we are just so focused on computers, smartphones and other electronic
stuff and lose the connection to nature which our ancestors have built in a natural way. This
loss of connection to nature may lead people to feel something is missing but they do not
exactly know why since they have never been in touch with nature yet. Moreover, nature
provides a relaxing environment which if lost can lead people to become too stressed and
mentally ill. Effect on food production A loss in biodiversity can have vast adverse effects on our
food production. Since we nowadays exploit many natural living spaces to an unhealthy degree,
chances are that we lose many food sources which we could otherwise use in the future. For
example, there may be sources of food in the Amazonian rainforests which we have not even
explored yet. However, through the deforestation process, these species are likely to be lost
even before we can discover them. Thus, we rob ourselves since we will not be able to use this
species in the future. Economic effects Apart from the environmental effects which are bad
enough, a loss in biodiversity also causes adverse economic effects. For example, if we lost
bees, we would suffer from a serious decline in crop yields which would lead the GDP to
collapse and would also lead to an increase in famine.
The different parts of a Volcano Definitions
Magma - Molten rock beneath Earth's surface.
Parasitic Cone - A small cone-shaped volcano formed by an accumulation of volcanic debris.
Sill - A flat piece of rock formed when magma hardens in a crack in a volcano.
Vent - An opening in Earth's surface through which volcanic materials escape.
Flank - The side of a volcano.
Lava - Molten rock that erupts from a volcano that solidifies as it cools.
Crater - Mouth of a volcano - surrounds a volcanic vent.
Conduit - An underground passage magma travels through.
Summit - Highest point; apex
Throat - Entrance of a volcano. The part of the conduit that ejects lava and volcanic ash.
Ash - Fragments of lava or rock smaller than 2 mm in size that are blasted into the air by
volcanic explosions.
Ash Cloud - A cloud of ash formed by volcanic explosions.

Cross section of a volcano The diagram below shows how magma pushes up between
the two plates: Diagram showing inside of a volcano The magma chamber is a collection of
magma inside the Earth, below the volcano. The main vent is the main outlet for the magma to
escape. Secondary vents are smaller outlets through which magma escapes. The crater is
created after an eruption blows the top off the volcano. An eruption occurs when pressure in
the magma chamber forces magma up the main vent, towards the crater at the top of the
volcano. Some magma will also be forced out of the secondary vent at the side of the volcano.